Aggression in
Sports
What is the
Role of
Aggression in
Sports?
•Intimidation?
•Getting an edge?
•Part of the game / part of competition?
•At what point does it become “too aggressive?”
Definitions
AGGRESSION:
a forceful action or procedure,
especially when intended to
dominate or master
Etymology: from aggredi
-- “to attack”
Must be aimed at another
human being with the goal of
inflicting physical or
psychological harm
Is this hostile aggression, instrumental
aggression or sport assertiveness??
Is this hostile aggression, instrumental
aggression or sport assertiveness??
Is this hostile aggression, instrumental
aggression or sport assertiveness??
Hostile aggression, instrumental
aggression or sport assertiveness...
How to determine...
It is clear that it
depends on the
intent of the
action...
Why are athletes aggressive?
Theories of Aggression
Instinct Theory
• Aggression viewed as an inborn drive
– Freudian theory
– Ethological viewpoint: Animals, including
humans, are innately aggressive
• Konrad Lorenz (1966) -- “The main function of
sports lies in the cathartic discharge of aggressive
urge.”
– Catharsis -- sports seen as a socially acceptable
way to discharge aggression
Is athletic participation “cathartic?”
Does hitting someone hard
release “pent-up”
aggressive urges?
– Research generally does
NOT support the catharsis
theory
• aggression increases over the
course of a game
• watching violence is not
cathartic (e.g., t.v. violence)
• aggression begets aggression
Frustration-Aggression Theory
• Aggression viewed as a
response to frustration
– A variation of the catharsis
theory
– Frustration can lead to a variety
of responses (e.g., aggression,
increased effort, quitting)
– Anger + Stress physiology
(positive feedback loop)
Social Learning Theory
• Aggression viewed as a learned
behavior
– Modeling in sports (e.g., young athletes
watching aggressive play)
– Strong learning occurs when aggressive
play is seen as successful and portrayed
as justifiable
– Aggressive play is reinforced
(receiving praise from coaches, parents,
peers)
Sport-Specific factors
• Aggression influenced by:
–
–
–
–
Reciprocity (we respond to being “attacked”)
Rivalries (“territorial?”) and “Protection” of teammates
Drug use (e.g., steroids, alcohol)
Sports equipment as “weapon” (e.g., hockey stick,
helmets)
– Athletic environment (e.g., a crowded, noisy, hot gym;
obnoxious fans)
• Study of hit batters and temperature
Sport-Specific factors
• Aggression influenced by:
–
–
–
–
Taunting
Nature of the game (contact)
Inconsistent officiating (leading to frustration)
Media effects
• Does the sports media glorify / exaggerate violence?
• What do fans want to see? (e.g., ESPN highlights)
Reducing Excessive Aggression
and Violence
• Punishments for overly aggressive/violent play
must have greater punitive value
• Emphasize fair play code-of-conduct
• Athletes/coaches should agree on what is ok
and what is not -- heavy penalties should be
imposed when inappropriate behavior occurs
• Media must place in proper perspective the
isolated incidents of aggression rather than
making them highlights
Reducing Aggression and
Violence in Sports
• Coaches and referees should be
encouraged to attend in-service
workshops for dealing with
aggression/violence on the part of players
• Reduce (ban?) use of alcoholic beverages
at sporting events