Transition to Adulthood
Changing landscape of early
adulthood


Entry into adulthood is
longer, often
ambiguous, and
generally occurs in a
more complex and
less uniform fashion.
We can now say that
adulthood no longer
begins when
adolescence ends.
Changing times

A lengthy period, often spanning the 20s, is now
devoted to:
• further education
• job exploration
• experimentation in romantic relationships
• personal development.

The path to adulthood has become less linear, from
school to work, marriage and childbearing
Two revolutions that
reorganized work and family
Technological revolution raised the
importance of technical knowledge,
and thus education, in the labor
market.
 Gender relationships within home
and work lowered barriers to the
workforce for women and created
space for more egalitarian

Mismatch



The varied timing and sequence of adult
transitions contributes to a mismatch
between institutions and young adults.
Workplaces also do not accommodate the
competing demands young adults face.
Consequently, families are required to fill in,
but they frequently lack sufficient resources
and know-how to help young people
successfully negotiate this complex period.

Children in families in
the top quarter of
income categories
receive at least 70
percent more in
material assistance
than children in the
bottom quarter
Other supports



Two other institutions can provide a bridge between the end of
adolescence and an independent adult existence: residential fouryear colleges and the military.
Four-year colleges provide some supervision, direction, supports
such as medical care, housing and opportunities for civic
engagement and public service, while also providing more
independence than is usually provided to adolescents.
The military provides a similar institutional bridge between
dependence and independence.
Problems create additional
risks

Youth who are disconnected
between the ages of 16 and
23—that is, youth who for a
substantial period of time
are far more likely during
later adulthood to be poor, to
be on welfare, to have weak
ties to the work-force, and to
have a lower likelihood of
marriage
Vulnerable
Populations

Populations which are especially vulnerable during the
transition to adulthood, are those








in the mental health system,
in foster care,
in juvenile justice systems;
reentering the community from the criminal justice
system; as well as
high school dropouts
needing special education services and
the homeless, disabled or chronically ill;
Government programs play a major role in the lives of these
children and youth, yet support typically ends between the
ages of 18 and 21
Today’s institutions don’t fit with the
needs of today’s youth


Many features of American
society operate on the
assumption that the
attainment of adulthood
occurs earlier or that most
youth are in college
From the late teens through
the late 20s, many young
people do not have the
social support and financial
resources to sustain them.
Theories of Young Adulthood

Erikson


Individual must make a commitment
Levinson

Forming a dream
• Vague sense of self in adult world

Finding an occupation
• Define the set of activities young adults pursue

Establishing a relationship with a mentor
• Enables the young adult to see how all the tasks of the
period can be woven together

Establishing love relationships
Understanding School-toWork Connection


Those who believe in a “payoff” for high school
achievement work harder
Facets of the worlds of education and work





Transparency--extent to which young people can see
through the intricacies of the rules of school/work and
plan a course of action
Permeability-Ease of movement from one part of the
system to another
Clearly specifie rules = greater tranparency
Difficult to obtain credential = less permeability
Hamilton--Role of Apprenticeships and mentors
Questions
Does mentoring promote positive outcomes?
What are the underlying processes?
What are the implications for the field of prevention?
Impact Study
“A landmark study in 1995 by Public/Private Ventures, an
independent research group, documented the positive
impact this type of relationship can have. The study
demonstrated that Little Brothers and Little Sisters are:
46% less likely to begin using illegal drugs
27% less likely to begin using alcohol
52% less likely to skip school
37% less likely to skip a class
33% less prone to violence: less likely to use hitting
to deal with problems.”
Big Brothers Big Sisters of Baltimore
Programs & Organizations

Formal Programs
Wide-ranging effects on youth outcomes:
emotional/psychological, problem behavior, social
competence, academic, career/employment
 But…

• Size of effects small (d = .18) and preliminary cost-benefit
ratios are not compelling "small, d = .20," "medium, d = .50," and
"large, d = .80” (Cohen, 1988)
• Significant variability in quality of mentoring relationships
established in programs
• Effect sizes vary significantly across programs
30
25
# of Samples
20
Negative Effect
Small Effect
15
Small to Medium Effect
Medium to Large Effect
Large Effect
10
5
0
Effect on Youth
Size of Effect on Youth Outcomes

Effect sizes increase with greater use of theory- and
empirically-based practices
0.5
Medium
Effect
0.4
0.3
0.2
EmpiricallyBased
Practices
Small
Effect
0.1
Theory-Based
Practices
0
-0.1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Theory- EmpiricallyPractice
Based
Based
____________________________________________________________
Monitoring of Program Implementation
X
X
Setting for Mentoring Activities (Community-based)
X
Screening of Prospective Mentors
X
Mentor Background: Helping Role or Profession
X
Mentor/Youth Matching
X
Mentor Pre-Match Training
X
Expectations: Frequency of Contact
X
X
Expectations: Length of Relationship
X
Supervision
X
Ongoing Training
X
X
Mentor Support Group
X
Structured Activities for Mentors and Youth
X
X
Parent Support/Involvement
X
X
The State of the Field
Policy
Research