GCST
IT Department
Computer Ethics
Summary Noted
_____________________________________
Dr. Gamal Saad
2012/2014
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
Chapter 2: Introduction to Ethics
What is Ethics?
Simply stated, ethics refers to standards of behavior that tell us how human
beings ought to act in the many situations in which they find themselves-as
friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and
so on.
It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:
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Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important
information for our ethical choices. Some people have highly developed
habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but
many people feel good even though they are doing something wrong.
And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do the right
thing if it is hard.
Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies
to everyone. Most religions do advocate high ethical standards but
sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face.
Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate
many ethical standards, but law can deviate from what is ethical. Law
can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it.
Law can be a function of power alone and designed to serve the
interests of narrow groups. Law may have a difficult time designing or
enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to
address new problems.
Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are
quite ethical, but others become corrupt -or blind to certain ethical
concerns (as the United States was to slavery before the Civil War).
"When in Rome, do as the Romans do" is not a satisfactory ethical
standard.
Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important
data to help us make better ethical choices. But science alone does not
tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide an explanation for
what humans are like. But ethics provides reasons for how humans
ought to act. And just because something is scientifically or
technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it.
Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical standards we
are to follow:
1. On what do we base our ethical standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face?
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice,
or science, what are they based on? Many philosophers and ethicists have
helped us answer this critical question. They have suggested at least five
different sources of ethical standards we should use.
Can Ethics Be Taught?
Developed by Manuel Velasquez, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S.J., and
Michael J. Meyer
In a recent editorial, the Wall Street Journal announced that ethics courses are
useless because ethics can't be taught. Although few people would turn to the
Wall Street Journal as a learned expert on the teaching of ethics, the issue
raised by the newspaper is a serious one: Can ethics be taught?
The issue is an old one. Almost 2500 years ago, the philosopher Socrates
debated the question with his fellow Athenians. Socrates' position was clear:
Ethics consists of knowing what we ought to do, and such knowledge can be
taught.
Most psychologists today would agree with Socrates. In an overview of
contemporary research in the field of moral development, psychologist James
Rest summarized the major findings as follows:
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Dramatic changes occur in young adults in their 20s and 30s in terms of
the basic problem-solving strategies they use to deal with ethical issues.
These changes are linked to fundamental changes in how a person
perceives society and his or her role in society.
The extent to which change occurs is associated with the number of
years of formal education (college or professional school).
Deliberate educational attempts (formal curriculum) to influence
awareness of moral problems and to influence the reasoning or
judgment process have been demonstrated to be effective.
Studies indicate that a person's behavior is influenced by his or her
moral perception and moral judgments.
Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
Can ethics be taught? If you look at the hard evidence psychologists have
amassed, the answer is yes. If you read the Wall Street Journal, you wouldn't
have thought so
Making Decisions
Making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to ethical issues
and a practiced method for exploring the ethical aspects of a decision and
weighing the considerations that should impact our choice of a course of
action. Having a method for ethical decision making is absolutely essential.
When practiced regularly, the method becomes so familiar that we work
through it automatically without consulting the specific steps.
The more novel and difficult the ethical choice we face, the more we need to
rely on discussion and dialogue with others about the dilemma. Only by
careful exploration of the problem, aided by the insights and different
perspectives of others, can we make good ethical choices in such situations.
We have found the following framework for ethical decision making a useful
method for exploring ethical dilemmas and identifying ethical courses of
action.
DECISION PROCESSES
Guidelines for Facilitating Solutions to Ethical Dilemmas in Professional
Practice:
Step 1: Determine the facts in the situation - obtain all of the unbiased facts
possible
Step 2: Define the Stakeholders - those with a vested interest in the outcome
Step 3: Assess the motivations of the Stakeholders - using effective communication
techniques and personality assessment
Step 4: Formulate alternative solutions - based on most complete information
available, using basic ethical core values as guide
Step 5: Evaluate proposed alternatives - short-list ethical solutions only; may be a
potential choice between/among two or more totally ethical solutions
Step 6: Seek additional assistance, as appropriate - engineering codes of ethics,
previous cases, peers, and reliance on personal experience, prayer
Step 7: Select the best course of action - that which satisfies the highest core ethical
values
Step 8: Implement the selected solution - take action as warranted
Step 9: Monitor and assess the outcome - note how to improve the next time
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
What is a Case Study?
Case studies (also called "case histories") are descriptions of real situations
that provide a context for engineers and others
To explore problems. Case studies typically involve complex issues where
there is often no single correct answer— you may be asked to select the "best"
answer given the situation.
Why Use Case Studies? Case studies allow you to:
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Explore the nature of a problem and circumstances that affect a
solution
Learn about others' viewpoints and how they may be taken into
account
Define your priorities and make your own decisions to solve the
problem
Predict outcomes and consequences
Ethical Theories
Defining Terms
• Society:
– Association of people organized under a system of rules
– Rules: advance the good of members over time
• Morality(‫ فضيلة‬, ‫)مثل‬
– A society’s rules of conduct(‫)سلوك‬
– What people ought / ought not to do in various situations
• Ethics
– Rational examination of morality
– Evaluation of people’s behavior
Morality is focused on solving particular problems. Ethics is focused on the
higher-level concept of finding a good way to solve moral problems.
Ethical Theories
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
• Subjective
Relativism(‫الحقااااااخالقيا تتفاااااااايللفااااااخمايل ااااااخيللفاااااا يمال ااااااخ ي‬
)‫)مالظ مف(الموضوعاا‬
• Cultural Relativism((‫)الحقخالقيا تتفاايللفخمايل خييللثقخفاييي‬
• Divine Command Theory( ‫)ا يسمخميياميإ هيياسمىي نيط ا ايال ش‬
• Kantianism (‫) سلويي نيالكمخ يالذييللمكني نهياملقدريعلاهي‬
• Act Utilitarianism(‫)ا عمخليلكو يصخلحايعند خيلكنينخف ا(لص ف)ي‬
• Rule Utilitarianism(‫)فخعدة‬
• Social Contract Theory
Relativism
– No universal norms of right and wrong
– One person can say “X is right,” another can say “X is wrong,”
and both can be right
1- Subjective Relativism
– Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself
– “What’s right for you may not be right for me”
2- Cultural Relativism
• What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a society’s actual moral
guidelines
• These guidelines vary from place to place and from time to time
• A particular action may be right in one society at one time and wrong in
other society or at another time
3- Divine Command Theory
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Good actions: those aligned with God’s will
Bad actions: those contrary to God’s will
Holy books reveal God’s will.
We should holy books as moral decision-making guides.
4- Kantianisim
• Good will: the desire to do the right thing
• Immanuel Kant: Only thing in the world good without qualification is
good will.
• Reason should cultivate desire to do right thing.
Utilitirnianism
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
• An action is good if it benefits someone
• An action is bad if it harms someone
• Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent
unhappiness for an individual or a community
• Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = pleasure
• Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = evil = pain
An action is right (or wrong) to the extent
that it increases (or decreases) the
Total happiness of the affected parties.
5- Act Utilitirnianism
• Utilitarianism
– Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent
– Focuses on the consequences
– A consequentialist theory
• Act utilitarianism
– Add up change in happiness of all affected beings
– Sum > 0, action is good
– Sum < 0, action is bad
6- Rule Utilitirnianism
• We ought to adopt moral rules which, if followed by everyone, will lead
to the greatest increase in total happiness
• Act utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to individual actions
• Rule utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to moral rules
7- Social Contract Theory
– We implicitly accept a social contract
• Establishment of moral rules to govern relations among
citizens
• Government capable of enforcing these rules
– In ideal society, no one above rules
– That prevents society from enacting bad rules
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* By using an ethical theory in which all humans are treated equally and
guidelines are developed through a process of logical reasoning, it is more
likely that you can craft an ethical argument that will be convincing to a
diverse audience.
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
* When we say an ethical theory is rational, we mean that it relies upon logical
reasoning from facts or commonly held values.
* Sometimes I leave home a little late, but I’d still like to get to work on time.
I want to be able to drive through red lights on those days when I am running
late. The proposed moral rule is: I may ignore traffic signals on days I am
running late. If we universalized this rule, then traffic signals would cease to
have any meaning. The streets would be chaotic. There would be gridlock or
accidents at every busy intersection. I would no longer be able to drive
through red lights. Hence my proposed moral rule is self-defeating. It is wrong
for me to drive through red lights on those days when I am running late.
* A consequentialist theory determines whether an action is right or wrong by
evaluating its consequences. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory. A
nonconsequentialist theory determines whether an action is right or wrong by
considering the underlying rule or principle motivating the action.
Kantianism and social contract theory are non-consequentialist theories.
* Three situations in which my action would be primarily motivated by a
sense of duty or obligation:
(a) I promised someone if he could get two tickets to a rock concert, I would
purchase a ticket and go with him. He got the tickets and expects me to pay for
mine. I keep my promise, even though I just lost my job and I really can’t
afford to go.
(b) I pay my income taxes, even though I think the government has some
wasteful programs.
(c) Everybody in my fraternity is going to give blood. I donate blood, too,
even though just thinking about it makes me queasy.
*Three situations in which my action is primarily motivated by its expected
consequences:
(a) I give money to a particular charity because it has the lowest administrative
overhead of any international relief organization. I figure more of my money
will actually reach those who need it.
(b) I work extra hard in a particular class, even though I am not interested in
the material, because I hope the professor will write me a good letter of
recommendation.
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
(c) I slightly exaggerate my experience in order to get a good job as a server in
a nice restaurant.
* Businesses and governments often use utilitarian thinking to determine the
proper course of action because it allows all the consequences of a decision to
be boiled down to dollars and cents (or some other quantifiable unit of
measure).
* Social contract theory is a non-consequentialist theory. Social contract
theory as articulated in Rawls’s two principles of justice is a nonconsequentialist theory.
* Both divine command theory and Kantianism are objective, holding that
right and wrong can be expressed in rules that are true for all people at all
times in history. Divine command theory identifies the good with the will of
God, and holds that the will of God is communicated through holy books.
Kantianism, on the other hand, holds that we can use our reason to determine
what is good.
* Both subjective relativism and act utilitarianism would allow an
individual to evaluate a situation to determine whether a particular action is
right or wrong. However, subjective relativism allows a person to use any
means to decide the right thing to do. According to act utilitarianism, the
consequences of the possible actions must be evaluated. The correct action is
the one that leads to the greatest increase in total happiness among the parties
affected.
* Both act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism are consequentialist
theories. However, act utilitarianism considers the consequences that would
result from an action taken in one particular situation. Rule utilitarianism
considers the consequences that would result if everyone always took a certain
course of action in all similar situations.
* In most ethical theories Alexis did wrong when she lied to the librarian. By
deceiving the librarian, Alexis treated the librarian as a means to her end of
getting access to the private college’s computers. Alexis violated the property
rights of the private college when she used its computers without permission.
Her action was wrong.
* A rule utilitarian is likely to subscribe to the rule “Lying is wrong,” since
widespread lying can lead to many harms. For this reason, Alexis did wrong
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Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
when she deceived the librarian. The challenge with this scenario is to
determine whether any moral rules have been broken. In general,
utilitarianism is comfortable with the notion that maximizing the overall good
may mean that the majority gains a benefit while the minority suffers a harm.
Comparing Workable Ethical Theories
Theory
Kantianism
Motivation Criteria
Dutifulness
Act
Consequence
Utilitarianism
Rule
Consequence /
Utilitarianism
Duty
Social Contract
Rights
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Focus
Rules
Individual
Actions
Group
Rules
Group
Rules
Individual
Chapter 3: Networking
* The Internet is a network of networks that uses two protocols, known as
TCP/IP, to control the exchange of data.
* The first part of an email address (before the@ sign) identifies a particular
computer user. The second part of an email address (after the @ sign) contains
a domain name.
* Unless the email message is short, the mail server divides the message into
packets. The message is sent from mail server through zero or more
intermediate routers to the mail server of the person to whom you are sending
the email. The destination email server reassembles the message from the
packets (if necessary) and transmits the message to the intended recipient.
* Spam is unsolicited, bulk email.
• Amount of email that is spam has increased
– 8% in 2001
– 40% in 2003
– More than 50% in 2004
• Spam is effective
– More than 100 times cheaper than “junk mail”
– Profitable even if only 1 in 100,000 buys product
• How firms get email addresses
– Opt-in lists
– Dictionary attacks
• Spammers seek anonymity
– Change email and IP addresses to disguise sending machine
– Hijack another system as a spam launch pad
• Spam blockers
– Attempt to screen out spam
– Have led to more picture-based spam
* A spam blocker attempts to keep spam from reaching someone’s mailbox by
identifying and discarding (or routing to a special folder) emails that appear to
be spam.
11 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
* Mail Abuse Protection System (MAPS) maintains a list of networks that
either forward spam or allow spam to be created. The list is called the
Realtime Blackhole List. Some Internet service providers refuse to accept
email sent from hosts on the Realtime Blackhole List.
• MAPS is a not-for-profit organization
• Contacts marketers who violate MAPS standards for bulk email
• Puts marketers who violate standards on a Realtime Blackhole List
(RBL)
• Some mail relays refer to RBL list
– Looks up email host name on RBL list
– If name on list, the email gets bounced back
• All email from blacklisted hosts gets bounced, even email from nonspammers
Proposed Solutions to Spam Epidemic
• Require an explicit opt-in of subscribers
• Require labeling of email advertising
• Add a cost to every email that is sent
• Ban unsolicited email
Ethical Evaluation of Spamming (Refer to book and class discussion)
• Kantian evaluation
• Act utilitarian evaluation
• Rule utilitarian evaluation
• Social contract theory evaluation
• From all these perspectives, it is wrong to send spam
Attributes of the Web:
• It is decentralized
• Every Web object has a unique address
• It is based on the Internet
Five other uses of the Web:
(a) We sell stuff in on-line auctions (such as eBay).
(b) We seek medical information from on-line special interest groups of
people suffering from particular diseases.
(c) We learn about the weather.
(d) We find out about current traffic conditions before deciding whether
to leave work.
(e) We get directions before driving to a place we’ve never been before.
* A URL is a Uniform Resource Locator. Every Web page has a unique URL,
enabling hyperlinks to be set up between arbitrary pages.
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Controlling The Web:
• Not everyone in world has Internet access
• Saudi Arabia: centralized control center
• People’s Republic of China: ISPs sign
“self-discipline” agreement
• Germany: Forbids access to neo-Nazi sites
• United States: Repeated efforts to limit access of minors to pornography
Ethical Perspectives on Pornography (The book, Page 109)
• Pornography is immoral
• Adult pornography is moral
• Commentary
Censorship : Is the attempt to suppress or regulate public access to material
considered offensive or harmful.
• Direct censorship
• Government monopolization
• Prepublication review
• Licensing and registration
• Self-censorship
• Most common form of censorship
• Group decides for itself not to publish materials
* There are three forms of direct censorship: government monopolization,
prepublication review and licensing and registration. Government
monopolization means the government owns all the media outlets. Prepublication review means the government must approve information before it
is disseminated. Licensing and registration means a news organization must
get a license from the government before operating. It is used for media with
limited bandwidth, such as radio and television. Self censorship is a group
deciding for itself not to publish materials.
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Broadcasters have the most limited First Amendment rights because
they have a pervasive presence. Broadcasters beam signals into the
privacy of the home. Since people can turn radios and televisions on
and off, they may turn a device on in the middle of a show. That means
that warnings at the start of a show are less effective than a warning at
13 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
the front of a newspaper or magazine article. Also, broadcasting is
accessible to children, even those too young to read. Restricting the
access of children to radio or television is more difficult than restricting
access to adult magazines or books.
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Censorship is difficult on the Internet because:
(a) The Internet supports many-to-many communication. The Internet
has far more information outlets than television or radio.
(b) The Internet is dynamic. Millions of computers are being added to
the Internet every year.
(c) The Web is huge, containing billions of pages. Nobody can keep
track of everything published on the Web.
(d) The Internet is global. Laws passed in one nation may have no effect
outside that nation’s borders.
(e) It is hard to distinguish between children and adults on the Internet.
Challenges Posed by the Internet
• Internet supports many-to-many communication
• Internet is dynamic
• Internet is huge
• Internet is global
• Difficulty distinguishing between children and adults online
Freedom of Expression (Is it right or NOT?)
• Right to freedom of expression must be balanced against the public
good
• Various restrictions on freedom of expression exist
Children and the Web
Many parents believe they ought to protect their children from exposure to
pornographic and violent materials on the web.
• Child Internet Protection Act (CIPA)
• Libraries receiving federal networking funds must filter pages
containing obscenity or child pornography.
• Web filters
• Web filter: software that prevents display of certain Web pages
• May be installed on an individual PC
• ISP may provide service for customers
• Methodologies
14 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
• Maintain “black list” of objectionable sites
• Examine content for objectionable words/phrases
• Ethical evaluations of CIPA
• Kantian evaluation: CIPA is wrong
• Act utilitarian evaluation: depends on how benefits and harms are
weighed
• Social contract theory: freedom of conscience should be given
precedence
• Identity theft
• when a person uses another person’s electronic identity
• Two-thirds of cases begin with an email solicitation
• Many victims are experienced computer users comfortable
with typing credit card number online
• Chat room predators
• Chat room: supports real-time discussions among many
people connected to network
• Instant messaging and chat rooms replacing telephone for
many people
• Some pedophiles meeting children through chat rooms
• Police countering with “sting” operations
• Ethical evaluations of police “sting” operations (The book)
• Utilitarian evaluation
• Kantian evaluation
• Social contract theory evaluation
• False information
• Quality of Web-based information varies widely
• Other media also have information of varying quality
• The New York Times v. The National Enquirer
• 60 Minutes v. Conspiracy Theory
• Google attempts to reward quality
• Ranking uses “voting” algorithm
• If many links point to a page, Google search engine
ranks that page higher
15 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
Chapter 4: Intellectual Property
1. Intellectual property is a unique creation of the human mind that has
commercial value. Examples of intellectual property include poems,
photographs, songs, plays, books, paintings, sculptures, movies, logos,
slogans, designs, perfumes, recipes, and computer programs.
2. John Locke holds that when people remove something from Nature through
their own labor, they have mixed their labor with it, and therefore they have a
property right in that object.
3. If more than two people create the identical intellectual property, there is
only one of that property, not two, meaning both people cannot claim full
rights to that property. Copying an intellectual property is different from
stealing a physical property. Perfect copies can be made of objects embodying
an intellectual property. When this happens, the original owner has lost
exclusive control over use of the property, even though he or she still has the
original article.
4. An individual or firm in the United States may protect intellectual property
through trade secrets, trademarks, service marks, patents, and copyrights.
5. A trademark is a word, symbol, picture, sound, color, or smell used to
identify a product. It is good when a company’s trademark becomes well
known to the public. A trade secret is a piece of intellectual property that is
kept confidential. Examples of trade secrets are formulas, processes,
proprietary designs, strategic plans, and customer lists.
6. The advantage of a trade secret is that it does not expire. The disadvantage
of a trade secret is that a company cannot prevent another company from
reverse engineering the formula or process. The advantage of a patent is that
the government gives the patent owner the exclusive right to the intellectual
property. The disadvantage of a patent is that this right expires after 20 years.
7. Fair use refers to those circumstances under which it is legal to reproduce a
copyrighted work without permission.
16 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
8. As information technology has advanced, companies have begun using
digital media (such as CDs and DVDs) to store copyrighted songs, movies,
and computer programs. The widespread availability of personal computers
and CD/DVD burners has made it much easier for consumers to make copies
of CDs and DVDs.
9. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act curtails fair use of copyrighted
material by consumers by making it illegal to make copies of any digitally
recorded work for any purpose.
10. Digital rights management refers to any of a variety of actions owners of
intellectual property stored in digital form may take to protect their rights.
Examples of digital rights management include encryption, digital
watermarking, and making CDs copyproof.
11. CD-ROM drives in PCs use a different standard than CD audio players.
When a CD audio player encounters a bad block of bits, it skips over it. When
a CDROM drive in a PC encounters a bad block of bits, it keeps re-reading the
block until the bits in the block make sense. By deliberately planting bad
blocks of data onto a CD, you can make a CD that sounds good on a CD
player but is unreadable by a CD-ROM drive.
12. A peer-to-peer network is a transient (temporary) network allowing
computers running the same networking program to connect with each other
and access files stored on each other’s hard drives. Peer-to-peer networks
facilitate file sharing.
13. Napster relied on a single central server to mediate requests. KaZaA
distributes the index of available files among many supernodes. Shutting down
Napster simply requires shutting down the single central server. Shutting
down KaZaA would require shutting down all of the supernodes. Hence
KaZaA would be more difficult for the judicial system to shut down than
Napster.
15. Some companies are now providing services that allow consumers to
download music legally from the internet (for a fee). Research the
performance of these companies. How many people are using the services?
Are they making Money?
The answer: In March 2004 Apple announced consumers were downloading
2.5 million songs per week from the
iTunes site, up from a rate of 1.5 million songs per week in December 2003.
17 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
16. MP3 spoofing refers to posting a bogus MP3 file on a peer-to-peer
network. In other words, the content of the file does not match the title. The
recording industry supports MP3 spoofing because it makes downloading
songs more difficult.
18. Suppose a company A wants to develop a program that duplicates the
functionality of a made by company B. Describe how company A may do this
without violating the copyrights held by company B.
The answer: Company A resorts to “clean room” software development. Two
independent teams work on the project. The first team is responsible for
determining how Company B’s program works and produces a technical
specification. The second team relies solely on the technical specification to
develop the software. Because the code developers are isolated from Company
B’s product, Company A can ensure no code get copied, even unconsciously.
19. Open source refers to software in which the source code is distributed
along with the executable program.
20. Copyleft is the principle that anyone who acquires and modifies an opensource program must redistribute it as an open-source program. In other
words, you cannot transform an open-source program into a proprietary
program. Unlike a traditional copyright, copyleft allows anyone to copy and
enhance a program without getting the author’s permission.
21. Linux has affected the market for proprietary software by putting price
pressure on companies selling proprietary versions of Unix. It is providing an
alternative to servers running the Windows operating system. Linux is also
putting pressure on Microsoft and Apple, which sell proprietary operating
systems for desktop computers.
22. The band can select a Creative Commons license that allows people to
download music for noncommercial purposes, but still protects the band’s
copyright to the song.
Limits to Intellectual Property Protection
• Giving creators rights to their inventions stimulates creativity
• Society benefits most when inventions in public domain
• Congress has struck compromise by giving authors and inventors rights
for a limited time
Copyright Provides owner of an original work five rights
– Reproduction
– Distribution
18 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
– Public display
– Public performance
– Production of derivative works
Fair Use
Sometimes legal to reproduce a copyrighted work without permission
• Sony v. Universal City Studios (The book and discussion)
• RIAA v. Diamond Multimedia Systems Inc. (The book and discussion)
Legal Music Services on the Internet
• Subscription services for legal downloading
• Some based on monthly fee; some free
• Consumers pay for each download
• Apple’s iTunes Music Store leading service
Software Copyrights
• Copyright protection began 1964
• What gets copyrighted?
– Expression of idea, not idea itself
– Object program, not source program
• Companies treat source code as a trade secret
Violations of Software Copyrights
• Copying a program to give or sell to someone else
• Preloading a program onto the hard disk of a computer being sold
• Distributing a program over the Internet
Open-Source Software
• No restrictions preventing others from selling or giving away software
• Source code included in distribution
• No restrictions preventing others from modifying source code
• No restrictions regarding how people can use software
• Same rights apply to everyone receiving redistributions of the software
(copyleft)
Beneficial Consequences of Open-Source Software
• Gives everyone opportunity to improve program
• New versions of programs appear more frequently
• Eliminates tension between obeying law and helping others
• Programs belong to entire community
• Shifts focus from manufacturing to service
Crititique of the Open-Source Software Movement
19 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
•
•
•
•
Without critical mass of developers, quality can be poor
Without an “owner,” incompatible versions may arise
Relatively weak graphical user interface
Poor mechanism for stimulating innovation (no companies will spend
billions on new programs)
Morality of Intellectual Property Protection for Software
Rights-based Analysis
– Programming is hard work that only a few can do
– Programmers should be rewarded for their labor
– They ought to be able to own their programs
Utilitarian Analysis
• Argument against copying
– Copying software reduces software purchases…
– Leading to less income for software makers…
– Leading to lower production of new software…
– Leading to fewer benefits to society
Coclusion
• Each of these claims can be debated
• Natural rights argument weak
• Utilitarian argument not strong, either
Morality of Copying Proprietary Software
• Social contract theory perspective
• Kantian perspective
• Rule utilitarian perspective
• Act utilitarian perspective
• Conclusion: Society has chosen to enact a law that grants intellectual
property rights to people who do creative work and distribute it on CDs.
From the view point of of Kantianism, rule utilitarianism, and social
contract theory, breaking the law is wrong, unless there is a strong
moral obligation. Hence we have concluded that copying a CD
containing copyrighted software is immoral because it is illegal.
From an Act utilitarian viewpoint, it is hard to say copying a CD
containing copyrighted software is immoral if there is a good
justification for it.
Creative Commons
• Under current copyright law, eligible works are copyrighted the
moment they are created
• No copyright notice does not mean it’s okay to copy
• Must contact people before using work
• That slows down creative re-use of others’ work
20 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
• Free Creative Commons license indicates
– Which kinds of copying are okay
– Which rights are being retained
Chapter 5: Privacy
1. Google combines information in two databases. The first database ties
phone numbers to addresses. The second database ties addresses to locations
on a map. By combining information in these databases, Google can associate
a location on a map with a phone number.
6. A public record contains information reported to a government agency for
the purpose of informing the public. Public information is information that is
provided to an organization that has the right to share it with other
organizations.
7. Disclosure of information that becomes part of a public record is typically
required by law. For example, you must disclose certain information in order
to get a marriage license. For this reason, it is easier for a person to control
public information.
8. Here are a few examples of public records: legal name, address, list of
property owned, property tax records, political party, date of birth, date of
marriage, date of divorce, date of death
9. An example of a situation where people must disclose personal information
in order to get something, here is one possible answer. If you want to check
out a book from a public library, you must provide certain information (such
as your name, address, and phone number).
10. An example of a situation where people must reveal personal information
whether they like it or not, here is one possible answer. People called to testify
at a trial may be forced to reveal personal information, whether or not they
consent.
11. An example of a situation where information about people is gathered
without their knowledge, here is one possible answer. Many organizations
keep track of the Web sites accessed by their computers. By monitoring the
packets flowing fromWeb sites to particular machines, a company can
determine the Web sites each of its employees is visiting.
21 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
12. What is the difference between a digital video recorder and a traditional
VCR? A digital video recorder records television shows on a hard disk instead
of a tape. It may have features making it much easier to program. It may
connect with a central database and report viewing patterns.
13. Why does enhanced 911 service raise new concerns about privacy?
Enhanced 911 service raises new concerns about privacy because in order to
implement this service, cell phone companies must install technology that
enables them to track the positions of all active cell phones.
14. Spyware is a program that communicates over your Internet connection
without your knowledge or consent. Free software downloaded from the
Internet often contains spyware.
16. The purpose of the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act is to reduce
the amount of public information gathered from children using the Internet.
22. In Charles Katz v. United States, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed that
citizens should be protected from all electronic surveillance conducted without
warrants, including bugs.
24. Secondary use data refers to when information collected for one purpose is
put to another purpose.
27. The most common form of identity theft in the United States is credit card
fraud.
28. A private company can legally ask for your Social Security number.
29. Social Security numbers are not unique. They are rarely checked, so
criminals can get away with supplying fake SSNs. They have no errordetecting capability, so SSNs are prone to data-entry errors.
31. What is the difference between a traditional, symmetric encryption scheme
and a public-key encryption scheme? In a traditional, symmetric encryption
scheme the same key is used both to encode and decode the message. Since
the sender must send the key to the receiver somehow, that introduces a
security risk. In a public-key encryption scheme different keys are used to
encode a decode the message. This eliminates the security risk of having to
pass keys.
34. Criminals can steal information at ATMs by looking over someone’s
shoulder to learn their PIN number, by installing a skimmer to capture the
information stored on the access card, or by collecting receipts that customers
have left behind.
22 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
35. Digital cash is anonymous electronic money. It differs from an ordinary
credit card in that when you use it to purchase an item, a computer cannot link
you with the purchase. It differs from ordinary cash in that it is stored
electronically, rather than in physical form.
Cookies:
A cookie is a file placed on your computer's hard disk by a web server. The
file contains information about your visits to a web site. Cookies can contain
login name and passwords, product preferences, and the content of virtual
shopping carts.
Spyware:
A spyware is a program that communicates over your internet connection
without your knowledge or consent. Spyware programs can monitor Web
surfing, log keystokes, take a snapshots of your computer screen and send
reports back to host computer.
Data Mining:
Data mining is the process of searching through one or more databases
looking for patterns or relationships. Data mining is a way to generate new
information by combining facts found in multiple transactions. It can also be a
way to predict future events.
Identity theft:
Identity theft is the misuse of another person's identity such as name, ID
number, credit card information, and bank account number. The objective is to
take actions permitted to the owner of the identity such as withdraw funds,
transfer money, and get access to information. The leading form of identity
theft is credit card fraud.
Encryption:
Encryption is the process of transforming a message in order to conceal its
meaning in an age in which information is easily captured and rebroadcast,
encryption is a valuable tool for maintaining privacy. Even if someone should
get a copy of an encrypted message, it is worthless unless the person can
decode it.
23 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
Chapter 6: Computer and Network Security
1. A computer virus is a piece of self-replicating code embedded within
another program called the host.
2. A worm is a self-contained program that spreads through a computer network
by exploiting security holes in the computers connected to the network.
3. The difference between a virus and a worm is that a worm has the ability to
spread on its own. A virus spreads when a computer user executes the host.
5. What are the two reasons why a fast-moving worm is usually more
dangerous than a worm that replicates more slowly? A fast-moving worm is
more dangerous because it can infect more computers before a way to plug the
security hole is discovered. In addition, a fast-moving worm consumes more
of the Internet’s bandwidth.
7. Filipino computer science student launched The Love Bug virus in 2000.
The Internet worm was launched by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr., a computer
science graduate student at Cornell University, in 1988.
8. A Trojan horse is a program with a benign capability that conceals another,
sinister purpose.
Remote access Trojan horses (RATs) are often concealed inside files
containing sexually explicit videos or photos. Once downloaded, a RAT
enables the attacker to access the victim's computer. System administrators
play an important role in securing systems against these external threats.
9. It is dangerous for an email program to open attachments automatically,
because the attachment may be an executable program containing a virus.
10. The word “hacker” is derived from the word “hack.” A “hack” is a newly
constructed piece of equipment that serves a useful purpose and demonstrates
its creator’s technical virtuosity. A “phreak” is someone who manipulates the
telephone system in order to communicate with others without paying for the
call. The “f” sound is spelled with a “ph” because the “f” sound in “telephone”
is spelled with a “ph.”
11. The first major network to get hacked was the telephone network.
24 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad
12. Hackers and phreaks do not think taking information from computers is a
serious crime, certainly not as serious as the authorities would make it seem.
In general, those who download MP3 files seem to have the same attitude.
13. A denial-of-service attack is an intentional action designed to prevent
legitimate users from making use of a computer service. The service is
provided by a computer called a server. The denial-of-service attack tries to
disable the server, preventing it from responding to legitimate users. Disabling
the server can be done many ways, including: crashing the server, consuming
its disk storage, filling its primary memory, or saturating its connections.
15. How computer worms are used in certain DOS attacks? One way to use a
worm in a DoS attack is to penetrate the target’s computer with a worm that
intentionally generates a long string of errors. Since the target computer logs
errors in a data file, eventually the disk fills up, preventing the target from
handling legitimate requests for service.
Another way to use a worm in a DoS attack is to penetrate the target’s
computer with a worm that replicates very rapidly. The presence of many
active worm processes either crashes the target computer or significantly
degrades its performance.
16. The administrator of a Web server can stop a DoS attack temporarily by
con-figuring the server so that it refuses to accept any packets from the
attacker’s computer, but all the attacker has to do is launch a new attack from
another computer.
17. Filtering of outgoing Internet traffic is an important tool in the fight
against DoS and DDoS attacks, because even if an outsider should gain access
to one or more computers, the filtering can keep these computers from being
used as launching pads for DoS or DDoS attacks.
18. A vote thief could cast multiple votes in an on-line election by purchasing
pass codes from people willing to sell their right to vote. A thief could fool
other voters into revealing their pass codes and then using this information to
cast multiple votes. Online voting has been suggested as one way of
eliminating problems associated with traditional voting systems, and
experiments in online voting have already begun.
19. The author concludes it is a bad idea for a government to allow on-line
voting from home computers, because then the security of the voting system
would depend on the security of home computers, which is poor.
20. The quickest and safest way to make a computer secure is to disconnect it
from any networks.
25 Computer Ethics – Dr. Gamal Saad