The Sport Psychologist, 2013, 27, 13-26
© 2013 Human Kinetics, Inc.
www.TSP-Journal.com
APPLIED RESEARCH
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains
Daniel Gould
Michigan State University
Dana K. Voelker
The College of Brockport, SUNY
Katherine Griffes
Michigan State University
To gain an in depth understanding of the youth leadership development process in sport, qualitative interviews
were conducted with high school coaches (6 males; 4 females) known for cultivating leadership in their captains.
Hierarchical content analyses revealed that all of the coaches reported proactive approaches toward teaching
leadership through sport. However, based on the principles noted in the positive youth development literature,
these coaches could do more to enhance their leadership development practices (e.g., empowering captains by
more often involving them in important decision-making). Leadership philosophies, specific leadership training strategies, as well as the biggest challenges and mistakes when working with their captains are reported.
Directions for future research and structuring captain training programs are discussed.
Leadership has been defined as “a process whereby
an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve
a common goal” (Northouse, 2010, p. 3). This construct
has intrigued scholars from a diverse range of disciplines
including youth development, business, and the military
with literally thousands of studies having been published
in the scientific literature. Professionals in the field of
sport psychology in particular have been interested in
the significance of leadership in the physical domain.
Within the sport psychology literature, leadership
has most often been studied in coaches (e.g., Chelladurai, 1978; Chelladurai, 1984a, 1984b, 1990; Hastie,
1993; Kenow & Williams, 1992; Smoll & Smith, 1989)
because of the important role they play in helping athletes
work toward the achievement of their goals. In addition
to coaches, researchers have long recognized the importance of leadership among athletes as well. For example,
Gould, Hodge, Peterson, and Petlichkoff (1987) noted
that coaches in particular believe that one of the most
critical elements in producing effective team performance
is athlete leadership. Glenn and Horn (1993) suggested
that coaches always require one or two team members to
assume a leadership position to both encourage and guide
fellow teammates in practices and games. They further
Gould and Griffes are with the Dept. of Kinesiology, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MI. Voelker is with The College
of Brockport, SUNY, Brockport, NY.
stated that without these peer leaders, the team would
lack a sense of motivation and team unity.
Despite its importance, leadership in athletes is only
beginning to receive significant empirical attention (e.g.,
Dupuis, Bloom, & Loughead, 2006; Glenn & Horn, 1993;
Todd & Kent, 2004; Wright & Côté, 2003). Among the
limited research conducted in this area, recent evidence
suggests a clear need for leadership development in youth
athletes. Spangler and Vinluan (2006), for instance, discussed the need to teach young people leadership through
their youth sport experiences. Recent studies by Gould,
Chung, Smith, and White (2006) and Jones and Lavallee
(2009) have shown that those involved in youth sports (e.g.,
coaches, athletes, sport psychologists) rate leadership as a
primary life skill that must be developed in young people
involved in sport and physical activity contexts.
Although critical to life skill development and
performance, other recent studies suggest that leadership is not always proactively developed in youth athletes, including captains. In a recent qualitative study
examining the experience of high school sport captains,
results indicated that the majority of captains are neither
adequately trained nor prepared to fulfill their captaincy
role (Voelker, Gould, & Crawford, 2011). Specifically,
athletes have indicated that their coaches are not communicating the roles and responsibilities involved in
captaincy or teaching the important leadership skills
necessary to be effective.
13
14 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
However, both empirical and experiential evidence
suggests that leadership can and should be taught (e.g.,
Agboola Sungunro, 1997; Doh, 2003; Elliott & Dweck,
1988; Fertman & Long, 1990; Osberg-Conner & Strobel,
2007). In studying afterschool physical activity and sport
programs, several investigators have shown that youth can
develop leadership skills through participation in physical
activity programs purposefully designed to foster leadership (Martinek & Schilling, 2003; Martinek, Schilling,
& Hellison, 2006). For instance, Rhodes and Lounsbery
(2010) developed the Gymleader program intended to
build leadership skills in middle school students through
sport and physical education based on Hellison’s (1995)
Personal and Social Responsibility Model. These purposefully selected adolescent youth learned leadership
skills by participating in a rigorous physical education
course aimed to prepare them for a future profession in
the field. The youth participants also served as an aide
who assisted a physical education teacher in all facets
of the class. Rhodes and Lounsbery (2010) reported that
participants of this program were caring, responsible,
and respectful leaders.
While youth leadership has been examined in sport
and physical activity programs specifically designed
to teach life skills in young people, developing youth
leadership in the more typical competitive youth sport
context has not been adequately explored. Contrary to
popular belief, many youth sport researchers (e.g., Gould
& Carson, 2008) contend that athletes will not accrue
psychosocial benefits by simply participating in competitive sport. It may therefore be assumed that athletes
will also not become effective leaders by being named
captain alone. Coaches and others working closely with
athletes must purposefully and proactively facilitate the
development of these life skills over time.
A number of recent research efforts (e.g., Dupuis, et
al., 2006; Eys, Loughead, & Hardy, 2007; Glenn & Horn,
1993; Loughead & Hardy, 2005; Loughead, Hardy, &
Eys, 2006; Moran & Weiss, 2006; Todd & Kent, 2004)
have begun to examine athlete leadership at the high
school and university level of competitive sport. However,
only one has specifically examined athlete leadership
development. Wright and Côté (2003) retrospectively
examined the leadership development of male collegiate
captains. Athletes in this study reported that coaches who
played an integral role in their leadership development
were kind and supportive, spent time developing their
physical skills and understanding of the game, served
as stimulating figures who provided opportunities to
advance in the sport, assigned leadership roles, and
included the athletes in important decision-making and
discussions. These findings suggest that coaches play a
critical role in the leadership development of collegeaged athletes.
Adolescence has been cited as an important period
for the development of leadership skills (e.g., Hoyt &
Kennedy, 2008; Martinek, et al., 2006; van Linden &
Fertman, 1998). Although youth leadership has been
examined at the high school level by a few notable studies
(e.g., Glenn & Horn, 1993; Moran & Weiss, 2006), none
have specifically examined the development of leadership skills. Based on what is known about the influence
of coaches on the psychosocial development of athletes
in general (see Horn, 2002; 2007 for comprehensive
review) and the leadership research conducted to date
(e.g., Gould, Voelker, & Blanton, 2012; Voelker, et al.,
2011; Wright & Côté, 2003), coaches are in an optimal
position to teach and instill leadership skills in their
athletes. However, little is known about coaches’ views
on developing youth leaders, the strategies they employ,
and the challenges they face in the process. Leadership
programs designed to educate coaches on developing
effective captains and youth leaders cannot be adequately
informed without this knowledge base. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to: (a) gain an in depth understanding of the youth leadership development process
in sport through qualitative interviews with high school
coaches who have a reputation for cultivating leadership
in their captains; (b) use these findings to identify future
research directions that will facilitate our understanding
of this process; and (c) use the findings to inform leadership development training programs for athletes and
coaches. Qualitative interviews were deemed the most
appropriate methodology to adopt in studying this topic
because of the dearth of previous literature in the area
and the need to identify the issues involved.
Method
Participants
Having worked closely with the [Michigan] High School
Athletic Association (MHSAA) for over two decades,
this organization has developed a reputation with the
research team as having an intimate understanding of
their state’s athletic coaches on a personal and professional level as well as a strong knowledge base on youth
leadership development through sport. Specifically,
they have partnered with the research team to conduct a
statewide captain’s leadership training program for over
six years involving student-athletes, coaches, and athletic directors. They also host a biyearly women in sport
leadership conference and work monthly with a student
advisory council comprised of outstanding youth athlete
leaders. In turn, three notable members of the MHSAA
staff were chosen to aid the research team in purposefully
selecting the participants for this study. All have major
responsibilities in the student-athlete leadership and/or
coaching development programs, oversee regional and
state championship competitions, and routinely interact
with coaches in rules and coaching education meetings.
Each staff member was asked to identify coaches
known for developing effective team captains. To be
consistent with previous leadership development research
(e.g., Wright & Côté, 2003), they were also given a list
of qualities and behaviors that may characterize coaches
who train their captains in the leadership domain (e.g.,
teach leadership skills, define leader roles and expecta-
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 15
tions, provide leadership opportunities). It was emphasized that coaches who have these qualities may possess
them regardless of their on-the-field success in terms of
winning and losing. Using the suggested criteria, coaches
included in this study were identified.
Ten current high school coaches (6 males; 4
females) representing a variety of sports (i.e., softball, ice
hockey, cross country, track, soccer, wrestling, football,
basketball, golf, and swimming and diving) agreed to
participate. Years coaching ranged from 8 to 27 with a
mean of 16.7 years. All coaches reported that they were
former high school, collegiate and/or Olympic athletes,
and eight coaches reported having been a high school
and/or collegiate captain. Six coaches reported that they
were current teachers, two held positions in business
and engineering, and two did not indicate an occupation
outside of coaching. Four coaches have participated in
the MHSAA coaching education program.
Procedures
The second author, who had previous training and
experience in interview research, conducted all study
procedures. Each recommended coach was contacted
via e-mail, told the purpose of the study, and asked to
participate in a phone interview discussing their leadership development practices. Individual interviews were
scheduled following receipt of participant consent. The
second author conducted each interview for 60–90 min
using a semistructured approach. In accordance with the
guidelines recommended by Kvale (1996), the second
author first asked broad questions and followed up with
probes and clarification questions to gather more detailed
responses when appropriate (see Appendix A).
Questions contained in the interview guide were
derived from those used to assess the experience of athlete
leaders in previous research (Voelker, et al., 2011; Wright
& Côté, 2003). In particular, the interview guide consisted
of questions aimed at understanding participants’ leadership beliefs, their views on captainship, and how they
train, prepare, and work with their captains. Immediately
following their interview, each coach was mailed a $20
gift certificate to an electronics store in appreciation of
their voluntary participation.
Data Analysis
Interviews were transcribed verbatim, yielding 173 pages
of data, and checked for accuracy by the investigators.
To protect the confidentiality of participants, identifying
information was removed from the transcripts. Vague
parts of the text were also clarified by adding information
in brackets to reflect the context of the conversation. To
gain a holistic perspective of each participant’s story, case
profiles were then developed by the investigators. These
profiles highlighted the major points of each interview
and were sent to each participant for their corrective
feedback. None of the profiles were corrected by the
participants.
Following case profile conceptualization procedures,
each investigator again listened to the audiotapes and
reread the transcripts for familiarity. Adhering to the
hierarchical content analysis procedures suggested by
various researchers in qualitative analysis (e.g., Côté,
Salmela, Baria, & Russell, 1993; Miles & Huberman,
1984; Tesch, 1990), the data were analyzed in two
primary stages—data organization (i.e., describing
segments of text as meaning units or raw data themes)
and data interpretation (i.e., identifying patterns across
segments of text). Consistent with methods previously
employed by the research team, Excel spreadsheets were
used to flexibly code, organize, and interpret the data. To
enhance the trustworthiness of the analysis and prevent
the influence of any one investigator’s biases (LeCompte
& Goetz, 1982), consensual validation procedures were
used. Specifically, two investigators independently coded,
organized, and interpreted the raw data. At each data
analysis stage, the investigators met biweekly to discuss
any disagreements until consensus was reached.
Results
The main source of data for this study was the voices of
the participants. At times, however, some investigators
have found that examining the numbers of themes cited
by participants can be useful (e.g., Gould, Finch, & Jackson, 1993; Scanlan, Stein, & Ravizza, 1991). Throughout
this results section are numbers in parentheses. The first
number denotes the number of coaches citing the theme,
and the second number denotes the total sample size. For
example, 8/10 means 8 of 10 participants cited that theme.
The notation “C” means “Coach.”
The Definition of Leadership
When asked to broadly define leadership, coaches did
not give comprehensive definitions but instead described
characteristics they believe are inherent in good leaders.
Nine major themes emerged. Relative to the first major
theme, the majority of coaches reported that leadership
is defined by someone who is a good example (8/10).
One coach indicated: “I think there are a lot of traits that
characterize leadership. One is, um especially with kids,
is being a role model…an example to what the coaches
expect of all the athletes” (C3).
Half of the coaches indicated that leadership is
defined by someone who is a good communicator and
liaison (5/10), while three coaches indicated that leadership is defined by someone who is supportive and
develops positive relationships (3/10). For example, one
coach emphasized the importance of developing relationships with all players rather than just a select few: “…
someone who not just connects with the starters per se,
but the players that don’t play that often or players that
don’t get recognition” (C5). Other coaches mentioned that
leadership is defined by someone who possesses a number
of desirable characteristics, including respect, strength,
confidence, passion, and a positive attitude (3/10) as well
16 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
as by someone who stands out (2/10), takes responsibility
(2/10), does the right thing/makes good decisions (2/10),
and effectively handle conflicts and problems (2/10). One
coach emphasized the importance of knowing when to
also become a follower:
I would say a leader is somebody who also knows
when it’s important to
of others (4/10), by having innate leadership qualities
(4/10), and by acquiring sport experience (2/10). For
example, one coach reported: “I do believe participating
in sports with good coaches can bring out leadership in a
child” (C1). Only one coach reported that one becomes a
leader by being formally taught leadership skills (1/10),
while another noted that leadership is developed through
maturity and confidence (1/10).
follow as well. Not only be out front, but sometimes
be the one who’s
Views on Captainship
pushing from behind and sometimes be the one
allowing others to step up front and
exhibit their strengths (C5).
How One Becomes a Leader
When asked to specifically describe whether they
believed that leaders are born, made, or both, none of the
coaches reported that leaders are only born (0/10) and
only one coach noted that leaders are only made (1/10).
The majority (9/10) reported that leaders are both born
and made. For example, one coach noted that while parts
of leadership can be taught, others cannot:
I think it’s a combination. Um like I said they might
have some basic attributes like
confidence or being an example, and I think um one
of the big things, as far as captains of a sports team,
is they have to love their team or be really passionate
about their sport, and I think those things are hard to
teach, but I believe there’s a lot of other things that
can be taught (C12).
When asked to specifically describe whether they
believed if anyone could be made into a leader, half of
the coaches said no (5/10), two said yes (2/10), and three
noted that anyone can be made into a leader but that there
are limitations without some natural ability (3/10). For
example, one coach emphasized that to make anyone into
a leader without some natural inclination for leadership
would take a lot of time and energy:
Characteristics of Most and Least Effective Captains.
Coaches were asked to describe the characteristics of the
most and least effective captains that they have worked
with or observed. Coaches reported that the most effective captains lead by example (6/10), are trustworthy and
respected (5/10), are vocal (4/10), and provide support
(4/10). Others indicated that effective captains are not
afraid and are willing to take risks to do the right thing
(4/10). One coach noted:
. . . it’s also somebody who’s willing to take risks.
Somebody who’s willing to stand up and do the right
things when nobody else wants to . . . that might be
at the top of the list actually. But I think that the risk
of being a captain - everybody thinks it’s an easy job,
but it’s not (C6).
Other coaches reported that the most effective captains have a good work ethic (4/10). One coach noted
that a willingness to develop and improve themselves
through hard work is particularly important to becoming
an effective team leader:
I do think it’s great if you’ve got a kid who hasn’t
had everything he ever needed growing up. He
understands the value of work, he understands maybe
the value of having to go to camps and clinics and
maybe is not the most athletic kid. I’ve found that
the best captains are the ones who have come in as
very average athletes and kind of made themselves
into something more, something better. I would say
that, that’s the biggest thing. If a kid’s a gifted athlete,
very often they take it for granted because it’s always
just been there (C5).
Well, if you had a lot of time, I guess you could try
to make almost anyone a leader. Um, but you’d have
to probably spend a lot of time with that individual.
And, if we’re talking a high school setting, you do
spend a lot of time, but I don’t know if we’re taking as
much time as you would need to change that person.
Now can you make them do more positive things
and understand leadership and understand how
they should act and all that? Sure, but I don’t know
if you could make them the true leader that, maybe
someone else who it just comes naturally to (C1).
Other reported characteristics of the most effective
captains included having good communication skills
(3/10), being likeable and approachable (3/10), being
emotionally invested (i.e., positive and passionate; 3/10),
providing discipline (2/10), having the proper experiences
(e.g., experience in a leadership role and in sport; 2/10),
and putting the team first (1/10).
Coaches indicated that the least effective captains
are selfish and fail to put the team first (5/10). One coach
reported:
When asked to describe the specific mechanisms
by which one becomes a leader, coaches reported that
becoming a leader occurs by learning from the leadership
The worst captain is a guy that’s just worried about
a college scholarship – it’s all about me. And he
may care about the team and want to win . . . I think
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 17
kids naturally do . . . but if somebody’s too selfabsorbed, then they’re not a very effective captain…
what they’re really concerned about in their sport is
their own statistics because they’re trying to land
themselves a scholarship. And while they want their
team to win and they want the team to be successful,
it’s more self-centered with the team kind of on the
periphery as opposed to the team being the center
and me being on the periphery (C7).
Other coaches reported that the least effective captains are not vocal enough and afraid to speak up (4/10),
and make bad decisions and break the rules (3/10). For
example, one coach noted that ineffective captains are
those who make poor decisions by succumbing to peer
pressure: “Someone who is making the bad decisions,
they’re kind of leading a gang as opposed to stopping it
or putting their foot down and saying enough is enough
because peer pressure works in all aspects” (C6).
Coaches also reported that the least effective captains
are negative, not encouraging or inclusive (3/10), and have
a poor work ethic or drive (3/10). Other characteristics of
the least effective captains included not having the right
characteristics or personality (2/10), being poor communicators (2/10), and not being respected by others (1/10).
Captain Roles, Expectations, and Duties. Coaches
were asked to describe the roles, expectations, and
duties assigned to their captains. The most frequently
cited captainship role was to participate in logistical
duties (10/10), such as leading warm-ups and stretches
(7/10) and organizing activities and events (6/10).
Other frequently cited captainship roles included
communicating well (9/10), particularly with the coach
(6/10) and between coaches and teammates (6/10). One
coach noted that she requires her captains to report
especially sensitive issues about teammates:
I also have to have a captain that can tell me things
that I may need to know like if someone’s in trouble
or someone is so depressed that they need extra help
or maybe they’re involved in drugs or alcohol, and
they need to come confide in me and tell me that so
I can help that individual (C1).
Other coaches reported that they require their captains to model and represent (8/10), including being a
good role model in and out of school (8/10), representing
the team in and out of sport (5/10), and representing the
coach (3/10). One coach noted: “I would say the biggest
role they have is being an ambassador, an overall ambassador. That’s probably the most important role that they
have because they are representing me” (C5).
Over half of the coaches reported that a captain’s role
is to take care of things in the coach’s absence (6/10).
One coach reported:
I expect them to kind of be my eyes and ears when
I’m not around whether it’s in the
back of the bus, or in the locker room, or at someone’s house on the weekends . . . if something happens, they’re going to address it or they’re going to
present the situation to me (C6).
Another coach noted that the captain is responsible
for issuing punishment when the coach is not present:
This is one tradition I’m kind of um phasing out. We
have a culture within our program, if kids say certain
words we give them sit ups . . . we do sometimes dole
out fifty sit ups and our captains have been able to do
that when the coaches are not around. And we do get
some kids that kind of enjoy that power somewhat
and overstep their bounds a little bit . . . sometimes
we have to pull them aside and say okay you may
want to back that off a little bit (C3).
Other captainship roles, expectations, and duties
included: monitoring teammates/enforcing consequences
and rules (5/10); providing encouragement and support
(5/10); assisting younger players (4/10); doing the right
thing/making good choices (4/10); focusing on the needs
of the team (4/10); working hard (3/10); having integrity
and character (3/10); being flexible in their approach
(3/10); being vocal (2/10); pumping up/calming down
teammates (2/10); holding team meetings (2/10); and
showing commitment to their sport (1/10).
Biggest Challenges Faced by Captains. When asked
to describe the biggest challenges faced by captains today,
the majority of coaches reported that balancing multiple
roles and demands is difficult (9/10). Many indicated
that specifically playing the role of a friend and a leader
is especially challenging for captains. For example, one
coach noted:
I think being a leader of peers . . . They are adolescents for the most part still learning those kinds of
roles, and I think especially for kids who it doesn’t
come as naturally to, being in that role can be awkward at times because they want to be, not necessarily popular, but understood by their peers and
accepted, and sometimes being a captain separates
them in that way (C3).
Another frequently cited challenge that captains face
included coping with various forms of pressure (8/10).
General forms of pressure included maintaining an image
and good behavior (4/10) as well as being accountable
(2/10). One coach reported that being a role model for
an extended period of time was particularly difficult for
captains:
Being a role model at all times. Not just during your
three-hour practice, but the whole time . . . in the community. We’re awarding them their captainship honor
. . . in December and our season goes til November,
so that’s a year of being really good and staying out
of trouble and summer parties and whatnot (C12).
18 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
Another coach noted that being accountable for
performance was also a challenge: “I think that [captains]
have a burden in that their performance has to be good
and they’re responsible for the team’s performance. So
I think some captains can’t handle that, and I think that
causes a little bit of tension” (C4).
Other coaches noted that captains must also cope
with pressure from peers (6/10) and parents (2/10). For
example, one coach reported that refusing to engage in
the deviant behaviors of peers is difficult for captains:
I think the biggest is the peer pressure whether it be
students wanting to skip school or go out to lunch
or partake in the extracurricular activities on the
weekends. I think you know peer pressure is kind
of a broad umbrella. You can put in the alcohol,
tobacco, smoking, the skipping school, the cheating,
those kinds of things I think all fall under that” (C6).
Another coach noted that pressure from parents can
be problematic:
I think that the parents love it when their kid is a
captain. It’s almost like we made the parents the
captains . . . Some [parents] take even a different role
with the other parents - now they’re more important
or whatever, and they’re not always aligned with
what we’re trying to do as a team. And then their son
who’s trying to develop leadership skills has a model
that’s not the kind of model that’s gonna make them
successful. So they got parents acting in a way that’s
adverse to team rules and that’s especially true when
the captain isn’t necessarily the best player. So the
captain has a role maybe of a third line . . . and the
parents think that, ‘well gee I mean he’s a captain,
doesn’t that go along with it?’ And it doesn’t . . . So
you’ve got that mixed message, and [captains] are
dealing with that (C2).
Other captain challenges reported by coaches
included trusting and defending the coach’s philosophy
or decisions (4/10) and approaching and communicating
with coaches (2/10).
Biggest Mistakes Made by Captains. Coaches were
also asked to describe the biggest mistakes of captains
in their leadership role. Five major dimensions emerged.
Half of the coaches mentioned that captains make the
mistake of being too power hungry or selfish (5/10). One
coach noted that some captains use their role to benefit
themselves and their senior year rather than investing
their efforts in the team’s future:
Especially since these are older athletes on the team,
it’s very important for them to think of the team,
the team’s continuity. So even though they may
be a senior and be leaving, it’s important for them
to help develop the younger athletes, to encourage
them, because they will be leaders in the future . . .
and see the bigger picture and their role within that
bigger picture of the team culture and …not just
their year (C3).
Other reported captain mistakes included being
too negative or hurtful (4/10), being poor communicators (4/10), poorly interacting with others (4/10), being
poor role models (2/10), and taking their captainship for
granted or not utilizing their potential (1/10).
Leadership Training and Preparation
Experiences and Strategies That Help Captains Learn
Leadership. When asked to describe experiences that
prepare a young person to become a leader, the majority
of coaches (8/10) reported that prior sport experiences
are critical. For example, one coach noted: “I think sports
are huge at developing someone in a lot of ways. I’m a
big fan of sports in the fact that they teach life lessons .
. . even at a young age, in playing sports, even prior to
high school I think you start learning leadership qualities”
(C8). Other experiences that coaches believed prepared
a young person for becoming a leader included school/
extracurricular experiences (e.g., speaking in front of
others; 6/10), general life experiences (e.g., learning the
difference between right and wrong and the value of hard
work; 5/10), prior leadership experiences (e.g., student
council; 3/10), and family experiences (e.g., interacting
with a big family; 3/10).
When asked to describe ways a young person can be
helped to learn leadership, nearly all of the coaches (9/10)
noted the importance of encouraging youth to learn from
others and follow examples of good leadership in general
(3/10), from past captains and older athletes (3/10), and
from important adults (6/10). Other coaches noted that
youth can be helped to learn leadership through formal
education (4/10), including courses, conferences, and
reading materials. One coach discussed her hopes that
the school could provide leadership education to studentathletes and captains:
I think if we did a better job in educating them prior
. . . or provided a forum for them to speak with other
leaders amongst their peers . . . I don’t know if those
opportunities out there exist . . . I kind of wish maybe
our own school had some kind of education for our
student-athlete leaders (C6).
A fewer number of coaches reported that youth
can be helped to learn leadership through trial and error
(3/10), feedback and reinforcement (2/10), and discussion
(2/10). Only one coach noted that youth learn leadership
by involving them in decision-making and coaching
responsibilities:
The biggest one I think is to involve them. Not just
give them the title of captain, but involve them in
some of the decision-making. For one it gives them
a sense that man I really do have a stake in this
thing and the other thing is it gives them a chance
to observe the coaches. Wow that’s how the coaches
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 19
work. That’s the way [coaches] think and that’s how
they go about their process. To me, the best way to
train them or to enhance their leadership is to engage
them and involve them. Give them a stake. When
people have a stake in something they are a lot more
motivated…it’s the age old theory in corporations if
you involve the workers in the decision of what the
mission of the company’s gonna be, the company’s
gonna be a heck of a lot better than a bunch of suits
just deciding everything. I kind of try to do it the
same way (C3).
How Coaches Train or Prepare Captains for Their
Leadership Role. Coaches were asked to describe
specific methods they used to train or prepare their
captains for their leadership role. Two major dimensions
emerged. Relative to the first major dimension, all ten
coaches reported training or preparation techniques
that were proactive in nature, meaning that the coaches
played an active role in the leadership development of
their captains. For example, all of the coaches reported
that they developed good communication with their
captains (10/10) in general (3/10) or specifically
regarding expectations (9/10) or concerns (2/10). One
coach mentioned the importance of giving captains an
opportunity to express concerns as a way to find meaning
in their leadership role:
Also constantly talk to them about any concerns
that they may have so they understand that it’s more
than just um a title, it’s more than just going to the
center of the field on game day and participating in
the coin toss (C4).
Other coaches reported that they provided their
captains with feedback and reinforcement regarding
their leadership actions and behaviors (8/10). One coach
emphasized the importance of providing feedback as a
means of strengthening his relationship with his captains:
What I’ve taken on more this year is when I see them
do good things, commenting, I mean I talk to one
of the captains probably three times in a practice
where I’m being positive and thanking them for what
they’re doing. I find that really works well. It’s a critical piece and the more we develop that relationship
and the more that they can believe that they’re valued
and trusted, the better job they do (C2).
Other coaches reported that they held coach/captain
meetings (7/10) and encourage or conduct formal leadership training (8/10), including courses, conferences, and
councils. One coach noted that she conducts her own
leadership program based on developed materials:
In my program, we run a ten week leadership class
with my seniors, and I have added an occasional
junior in there . . . part of what we use is uh, Jeff
Janssen’s book on team captain’s leadership . . .
every week we go through a chapter and sometimes
I’ll teach it, sometimes they all have the material,
they’ll go home and read the chapter and sometimes
I’ll make them teach a part of it to the rest of the
seniors . . . And that really, that tells them exactly
what a leader is, what their roles are. It gives you
everything that you need to know (C1).
Two coaches noted that they were proactive in training themselves in leadership to develop their captains,
such as readings books, drawing from their college education, and being proactive in learning from their captains
and other coaches. Other proactive methods reported
by coaches included: teaching/educating their captains
(6/10) both transferrable skills (5/10) and important
things for their leadership role (4/10); providing personal
and external examples of good leadership (4/10); providing autonomy (3/10) including offering opportunities to
lead (3/10) and involving captains in decision-making
(2/10); assigning and sharing readings (3/10); providing
follow-up on leadership training experiences (3/10); and
learning leadership themselves as a means of developing
leadership in their captains (2/10).
Relative to the second major dimension, only four
coaches reported training or preparation techniques that
were passive in nature, meaning that the coaches played
an inactive role (4/10). For example, coaches reported that
they allowed their captains to learn leadership by following
the example of others (3/10) and learning by doing (3/10).
Other coaches noted that nothing formal was conducted
(3/10). One coach described his belief that leadership
development is more experiential than it is formal:
I think training . . . it’s weird to think about it from
a formal standpoint for athletic coaches. I mean we
got some leadership things that our freshmen coach
brings in - some leadership people to talk to the
freshmen when they’re young kids to sort of start
that ball rolling. But I think most of the training for
leadership and all that is sort of on-the-job, and I’m
just sort of trying to guide them to do it (C7).
Interestingly, two coaches noted that they communicate less to some captains because they assume their
captains already know their responsibilities. One coach
mentioned: “I have the same expectations for all of my
student-athletes, but I would say that my captains, I probably tell them less because they’ve done it” (C5).
Working With Captains
Biggest Mistakes Made by Coaches. Coaches were
asked to describe the biggest mistakes that coaches make
when working with captains. Seven major dimensions
emerged. Relative to the first dimension, coaches
reported that one mistake is giving captains an excess of
responsibilities or relying on captains too much (7/10).
One coach noted: “. . . sometimes they’re given too much
responsibility. I think sometimes coaches will choose
captains and have them doing a lot more of the coaching
responsibilities . . . there’s a fine line - what you have
your captains do and don’t do” (C9).
20 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
Other coaches mentioned that not giving captains
enough responsibility or opportunities to lead is also a
mistake (5/10). One coach stated: “. . . really just not
utilizing them at all, just kind of being glorified seniors.
[Captains] need, there has to be some role for them, and
I think a lot of coaches just sort of have them named and
that’s that” (C7).
Coaches reported that using poor selection practices
(5/10) is also problematic, including choosing the wrong
person to be captain (5/10) or waiting until the season
begins to select one (1/10). One coach commented:
I would say that coaches in general do not do a good
enough job in terms of identifying [captains]. I think
they want to make the easy choice that’s going to
make most people happy as opposed to spending
some time to learn more about the kids, and maybe
the kid doesn’t want to be a captain . . . because
you haven’t had that time with them away from the
sport, they may not be mature enough to handle the
responsibilities. So I think sometimes maybe we’re
too quick to pick a captain (C6).
Other mistakes reported included not communicating with their captains (3/10), failing to reinforce and
educate them (3/10), having inappropriate (e.g., becoming friends) or poor relationships with captains (2/10),
and making assumptions about what captains know and
understand about leadership (2/10).
Notable Considerations. Although not specifically
asked by the interviewer, half of the coaches (5/10)
mentioned that development must be taken into account
when working with captains, including age, ability level,
maturity, and life experience: “Some kids just may not be
as ready for the responsibility, but we try to dole that out
so that it’s appropriate for their age level or their ability to
do that” (C3). Another coach noted: “. . . it’s just their age
in that sometimes they haven’t had enough life experience
yet to understand that you have to lead certain individuals
differently than other individuals” (C7).
Two coaches (2/10) reported that gender and societal
influences must also be considered when working with
captains:
Especially in girls, if a girl kind of strongly suggests
that someone does something or the team should do
something, unfortunately in our society, that female
person is kind of perceived as a bitch as opposed to
‘hey, she’s a strong vocal, vocal leader’ (C4).
This coach (1/10) also reported that generational
differences must be noted as well:
I’m just noticing that even though we live in an age
of technology and communication, I think a lot of
captains, guys and girls for that matter . . . I think
the schools, we could do a better job of teaching
them how to communicate, how to get the best out
of people through effective communication. I don’t
think they communicate good enough. Because
sometimes they think that they need to bargain
someone to get them motivated and obviously that
doesn’t work (C4).
Discussion
This study was designed to gain an in depth understanding of the views, experiences, and strategies that high
school coaches employed to cultivate leadership in their
captains. All of the coaches in this study were proactive in
their approach to teaching leadership. While this finding
was expected given that we asked the MHSSA staff to
identify coaches who were effective at developing captains, it is consistent with recommendations in the youth
leadership development literature (Martinek & Hellison,
2009; van Linden & Fertman, 1998). Specific leadership
development strategies reported by coaches also supports previous research by Wright and Côté (2003) who
found that university captains felt their coaches spent
time helping them understand their sport experience,
assigned leadership roles, and included them in decision making. Teaching young people leadership, then,
involves intentional efforts on the part of adult mentors.
This finding is important in light of some existing youth
sport research showing that coaches often espouse that
life lessons (e.g., leadership) are gained from sport, but
cannot identify specific strategies for their development
(McCallister, Blinde, & Weiss, 2000).
Although proactive in their approach, other results
suggest that even these coaches, who were known for
developing leadership in their athletes, could do more
based on the youth leadership development literature.
For example, only two coaches mentioned the importance
of involving student-athletes in the decision making
process. Empowering youth by eliciting their input on
important group decisions is repeatedly emphasized in
youth leadership research (Martinek & Hellison, 2009;
van Linden & Fertman, 1998). Moreover, the roles and
duties findings were very similar to those reported by
captains with “logistical or organizational” tasks being
the most frequently cited (Voelker, et al., 2011). It was
encouraging to learn that some of the responsibilities
expected of captains went beyond the logistical and
organizational in that they were more empowering, such
as serving as a communication link between the coach
and the team and providing teammates with important
feedback. However, other duties assigned appeared to
be very difficult to implement for an adolescent who is
balancing peer acceptance with leadership roles, which
was noted as a source of stress for captains. Thus, even the
“best” coaches could improve their leadership development skills if they had knowledge of the general positive
youth development and youth leadership development
literatures. Sport psychologists could be essential in
helping convey this information via coaching education
programs.
When asked to define leadership, the coaches were
clearer than the former high school captains interviewed
by Voelker et al. (2011) on their views of leadership.
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 21
However, the coaches most often defined leadership in
terms of the characteristics they would like to see captains
exhibit as opposed to a more global and process-oriented
definition. Given that these coaches were purposefully
selected because of their reputations for developing
captains, we can only assume that coaches who are less
focused on captain development would find articulating
leadership to be very difficult. This is concerning in
light of Barker’s (1997) suggestion that precisely defining leadership is critical to its development. However, it
may also be the case that while coaches may not have
textbook-like definitions of leadership, they know what
core values they want to see in their captains and work
to ensure that these are developed. For example, Collins,
Gould, Lauer, and Chung (2009) found that high school
football coaches, recognized for their life skills development abilities, knew what life skills were important for
their athletes to acquire and had a clearly defined plan
to teach them.
Other interesting findings in the current study pertained to coaches’ views on leadership development. Four
coaches reported that one becomes a leader because of
innate qualities, and half of the coaches disagreed with
the notion that anyone can become a leader. This is in
contrast to the positive youth development literature
where it is suggested that all youth can learn to lead
(e.g., van Linden & Fertman, 1998). Given that the latest
leadership research suggests that only 30% of leadership
is hereditarily-based (Arvey, Rotundo, Johnson, Zhang, &
McGue, 2006; Arvey, Zhang, Avolio, & Krueger, 2007;
Ilies, Gerhardt, & Le, 2004), perhaps more emphasis
needs to be placed on giving youth the chance to develop
leadership skills. Unfortunately, given the demands
placed on coaches, they may not have the time to focus
sole attention on developing leadership in young people,
especially with those athletes who might not have dispositions and skills that predispose them to become leaders.
Relative to the challenges that coaches believed their
captains faced, struggling with being a friend versus a
leader to teammates is not surprising given the importance
of peer acceptance in this age group (e.g., Brennan, 1982;
Inderbitzen-Pisaruk & Foster, 1990). Balancing these
roles may be one area that coaches need to pay particular
attention to with their athletes. Similarly, coping with
the pressure of leading was a theme often mentioned
that emphasizes the importance of helping team captains
develop stress management skills.
Finally, when asked about the biggest mistakes they
made when working with team captains, a sizable number
of coaches mentioned giving their captains too much or
too little responsibility. This supports Larson’s (2006)
contention that adult leaders teaching youth life skills
must find a balance between giving children autonomy
and support while providing direction to ensure safety and
productivity. Future investigations may examine whether
coaches who are more effective in developing captains
are higher in emotional (Salovey & Mayer, 1990) and
contextual intelligence (Brown, Gould, & Foster, 2005)
and hence more successful in finding the balance between
giving captains autonomy, structure, and support.
Due to the qualitative nature of these results and
the small number of coaches on which they were based,
larger scale quantitative studies are needed to determine
the extent that more typical coaches train their captains
and the methods they employ. Moreover, the participant
selection process used in this study did not guarantee that
the coaches chosen were truly the ‘best’ or most effective
in developing leadership. Future research may incorporate
more objective measures, such as ratings by captains and
teammates or the actual assessment of captain skills and
behaviors. However, such an investigation may be difficult
to implement because of the lack of leadership assessment
instruments specifically validated for youth (Gould, et al.,
2012; Oakland, Falkenberg, & Oakland, 1996).
Other investigations may examine athletes and
coaches from the same teams to determine the concordance between their thoughts and views on how leadership is best developed through the captaincy experience.
Specifically, these studies may address comparisons
between the “best” and “poor” youth leadership development practices of coaches as identified by their captains.
Captains may also be rated by their teammates on their
leadership effectiveness as a function of the leadership
training methods employed. A multilayer, mixed method
assessment of youth leadership development and effectiveness will strengthen future studies. Lastly, conducting
season-long or multiseason studies that track the individual leadership development approaches of coaches
and how their captains respond would also be informative.
Because little research has explored how coaches
develop leadership in their captains, this study was
primarily descriptive. While the previous leadership
literature was strategically considered when designing
this investigation, it was not intended to test a particular
theory. While there are literally thousands of adult leadership studies, youth leadership research is much less
developed, especially in the area of leader development.
Reviewers (MacNeil, 2006; van Linden & Fertman, 1998)
have cautioned against blindly applying adult-generated
theories to youth because of a variety of developmental
and contextual differences.
However, while not designed to test a particular
theory, the repeated emphasis of coaches on the importance of captains acting as examples/role models, developing supportive relationships with peers, effectively
communicating, and being positive are very similar to
the components of transformational leadership theory
(e.g., being an appropriate role model, giving individual
consideration, providing inspirational motivation, fostering acceptance of group goals, and promoting teamwork)
(e.g., Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). Transformational leadership
theory, then, may be applicable to youth captain leadership development. Preliminary studies have begun to
explore the application of transformational leadership
theory to the sport context. In one of the few studies
conducted with youth, Zacharatos, Barling, and Kelloway
(2000) found that there is an association between parents
who are perceived to exhibit transformational leadership
and their high school athletes’ transformational leader-
22 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
ship characteristics. Those high school athletes who
adopted transformational leadership behaviors were
also rated to be more effective leaders by their peers
and coaches. Although studied in adults, Callow, Smith,
Hardy, Arthur, and Hardy (2009) further validated a
measure that assesses transformational leadership in sport
and showed that components of transformational leadership exhibited by ultimate Frisbee captains are related
to task and social cohesion. This research suggests that
examining transformational leadership as it relates to both
the development and effectiveness of high school sport
captains is warranted.
Other models and frameworks may be used to help
organize and facilitate our understanding of youth leadership development via the sport captaincy experience. For
example, both Martinek and Hellison (2009) and van
Linden and Fertman (1998) have suggested that youth
develop leadership skills through phases and stages.
While not forwarded as complete theories, these conceptualizations could form the basis of theory development.
Similarly, Gould et al. (2012) have suggested that youth
might first need to develop transactional leadership skills,
like good communication, before they can develop true
transformational leadership that involves perceiving complex interactions between leaders, followers and situations.
Finally, when examining ways to help coaches
empower captains, self-determination theory offers a
number of theoretically-based approaches. Mageau and
Vallerand (2003), for instance, indicated that coaches
who adopt an autonomy-supportive coaching style would
better meet their athletes’ needs for competence, autonomy,
and relatedness and thereby increase intrinsic motivation.
These authors suggest that coaches should provide athletes
with choices, acknowledge their perspectives, give them
opportunities to take initiative, and explain the reasons
behind rules and limitations. It is likely that many of these
same strategies could be used to guide the development
of youth captains by not only increasing self-determined
forms of motivation, but also by allowing them to learn
leadership through engaging in leadership behaviors.
Future research should explore this issue.
From an applied perspective, the results of the current study may inform the development of youth leadership training programs in sport. For example, current and
future captains may benefit from knowing what coaches
say are the characteristics of the most and least effective
leaders as well as the common mistakes and challenges
that captains encounter. From a “train the trainer”
approach, practitioners may also use the findings to assist
in the development of coaching education programs
aimed to teach coaches about developing leadership in
youth. Based on the results of this investigation, several
key principles appear to be particularly important for
coaches including: creating a coaching philosophy that
involves developing captains as leaders; intentionally
employing youth leadership development strategies;
discussing clearly defined roles and expectations at the
beginning of the captaincy experience; involving youth
captains in important decision-making; providing mean-
ingful responsibilities; holding regular meetings with captains to provide feedback on their leadership behaviors;
and recognizing that young people will make mistakes
as developing leaders. More detailed recommendations
are outlined in Appendix B.
References
Agboola Sungunro, O. (1997). Impact of training on
leadership development: Lessons from a leadership
training program. Evaluation Review, 21, 713–737.
doi:10.1177/0193841X9702100605
Arvey, R.D., Rotundo, M., Johnson, W., Zhang, Z., & McGue,
M. (2006). The determinants of leadership role occupancy:
Genetic and personality factors. The Leadership Quarterly,
17, 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.10.009
Arvey, R.D., Zhang, Z., Avolio, B.J., & Krueger, R. (2007).
Understanding the developmental and genetic determinants of leadership among females. The Journal of Applied
Psychology, 92, 693–706. PubMed doi:10.1037/00219010.92.3.693
Barker, R.A. (1997). How can we train leaders if we do not know
what leadership is? Human Relations, 50(4), 343–362.
Bass, B.M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.
Brennan, T. (1982). Loneliness at adolescence. In L.A. Peplau
& D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current
theory, research, and therapy. New York: Wiley.
Brown, C., Gould, D., & Foster, S. (2005). A framework for
developing contextual intelligence. The Sport Psychologist, 19, 52–62.
Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.
Callow, N., Smith, M.J., Hardy, L., Arthur, C.A., & Hardy,
J. (2009). Measurement of transformational leadership
and its relationship with team cohesion and performance
level. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21, 395–412.
doi:10.1080/10413200903204754
Chelladurai, P. (1978). A contingency model of leadership in
athletics. (Doctoral dissertation), Department of Management Sciences, University of Waterloo, ON.
Chelladurai, P. (1984a). Discrepancy between preferences and
perceptions of leadership behaviors and satisfaction of
athletes in varying sports. Journal of Sport Psychology,
6, 27–41.
Chelladurai, P. (1984b). Leadership in sports organizations.
Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 5, 266–231.
Chelladurai, P. (1990). Leadership in sports: A review. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 21, 328–354.
Collins, K., Gould, D., Lauer, L., & Chung, Y. (2009). Coaching life skills through football: Philosophical beliefs of
outstanding high school football coaches. International
Journal of Coaching Science, 3(1), 1–26.
Côté, J., Salmela, J.H., Baria, A., & Russell, S.J. (1993). Organizing and interpreting unstructured qualitative data. The
Sport Psychologist, 7, 127–137.
Doh, J.P. (2003). Can leadership be taught? Perspectives
from management educators. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 72, 54–67. doi:10.5465/
AMLE.2003.9324025
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 23
Dupuis, M., Bloom, G.A., & Loughead, T.M. (2006). Team
captain’s perceptions of athlete leadership. Journal of
Sport Behavior, 29(1), 60–78.
Elliott, E.S., & Dweck, C.S. (1988). Goals: An approach to
motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 54, 5–12. PubMed doi:10.1037/00223514.54.1.5
Eys, M.A., Loughead, T.M., & Hardy, J. (2007). Athlete
leadership dispersion and satisfaction in interactive sport
teams. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 281–296.
doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.04.005
Fertman, C.I., & Long, J.A. (1990). All students are leaders.
The School Counselor, 37, 391–396.
Glenn, S.D., & Horn, T.S. (1993). Psychological and personal
predictors of leadership behavior in female soccer athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 5, 17–34.
doi:10.1080/10413209308411302
Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Personal development through
sport. In H. Hebestreit & O. Bar-Or (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Sports Medicine - The Young Athlete (pp. 287–301).
Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Gould, D., Chung, Y., Smith, P., & White, J. (2006). Future
directions in coaching life skills: Understanding high
school coaches’ views and needs. Athletic Insight: The
Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 8(3), 28–38.
Gould, D., Finch, L.M., & Jackson, S.A. (1993). Coping strategies used by national champion figure skaters. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 453–468. PubMed
Gould, D., Hodge, K., Peterson, K., & Petlichkoff, L. (1987).
Psychological foundations of coaching: Similarities and
differences among intercollegiate wrestling coaches. The
Sport Psychologist, 1, 293–308.
Gould, D., Voelker, D.K., & Blanton, J. (2012). Future directions
in youth leadership research. In R. Schinke & S. Hanrahan
(Eds.), Sport for development, peace and social justice.
Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Hastie, P.A. (1993). Coaching preferences of high school girl
volleyball players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77(3),
1309–1310. doi:10.2466/pms.1993.77.3f.1309
Hellison, D. (1995). Teaching responsibility through physical
activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Horn, T.S. (2002). Advances in sport psychology (2nd ed.).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Horn, T.S. (2007). Three decades of research on coaching effectiveness: what do we know and where should we go? Paper
presented at the Association for Applied Sport Psychology
Annual Conference, Louisville, KY.
Hoyt, M.A., & Kennedy, C.L. (2008). Leadership and adolescent girls: A qualitative study of leadership development.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 42, 203–219.
PubMed doi:10.1007/s10464-008-9206-8
Ilies, R., Gerhardt, M.W., & Le, H. (2004). Individual differences in leadership emergence: Integrating meta-analytic
findings and behavioral genetics estimates. International
Journal of Selection and Assessment, 12, 207–219.
doi:10.1111/j.0965-075X.2004.00275.x
Inderbitzen-Pisaruk, H., & Foster, S.L. (1990). Adolescent
friendships and peer acceptance: Implications for social
skills training. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 425–439.
doi:10.1016/0272-7358(90)90046-D
Jones, M.I., & Lavallee, D. (2009). Exploring perceived
life skills development and participation in sport.
Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, 1, 36–50.
doi:10.1080/19398440802567931
Kenow, L.J., & Williams, J.M. (1992). Relationship between
anxiety, self-confidence, and evaluation of coaching behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, 6(4), 344–357.
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative
research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Larson, R. (2006). Positive youth development, willful adolescents, and mentoring. Journal of Community Psychology,
34, 677–689. doi:10.1002/jcop.20123
LeCompte, M.D., & Goetz, J.P. (1982). Problems of reliability
and validity in ethnographic research. Review of Educational Research, 52, 31–60.
Loughead, T.M., & Hardy, J. (2005). An examination of
coach and peer leader behaviors in sport. Psychology of
Sport and Exercise, 6, 303–312. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2004.02.001
Loughead, T.M., Hardy, J., & Eys, M.A. (2006). The nature
of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behavior, 29(2),
142–158.
MacNeil, C.A. (2006). Bridging generations: Applying “adult”
leadership theories to youth leadership. New Directions
for Youth Development, 109, 27–43. doi:10.1002/yd.153
Mageau, G.A., & Vallerand, R.J. (2003). The coach-athlete relationship: A motivational model. Journal of Sports Sciences,
21, 883–904. PubMed doi:10.1080/0264041031000140374
Martinek, T., & Hellison, D. (2009). Youth leadership in sport
and physical education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Martinek, T., & Schilling, T. (2003). Developing compassionate leadership in underserved youths. Journal of Physical
Education, Recreation & Dance, 74, 33–39.
Martinek, T., Schilling, T., & Hellison, D. (2006). The development of compassionate and caring leadership among
adolescents. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 11,
141–157. doi:10.1080/17408980600708346
McCallister, S.G., Blinde, E.M., & Weiss, W.M. (2000). Teaching values and implementing philosophies: Dilemmas
of the youth sport coach. Physical Educator, 57, 34–45.
Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1984). Qualitative data
analysis. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.
Moran, M.M., & Weiss, M.R. (2006). Peer leadership in sport:
Links with friendship, peer acceptance, psychological characteristics, and athletic ability. Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology, 18, 97–113. doi:10.1080/10413200600653501
Northouse, P.G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and practice (5th
ed.). Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage.
Oakland, T., Falkenberg, B.A., & Oakland, C. (1996). Assessment
of leadership in children, youth and adults. Gifted Child
Quarterly, 40(3), 138–146 10.1177/001698629604000304.
doi:10.1177/001698629604000304
Osberg-Conner, J.H., & Strobel, K.R. (2007). Leadership development: An examination of individual and programmatic
growth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22, 275–297.
doi:10.1177/0743558407299698
24 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Moorman, R.H., & Fetter,
R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their
effect on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly,
1, 107–142. doi:10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7
Rhodes, W., & Lounsbery, M. (2010). Empowering students
through leadership: Gymleaders - a program that works.
Strategies, XXX, 28–32. doi:10.1080/08924562.2010.1
0590901
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional intelligence.
Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185–211.
doi:10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG
Scanlan, T.K., Stein, G.L., & Ravizza, K. (1991). An in-depth
study of former elite figure skaters: III. Sources of stress.
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13, 103–120.
Smoll, F.L., & Smith, R.E. (1989). Leadership behaviors in
sport: A theoretical model and research paradigm. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19(18), 1522–1551.
doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1989.tb01462.x
Spangler, K., & Vinluan, M.H. (2006). Advocacy update: Facilitating youth sports: Park and recreation organizations need
to advance their leadership role in youth sports. Parks &
Recreation, 41(7), 14–15.
Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research analysis types and software tools. New York: Falmer Press.
Todd, S.Y., & Kent, A. (2004). Perceptions of the role differentiation behaviors of ideal peer leaders: A study of adolescent athletes. International Sports Journal, 8(2), 105–118.
van Linden, J.A., & Fertman, C.I. (1998). Youth leadership.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Voelker, D.K., Gould, D., & Crawford, M.C. (2011). Understanding the experience of high school sport captains. The
Sport Psychologist, 25, 47–66.
Wright, A., & Côté, J. (2003). A retrospective analysis of leadership development through sport. The Sport Psychologist,
17, 268–291.
Zacharatos, A., Barling, J., & Kelloway, E.K. (2000). Development and effects of transformational leadership in
adolescents. The Leadership Quarterly, 11, 211–226.
doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(00)00041-2
Appendix A
“How High School Coaches
Mentor Team Captains”
Interview Guide
Views on Captainship
1. W
hat is your view of the role of the high school
sport captain?
2. W
hat expectations do you have of your
captains?
3. What specific duties do they have?
4. H
ow are captains selected on your team? Why
have you chosen this method?
5. W
hat are the characteristics of the most and
least effective captains you have observed or
worked with?
Probe 1: What makes for a bad captain? A good
captain?
6. What are the biggest mistakes captains make?
7. W
hat are the biggest issues and challenges
high school sport captains face today?
Probe 1: In general?
Probe 2: In working with coaches?
Probe 3: When interacting with and leading
teammates?
Probe 4: On the field?
Probe 5: Off the field?
8. D
o you ever observe any conflicts or problems
between your team captains and their team​
mates? If so, what are these conflicts or
problems and how do they arise?
Probe 1: Do the team captains set out to resolve
these issues? If so, how? Do they do so successfully?
Probe 2: Do you do anything to help resolve these
conflicts or problems?
9. A
re captains necessary in high school sports?
If so, why?
10.How important is the high school sport captain?
Probe 1: To you as a coach?
Probe 2: To the team?
Leadership Beliefs
Training and Working with Captains
1. D
efine leadership. . . Based on your experience
in coaching and working with captains, what is
a leader?
1. D
o you train or educate your captains and, if
so, how?
2. How does one become a leader?
Probe 1: Are leaders born or made?
Probe 2: Can anyone be made into a leader?
2. H
ow do you think captains can be helped to
learn leadership?
3. H
ow do you help captains learn from their
experiences?
Best Coaching Practices for Developing Team Captains 25
4. H
ave you always worked with your captains in
the same way or has it changed over time?
5. D
o you ever encounter any conflicts or
problems when working with your team
captains? If so, what are these conflicts or
problems and how to they arise?
Probe 1: How are these issues resolved?
6. W
hat are the biggest mistakes coaches make in
working with their captains?
7. W
hat experiences prepare a young person to
develop into an effective team captain?
Probe 1: Sport experiences
Probe 2: General life experiences
8. T
he MHSAA is developing a program to help
educate and prepare high school sport captains.
Do you think that is a good idea? Why or why
not?
Recommendations
1. W
hat recommendations do you have for high
school students who are taking on the role of a
team captain?
Probe 1: In general?
Probe 2: In working with coaches?
Probe 3: In interacting with and leading teammates?
2. W
hat recommendations do you have for high
school coaches relative to their role in working
with team captains?
Appendix B
Based on the results of this study, current leadership theories, and what is known about youth leadership development in general, we identified helpful recommendations
on what coaches need to do to more effectively develop
leadership in young people.
Recommendations for
developing leadership
in team captains
1. Develop a coaching philosophy that places
importance on developing captains as leaders. Develop
a philosophy on what the roles and duties of a captain
should include; what effective youth leadership involves;
the attributes needed to be an effective captain; and the
degree of responsibility and decision making that the
coach is willing to allow captains to undertake.
2. Create a trusting team motivational climate.
Make it clear that players can come to the coach with
issues they want to discuss. Engage in autonomous
supportive coaching practices that provide athletes with
choices, acknowledge their perspectives, give them
opportunities to take initiative, create a task versus egoinvolved motivational climate, and explain the reasons
behind rules and limitations.
3. Be intentional in cultivating youth leadership in
captains. Recognize that all young people can learn to
lead. Talk about leadership with the entire team, making
them aware that they all have the capacity to enhance
their leadership skills and will be called upon to lead
teammates either as formal captains or informal team
leaders. Encourage younger players to take on leadership
roles inside and outside of sport (e.g., incorporate peer
teaching into practices) and encourage them to look for
examples of successful leadership in their peers and
others outside of sport.
4. Discuss what leadership involves in general.
Captainship is more than wearing a “C” on a jersey.
Effective leadership development practices involve
inspiring others, being a good role model, fostering
acceptance of team goals, and treating teammates as
individuals with uniquely valuable contributions.
5. Determine the method of selecting your team
captains. If player input is involved, be sure to explain to
the team that being a captain is an honor that involves a
number of roles and duties. Describe the characteristics
of a good leader and captain before the selection process
begins (e.g., be a good model on and off the field, put
the team first, have good communication skills, relate
with the team and the coach well, and do not be afraid
to make some tough decisions).
6. Explain to captains what their roles and duties
involve and the approach that will be taken when
working with them. Captains and coaches report that
captaincy can be stressful for high school studentathletes. Outlining specific expectations in advance may
foster a more positive experience.
7. Help your captains learn to lead. First, help
captains develop their transactional skills such as
learning to feel comfortable talking to a group, thinking
about ways to motivate their teammates, and the
importance of listening. Second, help them develop
transformational leadership skills such as tailoring their
approach to meet the unique needs of teammates and
helping the team to develop and think through its goals.
26 Gould, Voelker, and Griffes
8. Hold regular meetings and provide feedback
to captains. These meetings should allow captains
to convey the pulse of the team but also provide an
opportunity for captains to express what problems
they encounter. Holding regular meetings also allows
the coach to provide feedback to captains about their
leadership skills and behaviors.
9. Recognize that young people will make some
mistakes as leaders. Giving captains responsibility is
fundamental to their development as leaders. However,
young people leading for the first time will make some
mistakes. Coaches must be patient and recognize the fine
line between giving captains meaningful responsibilities
without giving them more than they can handle given
their age, experience and developmental level.
10. Discuss with your captains how the leadership
skills they learn can transfer beyond sport. The captaincy
experience may not only help a team better achieve its
goals, but can also be an exciting opportunity for youth
to learn real leadership skills that are relevant to other
domains of their life. The application of leadership in
sport to other activities (e.g., school, family, community
engagement, jobs) must be purposefully taught.