Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Trees and forests are critical resources for people’s livelihoods, environmental conservation
and national economic development. In response, the institutional capacity building of the
Forest Sector Development Program of Ethiopia has embarked on a joint project prepared by
MEF and UNDP. This project will have duration of five years and be financially supported by the
Norwegian Government. This project aims at contributing to the people’s livelihood
improvement of the local communities by making available commercial scale fuel wood,
timber, fruit, and fodder and other non-timber forest products while halting and reversing the
present trend of severe environmental degradation in Alaje, Endamehoni, Wadla, Mekit,
Delant, Dessie Zuria, Sodo, Lemo and Mirab Abaya districts of Tigray, Amhara and SNNP
regional states through promoting a short rotation commercial plantation and rehabilitating
and use of degraded sites.
The short rotation forest plantations will focus primarily on indentifying site specific fast
growing indigenous and exotic tree species. Through this plantation program, it is planned to
afforest fast growing tree species on over 10 000 ha tracts of land over the coming 2-3 years.
This target will be achieved if and only if right from the onset a careful site quality and
suitability assessment for plantation and proper planning starting from planting material
selection to plantation management is considered and action plan is in place. In addition, in
order to ensure sustainability and profitability of this plantation program different modalities
will be applied such privatization of the plantation in different forms. Furthermore, the project
will also intend to assist local farmers to adopt agroforestry systems including establishment
woodlots/ tree lots, where feasible, plant trees in degraded catchments areas. This will be
achieved through fostering increased fruit (including fruit tree and tree planting) production for
enhanced household food self-sufficiency and increased income generation and enhancing the
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ability to conserve and protect the environment. By and large, the project will encourage and
support farmers to transform the current smallholder subsistence farming into economically
viable forest product businesses. The project will also ensure sustainable agricultural
production and help combating climate change in particular and safeguard the environment in
general. Fittingly, it is unequivocal to involve all concerned stakeholders including the local
community, researchers, development agents and policy making people starting from site
selection to implementing of project activities. Correspondingly, a Technical Team of four
experts from the Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute is commissioned to carry
out a quick field survey in order mainly to identify plantation and rehabilitation sites along with
indentifying fast growing short rotation tree species and other relevant measures with terms of
references as outlined below:
1.2 Mission Terms of Reference
This field mission;
1. Review the local biophysical attributes (climate, topography and soil) and the feasibility
of establishing plantations and rehabilitation meso-catchments in the selected districts
of Amhara, Tigray and SNNPRS. In this context, factors to consider are soil type, slope,
existing trees and vegetation (in the immediate area and similar areas nearby), current
and potential land–use practices.
2. Review the land use and socio-economic conditions and its suitability for the envisaged
plantations
3. Determine the scale and location of the plantations and rehabilitation sites in each
districts
4. Assess technologies and the various models of short rotation plantation establishment
in other countries
5. Based on the available literature and knowledge, identify the tree species suited to
plantations and rehabilitation in the targeted districts.
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6. Define the scale of land suitability for plantations (although it is recognized that sites
may vary in their suitability for various species) suitability can be done for candidate
species (as class1, 2, 3, 4) based on guidelines for land evaluation.
7. Recommend the most suitable management system for the selected tree species
including the possible business model for each and
8. Determine the location of infrastructures including nurseries, store and access roads
both for the plantation and nursery management
9. Assess the level of investment needed to stimulate short rotation plantations the
selected districts
10. If possible develop a geospatial map indicating the location of the nurseries and
plantations
11. Determine the profitability of investment in terms of Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and
Net Present value (NPV) and the rotation period required to breakeven.
1.3 Objective
The specific objectives of this field visits were to:
a) Conduct field assessment both for the plantation and rehabilitation sites selected by the local
governments;
b) Assess the feasibility of establishing plantations dedicated for the fuel and construction
industry of Ethiopia and
c) Review site quality and suitability for establishing plantations of selected species.
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Chapter 2
Study Methodology
In accordance with the specific objectives labeled, the Technical Team designed various
methodologies to extract relevant biophysical and socio-economic data. In principle, the
following methodologies were employed.
1) Conducting field assessment both for the plantation and rehabilitation sites selected by the
local governments.
In order to evaluate the suitability of candidate sites for plantation and rehabilitation as
proposed by local authorities were studied taking in to account the following thoughts:
-Evaluation of the procedure and criteria used by the local authorities, experts and farmers
through group discussion,
-Evaluation of the level of severity, cost and time needed to deliver short rotation plantation
and faster rate of rehabilitation through consultation and expert judgment.
-Evaluation of water resource, nursery and road availability through site supervision and
-Evaluation of the commitment of the local government and the community in supporting the
project implementation and other contribution to its success through discussion
2) Assess the feasibility of establishing plantations dedicated for the wood based industry of
Ethiopia
-Through designing proper action plan for increasing seedling survival rate and forest
productivity
-Through biomass estimation for fuel and industry uses and
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-Through computing the amount of CO2-e to be trapped by each tree species and financial
profitability of the venture
3) Review site quality and suitability for establishing plantations of selected species.
-Data such as elevation, slope, aspect, landform, soil type, mean annual rainfall (see Fig 1),
agroecology, and termite risk were generated during the field visit for the respective sites,
-Data on geographic, topographic, and ecological requirement of each candidate tree species
was reviewed and
-Site suitability for plantation was evaluated according to FAO (1976) by matching the site
characteristics with the tree species requirement. We adopted interpretation of the survey and
secondary data collected from the respective district offices on the biophysical settings and
ranked the land according to a five class system. The main limiting factors observed will
determine the classes of the sites for afforestation. The classes are described as:
Class 1: Suitable land with negligible limitations which is highly productive requiring only
simple management practices to maintain economic production.
Class 2: Suitable land with minor limitations which either reduce production or require more
than the simple management practices of Class 1 land to maintain economic
production.
Class 3: Suitable land with moderate limitations which either further lower production or
require more than those management practices of Class 2 land to maintain economic
production.
Class 4: Marginal land with severe limitations which make it doubtful whether the inputs
required to achieve and maintain production outweigh the benefits in the long term
(presently considered unsuitable for afferstation due to the uncertainty of the land to
achieve sustained economic production).
Class 5: Unsuitable land with extreme limitations that preclude its use for the proposed purpose
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-Criteria for matching tree species for plantation to a site: Criteria selection for matching a tree
species to the proposed plantation site was based on available literature on the species, expert
knowledge in consultation with the local extension agents and site available information. The
criteria mainly based on the local environmental factors favorable for particular tree species
survival, the anticipated site amelioration by the presence of trees in the landscape and the
basic demands of the community for reaping income from wood products and improving the
living conditions at rural settings.
-Site Selection Criteria for rehabilitation: The land class identified as marginal (class 4) with
severe limitations for afforestation and the unsuitable land with extreme limitations precluded
for afforestation represented as class 5 are considered for rehabilitation. These lands have
more or less rocky substrate, poor and very dry soil, lesser native grass and woody vegetation
cover, extreme slope near 100%, and exposed to continuous soil erosion during the
precipitation seasons. All the rehabilitation sites demand stone bund where impossible to dig
for bench terracing, trench digging for moisture harvesting along the contour at different slope
gradients.
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Chapter 3
Project Sites Description and Constraints
3.1. Endamehoni district
3.1.1. Hargibeda plantation site
Bio-physical Settings
Hargibeda is a site proposed for the development of short rotation plantation and is located at
0561527 E and 1412035 N UTM at an elevation of 2260 m.a.s.l., which is categorized as a
highland with a temperate agro-ecology. The area apportioned for this plantation is estimated
over 1000 hectares. The physiographic position is featured as a steep cliff and an escarpment
having a slope range of 70-80%. The land form is, dominantly, a type of rectilinear convex
combination. The geology of the site is dominated by basalt and volcano-clastic materials,
where the Entisols and Regosols are predominating. These soils highly depleted have a shallow
depth. The natural vegetation is consisting of trees and shrubs such as Albizia amara, Opuntia
ficus-indica, aloes, reeds at a lower slope, Juniperus procera. Planted trees were also recorded
of which Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. globulus, Acacia saligna, and Grevilea robusta are the
frequent ones.
Socio-economic conditions
The number of residents in Hargibeda is reported about 250 households with a total population
of 1250. Subsistence agriculture is the major economic stay in the site in which barely, wheat,
and tef have a significant contribution. Small scale livestock production is widespread although
the productivity is low. Moreover, a Particle Board Factory is now operational in Maychew
town, the zonal capital, which demands enormous plantations to manufacturing of chip woods
and other by products. However, the current supply of raw materials is far below the demand.
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Development efforts and constraints
There are ongoing good efforts to rehabilitate the degraded areas through introducing and
enforcing area enclosure and enrichment plantation.
So far encouraging outcomes are
recorded with which disappearing species are regenerating and thereby the ecosystem services
are now being functional slowly. However, still land degradation, shortage of moisture, food
insecurity, shortage of animal feed, shortage of wood for fuel and construction, nutrient
depletion, pest and disease infestation on cactus, low agricultural yield, inadequate soil and
water conservation structures and lack of their maintenance remain pressing challenges in the
site.
Plate-1: Hargibeda plantation site view, Mehoni district
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3.1.2. Menkere rehabilitation site
Bio-physical Settings
Menkere is a site delineated for rehabilitation and is located at 0561691 E, 1408891 N. The site
situated an elevation of 2423 m.a.s.l. which makes it a highland and a Dega agroecology. The
topography is rugged mountainous with a land form of rectilinear and concave combination.
The slope the site is 70%. The geology is dominated as a basement Precambrian and a tertiary
volcanic where basalt rocks and pyroclastic materials are observed here and there. The
dominant soil types on the side slopes are Regosols and at foot slopes the Fluvisols
predominate. The site coverage is approximately 100 ha at different landscape positions. The
dominant natural vegetation are trees and shrubs such as Albizia amara, Acacia abayssinica,
Opuntia ficus-indica, aloes, reeds, Juniperus procera, Euclea shimperi, Dodonea viscosa, Olea
africana. Eucalyptus globlus species are the most dominant planted species.
Socio-economic conditions
The inhabitants of Menkere are about 200 HHs. A gravel road passes by the site but access to
the actual rehabilitation site is lacking. Major land uses of the site are subsistence farming and
small scale livestock production dominantly. The inhabitants are vulnerable due to drought and
insufficient land for cultivation. In order to reverse land degradation, the local authorities
enforced the site to be closed for use. It has been supported by different donors; one of which
is SLM 1 which lasted its intervention for three years. During this time the site is rehabilitated
well, plants were regenerated to the extent the harbor various precious wild animals including
leopard, hyena, apes and etc. Furthermore, the site has a great potential for horticulture at the
foot slope season.
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Development efforts and constraints
Despite some SWC and enclosure efforts, challenges and constraints like land degradation,
shortage of moisture, nutrient depletion, pest and disease infestation on cactus, decline of crop
yield, inadequate soil and water conservation structures and lack of their maintenance are still
prevailing and require serious attention if success is sought in reforestation and afforestation.
Plate-2: Menkere rehabilitation site, Mehoni district
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3.2. Alaje district
3.2.1. Betmera (Genji) Plantation and rehabilitation site
Bio-physical conditions
Betemera is a site located at the northern tip of the district at 0556619 E and 1439709 N. The
area allocated for plantation and rehabilitation are 1200 and 2500 ha, respectively. The altitude
reading of the site is 2447 masl, which is a highland and Dega agro-ecology. The physiographic
scenery is undulating terrain with a rectilinear-convex combination landform and a slope of
70%. The soil types are more of volcanic origin and are classified as phase stony Regosols on
the side slope and at a lower landscape position Cambisols and Fluvisols predominate.
Significant gullies are observed at the slope sides, indeed, an urgent action is needed to reverse
this dreadful challenge. The widespread natural vegetation are Olea africana, Dodonia
angistifolia, Accacia abyssinica, Opuntia ficus-indica, aloe, reed, Juniperus procera, Vernonia
amygdalina.
Whereas, the planted trees and shrubs include Eucalyptus globulus, E.
camaldulensis, A. decurrense, A. saligna, Rhamnus prenoides, Leucaena leucocephala, Tree
lucerne, Sesbania sesban and apple trees. Spring water is also available in this site where an
irrigation practice is possibly undertaken.
Socio-economic conditions
About 7736 inhabitants inhabit in 1386 HH. This is an indication that there is a good number of
workforces who can participate in development activities including in private short rotation
plantation and rehabilitation of degraded lands. Although, the main economic activity is mixed
farming system by integrating irrigated vegetable production with small scale livestock
production, the community is still categorized as food insecure. Although there are on-going
massive afforestation/reforestation activities, the survival rate of the seedlings is not good due
to moisture stress and inappropriate management of seedlings..
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Development efforts and constraints
The area is known for its effort in community soil and water conservation activities. However,
the community is at standstill condition in terms of income generation and livelihood
improvement. This justifies that still the local community and authorities must do a lot in order
to harness and use the natural resources.
Plate-3: Betemara (Genji) Plantation & Rehabilitation site, Alaji district
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3.3 Wadla District
3.3.1 Shireta (027) Plantation site
Bio-physical Settings
Shireta is a site proposed for the development of plantation forest and has an area of 100
hectares and is situated at 0485473 E and 1281604 N. The site is soaring to an elevation of 2833
masl, which makes it again a highland and Dega agro-ecology. The rugged topography has a
sharp slope of 100%. The geology of the site is dominated by a tertiary volcanic where Regosols
on the side slope and Vertisols at a lower slope predominate. The steep slope coupled with a
rocky surface exacerbate soil erosion hazard. As a result, shallow soils and many and bigger
gullies are formed. Euphorbia Abyssinica, Acacia Abyssinica, and Cordia Africana are good
examples of natural vegetation whereas Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Tree lucerne, Sesbania
sesban are some of dominant planted species, which were reordered during the field visits.
However, some planted species such as Eucalyptus were wilting due to chronic shortage of
moisture. It is not uncommon to observe crossing some rivers like Zhita River, which is one of
the largest rivers in the catchment.
Socio-economic conditions
Land use practices in the site are rainfed, irrigated agriculture, plantation and livestock
production. Wheat and tef are the major crops that are cultivated during the main rainy season.
One of the major predicaments of the site is its inaccessibility. Thus, for the best use of the site,
road access is mandatory.
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Development efforts and constraints
Frequent problems in the site that prompt yield reduction and house hold level food insecurity
are frosts, livestock disease, land degradation, drought and insect pest infestation. Additionally,
inadequate courage and commitment were placed to halt the changes. Thus, in order to uplift
the communities in the site massive effort such as community S&W activities, water harvesting
technologies and reforestation and afforestion are obligatory.
Plate-4: Shireta Plantation Site View, Wadla district
3.3.2. Zugera (015) Plantation and Réhabilitation site and
Quana (016) Plantation site
Bio-physical Settings
Zugera is a site selected for both plantation and rehabilitation and Quana is allocated for
plantation only. These sites are located at 0478319 E and 1284785 N UTM and at an altitude of
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2820 masl, which make them a highland and Dega agro-ecology. They are steeply and rocky
cliffs landscape and the slope is 100%. The geology is a tertiary volcanic and a Precambrian
basement is underlying the crystalline basaltic rocks. In this site various soil types were
identified at different spots. At summit, Cambisols are predominant but at side slope and lower
positions Regosols and Vertisols were observed, respectively. Soils, particularly, at the side
slope have a shallow depth, which definitely, this property will affect species selection for short
rotation plantation. Furthermore, soil erosion particularly gully formations are aggravated in
middle slope position. Dominant natural trees and shrubs are Ficus vasta, Dodonea angustifolia,
Olea africana, Acacia abyssinica, and Cordia Africana whereas Rhamnus preminoides, Coffee
robusta, mango, banana, avocado are introduced at various times. Specifically, Coffee robusta,
mango, banana and avocado are now performing well and become promising cash crops at the
lower slope position where Vertisols and adequate water are available. River Zhita is the major
water source for this site, although, appropriate water harvesting technology and water
management techniques is a prerequisite to sustainably use the River and solve the all-time
pressing water issue.
Socio-economic conditions
A mixed farming system of rain-fed and irrigated agriculture is practiced as a dominant source
income. In this regard, wheat and Teff are grown widely. One of the major pressing issues in
this site is its nature of inaccessibility. Thus, in order to unveil the potential of the site access
road and other relevant infrastructure is mandatory.
Development efforts and constraints
Livestock disease, land degradation, drought, insect pest infestation, low agricultural yield,
inadequate soil and water conservation structures and lack of their maintenance are some of
the challenges that the local community are facing.
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Plate-5: Quana Plantation & Rehabilitation Site View, Wadla district
3.4 Meket District
3.4.1 Jirele (020) Akat (022) Plantation sites
Biophysical Settings
Jirele and Akat sites are proposed for plantation purposes. The proposed sites were chosen in
consultation amongst the Kebele leaders, experts from the District Agricultural Office and other
relevant stakeholders. Basically, the proposed plantation sites are located in Tekeze watershed
broadly at Meket District, North Wollo, Amhara region at UTM of 0478319 E-1284785 N. The
sites have an altitude of 2813 m.a.s.l with a slope ranging from 50-80%. The mean annual
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rainfall is 800 mm. The sites are extremely affected by a structural movement and the
topography is extremely rugged. Massive crystalline rocks outcrop to the surface over vast
areas. Parent materials include Tertiary and Quaternary volcanic and colluvial from the highland
plateau. Dominantly, the soil types are Cambisol-Regosol-Vertisol along the gradient.
Accelerated erosion and extreme stoniness are major features of the sites. Dominant natural
veg. Hypericum, Dodonea viscosa, Carisa spinarum, Rosa abyssinica, Maytenus sp., Dombeya
torrida, Dovyalis abyssinica, Embus, Juniperus procera, Planted: Eucalyptus globulus, E.
camaldulensis
Socio-economic Condition
The total coverage and inhabitants of the sites are 1200 ha and 982 HH with a population of
5532, respectively. The proposed plantation sites embrace Dega, Weyna Dega and Kola
agroecological zones. Major land uses of the sites are mixed crop livestock farming, irrigation
and plantation. Barley, wheat, flax, potato, bean, and pea are the major crops grown in these
sites. Plantation, natural forest, livestock, irrigated agriculture. In spite of huge resource
availability the farming community of the sites are food insecure and depends on aid largely.
Constraints and Development Efforts
The major constraints of the sites are recorded as hail, land degradation, soil nutrient depletion, soil
erosion, shallow soil depth. In order to halt the constraints massive community effort has been placed
such as reforestation, soil and water conservation activities and zero grazing. Introducing of zero grazing
is a promising and an innovation venture, which will assist in reducing soil compaction and all other
consequences. Nevertheless the survival rate of the planted seedlings is discouraging. This could be
mainly due to the inappropriate size of the polythene tube, use of poor quality seeds and seedlings and
the substrate used to fill the polythene tubes. In addition, chronic shortage of water during the dry
seasons and lack proper tree management exacerbated the predicaments. Furthermore, the sites need
suitable soil and water conservation structure in order to combat gully formation and reduce the slope
length so that more soil and water can be conserved to enhance survival rate of seedlings.
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Plate-6: Jirele and Akat Plantation Site View, Mekit district
3.4.2 Debko (026) Aydefer (027) Rehabilitation site
Biophysical Settings
Debko and Aydefer sites are proposed for rehabilitation purposes up on the agreement of the
local leadership on the matter. These sites are located at 0492275 E, 1308808 N and are
characterized by rugged topography with a slope of 35% and an altitude of 2016 m.a.s.l. The
soils of these sites developed almost exclusively on trap series volcanics. The soils are generally
stony phase of Cambisols and Fluvisols predominate at flatter land form. Side slopes of the
sites ate intensively cultivated, which caused severe erosion and depletion of nutrients. The
dominant natural vegetations are Euclea shimperi, aloes, Euphorbia triculli, Dodonea viscose
and amongst the planted ones Eucalyptus globulus, E. camaldulensis Predominate.
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Socio-economic Conditions
The major land uses in these sites are rain fed and irrigated agriculture and livestock
production. Furthermore, stone quarrying is an active venture to generate revenue in these
sites, which is actually aggravate soil erosion in particular and land degradation in general.
Constraints and Development Efforts
Hail, land degradation, rockiness, low soil fertility, soil erosion and termites are major constraints
identified locally. In response, through mobilization of the community in these sites to reverse land
degradation such as massive plantation effort, enforcing zero grazing and practicing of soil and water
conservation activities. Beside, the existing community Nursery needs upgrading so that it can serve as
sources good quality and quantity of seedlings. Among the many causes for enormous failure of the
transplanted seedlings are lack of moisture availability and absent plan for proper forest management.
The sites are inaccessible, hence; access road to the site should be constructed.
Plate-7: Debko and Aydefer Plantation & Rehabilitation Site View, Meket district
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3.5 Delanta District
3.5.1 Mekelet
Biophysical Settings
Delanta is one of the northern Wollo districts where rainfed agriculture is unsuccessful due to
recurrent drought. Drought is recurring once in four years time. In connection to the present
study Mekelet Kebele is selected both for plantation and rehabilitation purposes. The
plantation site is named as Zeselassie and Abunay is the place where rehabilitation of degraded
lands will be implemented. Basically, Mekelet is found in Delanta 0535266 E, 1298660 N at
3320 m.a.s.l. The mean annual rainfall is 900 mm. agro-ecologically; the sites are categorized as
Dega. The Belg season of the sites commence in the months of November and December and
extends to the month of June. Dominant soil types of the two sites are Fluvisols, which has
been derived from volcanic activities. The physiography of the area was shaped due to
denudational and depositional processes. The landform is mainly rectilinear- concave
combination. Termite is a problem in some parts of the sites. Major land uses of the sites are
mixed crop and livestock farming, irrigated agriculture and plantations. Natural vegetation of
the sites are Asta, Amcha, and Koso. Planted vegetations are dominated by Eucalyptus spp.,
tree Lucerne, Juniperous and apples. Community Nursery is available.
Socio-economic Conditions
The number of household in Mekelet is 650, where 4490 people are expected to inhabit
currently. Rainfed and irrigated agriculture, forest plantations of Eucalyptus globulus and
Cuppresus lusitanica, and livestock production are major land use activities.
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Constraints and Development Effort
Fundamental impediments in Mekelet site, which encumber the growth and development, are
recurrent drought, frost, inadequate food and feed, moisture availability, biodiversity losses,
land degradation and inaccessibility. The community is committed to halt these predicaments
through implementing hillside and stone bund terrace and plantation. Chronic food shortage,
dependent on food aid, no endorsed bylaw on grazing management, lack of animal fodder,
apple production possible but training essential.
Plate-8: Mekelet Plantation & Rehabilitation Site View, Delanta district
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Plate-9: Abunay Plantation Site View, Delanta district
3.6 Dessie Zuria
3.6.1 Gelsha Bukasa and Haroye
Biophysical Settings
Dessie Zuria is one of the most vulnerable and food insecure districts of Southern Wollo. This
district embraces 17 Kebeles with a total population of well over 175 000. This district entails 4
distinct agro ecologies, i.e., Kola, Woynadega, Dega and Frost where all these are confined to
the altitude range of below 1650 to over 3500 m.a.s.l. For the intended project, three Kebels
are proposed, namely Gelsh Bukasa and Haroye for plantation and Atnt Ber for rehabilitation.
The coverage of the plantation and rehabilitation sites is 1200 and 1600 ha, respectively. The
diversity and density of vegetation in the impending project sites are varying over time. There
was a speculation that 14 indigenous species were known longtime ago but now only few
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Alpine species such as Amcha, Asta and Megera are left sporadically. Eculyptus spp. remains
most preferred planted trees on which the local people do heavily depend on it for revenue
generation. Natural grasses such as Guasa are also common in these sites. The dominant soil
types at the crest are Umbrisols but Leptsols, Fluvisols and Vertsiols are common at mid and
lower slope positions. Frequent land use practices in these sites are dominantly plantation for
timber production, livestock and cultivation. However, farmers don’t prefer cultivation these
days as rainfall distribution in the district is unreliable and unpredictable. Consequently, there is
an indication of shifting from rainfed agriculture to livestock production and plantation. In the
nearby sites, there are five Nurseries where they supply seedlings. However, the seedlings
raised are mediocre due mainly to shortage and substandard quality of seeds. The sites are outof-the-way and far-flung.
Socio-economic Conditions
Gelsha and Hroye are drought prone areas where agricultural productivity declines drastically.
As a result farmers have gradually shifted to livestock production and plantation as sources of
income. Gelsh site has been enclosed for use for over three years. Consequently, there is a
good sign of regeneration of grasses. Use of improved sheep and dairy cattle breeds will
significantly improve the lives of the small holding farmers. During the field visit, it was also
observed that the site has sufficient water resources both from rain and ground water sources.
Good number of water ponds must be constructed in order to permanently alleviate the
chronic water shortage, which is experienced there. Temperate fruit such as apples, pear and
etc. can be candidate fruits that can improve the livelihood of the farmers in the shortest
possible ways.
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Constraints and Development Efforts
The major predicaments of this district in general and the impending sites in particular are
shortage of water, frost, soil acidity, shallow soil depth, deforestation and severe land
degradation. As the result, the farming community hugely depends on year round foreign aid.
Plate-10: Galesha Plantation & Rehabilitation Site View, Dese Zuria
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Plate-11: Hroye Rehabilitation Site View, Desie Zuria
3.7 Sodo district (Gurage zone)
3.7.1 Amawte plantation site
Bio-physical settings
Amawte is a site allotted for plantation and is estimated to be about 1500 hectares and bears
the highest elevation of 3040 masl at its peak which gives it a highland ecology. The site has a
bi-modal rainfall with mean annual rainfall of 1021.7 mm and bears a maximum temperature of
25.4 oC and a minimum temperature of 8.6 oC. The physiographic setting having an average
slope of 25% and is featured with undulating pasture land dominated by grass species, Cynodon
dactylon. The parent material of the area is granite which resulted in Leptosols with acidic
nature. The natural vegetation is dominated by Juniperus procera and Arundinaria alpina and
the artificial regeneration has given rise to trees like Eucalyptus globulus and Grevillea robusta.
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Socio-economic conditions
Mixed agriculture is the major economic activity of the area where barley, wheat, pea, bean
and enset predominate. It is observed that controlled grazing is in place where cattle are used
to be tied in the middle of the pasture and graze within the radius of the rope and as the grass
is completely grazed then the rope is elongated through time for the cattle to reach the grass.
In such a way the farmers have a tradition of rotational grazing practice as a coping mechanism
to overcome feed shortages and increase grazing efficiency. Seedlings of tree species such as
Juniperus procera and Acacia decurrens, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and
Grevillea robusta, Malus domestica, Mangifera indica, Persia americana, Rhamnus prenoides
are raised in a governmental and community nursery in the area and are distributed and
planted, accordingly.
Development efforts and constraints
Although there are some efforts of soil and water conservation practices through community
participation, land degradation on communal lands remain a series challenge
due to
overstocking and lack of proper animal husbandry. Incidences such as runoff and water erosion
have also brought sedimentation problems. Low seedling survival rate is observed due to
inappropriate transport system and lack of adequate post planting management measures. Pest
infestation of Mole rat is widely observed in the plantation field. In addition occasional
infestation of bacterial wilt on enset crop has also been identified as a development constraint.
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Plate-12: Amawte Plantation Site View, Sodo district
3.7.2 Lower Meki Rehabilitation Site
Bio-physical Setting
Lower Meki is a site with heavily degraded landscape that is found within the Meki watershed
delineated for rehabilitation, and is located at the north-west of Sodo district. It has an
elevation of 1700 masl, which is categorized as a mid-altitude ecology. Meki river is crossing the
watershed and has a potential for irrigation. Meki river is tributary to the Blate river.
Fluvisols/Alluvial soils are the dominant soil types in the area. The area is known as a droughtprone and is assisted by safety net programs. The natural regeneration is dominated by Cordia
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africana, Acacia seyal, Acacia albida, Balanites aegyptiaca, and Acacia tortilis. Artificial
regeneration has given rise to trees like Melia azedarach, Moringa stenopetala, Grevillea
robusta, Olea africana, Eucalyptus camaldulnesis, Cordia africana, and Dovyalis abyssinica.
Socio-economic conditions
There is irrigated farm activity at the river bank where vegetables and onions are cultivated for
the local market. The local youth were seen to have irrigation pumps to lift the water from the
river and apply surface flood irrigation. The perennial river has crucial importance as drinking
water both for animals and local settlers. A gravel road crosses the area extending from
woreda capital Buee to Meki town of Oromia region. There is also a tree nursery which has the
potential to produce seedlings required for planting.
Development efforts and constraints
Efforts of rehabilitation and ex-closure have already been effectuated at the upper catchment
with some parts of the degraded land has also been rehabilitated with stone bunds.
Enrichment plantings with Acacia saligna and Grevillea robusta have impressively shown a
good performance.
28
Plate 13: Rehabilitation Site View at Lower Meki , Sodo, district
3.8. Lemo district (Hadiya Zone)
3.8.1 Hayse kebele plantation and rehabilitation site
Bio-physical settings
Hayse is chosen both for the development of plantation forest and rehabilitation purpose with
an area coverage of 100 hectares and elevation of 2212 masl, which makes it a highland
ecology. It has mean annual rain fall ranging from 900 - 1400mm. The site is in Lemo district and
bordered by Ajo plantation and rehabilitation site at Anlemo and Shashigo districts. The
physiographic setting is slopping pasture land with river valley bearing an average slope of 15%.
Andosols is the dominant soil type with andic properties. There is all Season River called Gudera
29
crossing the watershed. The natural vegetation is dominated by Juniperus procera, Podocapus
falcatus, Cordia africana, Olea africana, Carissa edulis (Agam) and the artificial regeneration
has given rise to trees like Cupressus lusitanica, Eucalyptus globulus, and Eucalyptus
camaldulensis.
Socio-economic conditions
Lemo district, by and large, is one of the densely populated districts of Hadiya zone with an
average of population of 426/km2 and 5.4 average family size. An access road is reaching to the
plantation site. Agriculture is the main stay of the area growing wheat, teff, sugarcane, and
enset. The kebele has livestock population of 3045.
Development efforts and constraints
A watershed development based tree planting and rehabilitation is already underway with
public participation. About 20,000 seedlings of tree species like Grevillea robusta, Cupressus
lusitanica, and Juniperus procera have already planted on the previously degraded pasture land.
It is reported that seedlings have been brought from Wondo Genet College of . The area has
been ex-closed from human and animal encroachment. The local community is recognized as a
model community for such kinds of development efforts However, the area is still suffering
from soil erosion and gully formations. Water shortage is the prime problem in the area.
Eucalyptus plantations are also being attacked by leaf spots and fungal canker due to which
coppicing of harvested stands has been constrained.
30
Plate 14: Hayse Kebele Plantation and Rehabilitation Site View, Lemo district
3.8.2 Ajo rehabilitation and plantation site
Bio-physical Settings
Ajo is a site with an area coverage of greater than 2000 hectares where the upper catchment is
severely degraded and mainly planned for rehabilitation, whereas the lower catchment is found
to be suitable for plantation. The highest elevation of the site is 2114 masl, which is assumed a
mid altitude ecology. The upper catchment is dominantly rocky whereas the bottom is having
Fluvisols. The natural vegetation of the degraded area is dominated Dodonia viscosa and aloe
species. However, scattered Ficus vasta trees are observed in the bottom valley. Moreover, the
presence of Ficus vasta is an indicator for the availability of ground water in the area.
Therefore, exploration of ground water may be feasible for irrigation of the valley bottom. It
31
was also observed that the nearby Lake Boyo, in the vicinity of the project site, can be used as
additional source of irrigation water.
Socio-economic conditions
Ajo kebele is one of food insecure kebeles where recurrent drought affects. Currently some
608 beneficiaries of productive safety net program are found in the kebele. In order to support
development endeavors, it was observed that all weather road crosses the site. The site also
has a community nursery at the lower catchment.
Development efforts and constraints
Although the site is known for its high productivity at its foot slopes, improper land
management, soil erosion, erratic and inadequate rainfall are the cause for lowering
agricultural productivity. At the upper catchment massive community mobilization such as
trenches digging, area closure, etc., as land rehabilitation approach were implemented in order
to avert the land degradation. Besides, so as to widely engage the community in nature
conservation and afforestation awareness was created constantly at different levels through
the extension services.
Plate 15: Ajo Rehabilitation and Plantation Site View, Lemo district
32
3.9 Mirab Abaya district (Gamo Gofa zone)
3.9.1 Shafe watershed (selected for both plantation and
rehabilitation)
Bio-physical settings
Shafe watershed is located in Mirab Abaya (Lat 60 11''N - 60 51"N and Long 370 58" E - 370 98"
E). The watershed consisting three sub-watersheds has an altitude ranging from 1400 to over
2700masl. The project area covers about 1700 hectares and is allocated for both plantation and
rehabilitation. The watershed is characterized by undulating topography with a degraded
landscape that drains to Shafe river, which ends up in Lake Abaya. The soil catena of the
watershed along the gradient of the slope is dominated by sequence of Cambisols, Luvisols and
Fluvisols. The area has a bi-modal rainfall pattern and means annual temperature of 240C. The
natural vegetation is dominated by Dodonea viscosa, Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus,
Terminalia brownii, Juniperus procera, Ficus vasta, Trchilia emetica/dregena, Acacia polycantha,
Prunus africana. The artificial regeneration is composed of tree species such as Eucalyptus
camadulensis, Cupressus lusitanica and Grevillea robusta. The lower boundary of the watershed
is covered by Balanites aegyptiaca and Terminalia brownii dominated woodland.
Socio-economic conditions
Although agriculture is the dominant economic activity, it is observed that productivity is
declining and most of the area is found to be marginal for crop production. As a result, the local
community is food insecure and is being supported by productive safety net program. However,
the local community being aware of the problem of deforestation and land degradation is
committed to change the current situation. The area has the potential for forest production and
there are already three community tree nurseries in place. There is a handicraft experience of
molding and making clay pots, a tradition which under proper training and financial support can
33
be used for producing energy efficient stoves thereby can reduce pressure on the nearby
woodland. The woodland at the bottom of the watershed is an open access and is exposed to
encroachment i.e. wood extraction and free grazing. The scattered settlements in the
watershed threaten the woodlands.
Development efforts and constraints
Development efforts are scanty; however, there are some encouraging activities such as soil
conservation, establishment of community nurseries and traditional pottery skills.
Development constraints in the area include runoff, gullies, siltation, nutrient depletion, crop
productivity decline, total deforestation of the watershed and absence of all weather road,
which altogether pose poverty and food insecurity.
Plate 16: Shafe Plantation and Rehabilitation Site View, Mirab Abaya district
34
Chapter 4
Propositions for Rehabilitating Degraded Sites
The factors influencing soil erosion and land degradation are multiple and mutually reinforcing.
It is widely agreed that the massive removal of vegetative cover is one of the driving forces
behind land degradation. This loss is largely due to an expanding population, with its increasing
demand for crops, grazing land, and fuel wood. The most important countermeasures taken to
halt this process have been plantation of trees and assisted natural regeneration by excluding
human and animal interference to achieve social, environmental and economic benefits.
Although there are some shortcomings, there are some success stories in this regard in Tigray
and some parts of Amhara regions where local communities, specially organized landless youth
and women, are engaged in such activities and are driving the environmental and economic
benefits from them.
This chapter provides proposed restoration and rehabilitation interventions for selected
degraded sites based on the findings of the survey with the aim to improve their productivity
and enhance their ecosystem services.
4.1. Proposed interventions for rehabilitation of
degraded lands in Endamehoni District
4.1.1. Menkere Rehabilitation Site
As it has already been indicated in chapter three, there is already an on-going effort of
rehabilitation of degraded lands in Menkere with community participation. The only thing
needed is to reinforce and consolidate the on-going effort with additional and improved
35
measures. It will be very important to establish ecological corridors and connect the already
established patches of Olea Africana and Juniperus procera forests through integration of
additional economically and environmentally significant trees and shrubs. These corridors form
interconnections of isolated systems, which facilitate an easy movement of genetic material,
minimize inbreeding and broaden the gene pool of the entire system. Tree species such as Ficus
thonningi, Ziziphus spina-christi, and Acacia abyssinica are better to be considered during
enrichment planting. Tree planting can be combined with broadcasting of native flora
combined with seed treatment to enhance species richness, density and average height and
growth of seedlings. Prior to planting, constructing in situ water harvesting structures such as
ponds, trenches, and micro basins has been identified as the best option to enhance water
availability and thereby improve survival of seedlings. An access road that could connect the
site with the main road is also crucial to ease close monitoring and follow-up of the
rehabilitation activity and to transport forest products to the nearby market. A management
plan and a local bylaw need to be in place if sustainability and effectiveness of the ex-closure is
sought. Participation of different socioeconomic groups aggregated by income, age and sex etc.
is recommended. Performance based benefit sharing mechanism should be in place to assure
equity and accountability. It is also suggested that implementing various site-specific postplanting cares is vital to enhance the survival and growth of planted seedlings. Moreover,
introducing carbon trading schemes and ecotourism were suggested as opportunities to
increase economic incentives to realize sustainable management of enclosures.
4.2. Proposed interventions for degraded sites in Alaje
District
4.2.1. Betmera (Genji) Rehabilitation Site
A vast area (i.e., 2500 hectares) is allocated at Betemera for rehabilitation purpose and this
displays a commitment from the side of the local community and the local administration to
36
change their environment. The trend of producing and planting weak seedlings must be
avoided and healthy, viable, and sturdy seedlings need to be targeted and the already available
Adugra Nursery with 2 hectares size can be renovated and strengthened for this purpose. Here,
both ex-closures and agro-forestry interventions can be considered. Integration of trees,
shrubs, and fruits like Rhamnus prenoides, apple, Vernonia amygdalina, Popular, Cordia
africana, Ficus thunningi, Sesbania sp., Acacia abyssinica can be considered in farm lands and
homesteads. The communal degraded landscapes can be considered for ex-closures and
enrichment planting with Grevillea robusta, Juniperus procera, Accacia decurrense, and Accacia
saligna, can be taken into account. The prevailing problem of gully formation need to be
tackled through gully reclamation measures such as gabion and stone check dams. Soil
moisture retention structures such as deep trench and series of ponds need to be targeted for
improving the survival of planted seedlings. The management and bylaws recommended for
Menkere is also applicable for Betemera.
4.3. Proposed interventions for degraded sites in Wadla
district
4.3.1. Shireta (027) Rehabilitation Site
Shireta was initially proposed for plantation. However, the physiographic disposition of the area
combined with its shallow soil depth and rockiness makes it difficult for plantation and pose soil
erosion and gully formations. Some of the planted Eucalyptus trees that have been observed
during the field work has already been drying and dying due to the above mentioned reasons.
Unless the area allotted for plantation is extended down to the valley where there are relatively
plain lands, it is very difficult to recommend this site for plantation and the site should be
allocated for rehabilitation. Therefore, the steep slopes can be considered for ex-closure with in
situ water harvesting structures and soil conservation structures like bench terraces and gully
rehabilitation measures need to be considered.
37
4.3.2. Zugera (015) Rehabilitation Site
Zugera is almost similar to Shireta as far as topography, climate, and soil types are considered.
Here, a combination of area closure and agroforestry is recommended. Integration of trees,
shrubs, and fruits like coffee rubusta, coffee shade trees, Casuarina equisetifolia, Rhamnus
prinoides, Persea americana, Mgnifera indica, banana, Populus species can be considered in
farm lands and homesteads. The communal degraded landscapes can be considered for exclosures and enrichment planting with Cordia Africana, Olea Africana, Dodonia viscosa,
Grevillea robusta, Juniperus procera, Accacia decurrense, and Acacia saligna, can be taken into
account. The prevailing problem of gully formation need to be tackled through gully
reclamation measures such as gabion and stone check dams. Soil moisture retention structures
such as deep trench and series of ponds need to be targeted for improving the survival of
planted seedlings. The management and bylaws recommended for other sites are also
applicable for Zugera. An access road that could connect the site with the main road is also
crucial to ease close monitoring and follow-up of the rehabilitation activity and to transport
forest products to the nearby market.
4.4. Proposed interventions for degraded sites in Meket
district
4.4.1. Debko (026) and Aydefer (027) Rehabilitation site
There are already success stories in this area. The on-going watershed development and
pasture management efforts are encouraging and what required is to further consolidate and
strengthen these endeavors. The banning of post-harvest free grazing and the installment of
stall feeding is a breakthrough for better seedling survival and sustainability of afforestation
and reforestation activities. The already existing ex-closures need to be enriched with tree
38
species such as Cordia africana, Casuarina equsetifolia, Acacia saligna. The already available
nursery need to renovated and strengthened. The prevailing problem of gully formations need
to be tackled through gully reclamation measures such as gabion and stone check dams. Soil
moisture retention structures such as deep trench and series of ponds need to be targeted for
improving the survival of planted seedlings. The management and bylaws recommended for
other sites are also applicable for Debko and Aydefer. An access road that could connect the
site with the main road is also crucial to ease close monitoring and follow-up of the
rehabilitation activity and to transport forest products to the nearby market.
4.5 Proposed interventions for Delanta district
As the area is heavily degraded and is frequently drought stricken, other options of livelihood
that can improve the wellbeing of the local community and enhance environmental resilience
need to be considered. In this regard, aforestation and fruit production need to be considered
through implementing holistic rehabilitation activities. The first and foremost rehabilitation
activity should come first is exclusion of human and animal encroachments from the delineated
rehabilitation site. Then, the already commenced soil and water conservation need to be
consolidated and water harvesting activities should be intensified. Bench terraces, hillside
terraces, trenches, ponds, and micro-basins should be in place in order to capture the run-off
for growing seedlings. As the area has an alpine climate, tree and shrub species that are to be
considered for enrichment plantings should be cool climate and frost resistant. Alpine
vegetations such pine, Hagenia abysinica, Erica arborea and Hypericum revolutum can be
considered and fodder trees like Tree lucerne and apple can be considered in farmlands and
around the homesteads.
39
4.6 Proposed interventions for Atint mesberia degraded
site in Dessie Zuria district
The area allocated for rehabilitation is about 1600 hectares and the area can be categorized as
a sub-alpine ecological zone. Here, both area ex-closure and agro forestry interventions can be
considered to support and improve the livelihood of the local community and to enhance
environmental resilience. Fodder trees like Tree lucerne and apple can be considered in
farmlands and around the homesteads. Alpine vegetations such as Pine, cedar, Erica arborea
and Hypericum revolutum can be considered along with in situ water harvesting structures.
4.7 Proposed interventions for Lower Meki degraded
site, Sodo district
Gully reclamation measures should be considered to heal the existing gully networks with
conservation trees such as, Acacia saligna and Acacia tortilis. Grevillea robusta and Acacia
saligna in integration with water harvesting structures such as series of stone bunds, trenches,
and micro-basins are recommended. Furthermore, mulching and compost application are
important to improve seedling survival and growth rate at this moisture stressed environment.
Moreover, a detailed survey and feasibility study should be carried out in order to assess the
suitability of the site for irrigation along the Meki river bank to expand the existing
horticultural activity with fruit trees such as guava, papaya, and mango. Income diversification
to local community can be brought through integration of apiculture into the area closure.
40
4.8 Proposed interventions for Lemo district
4.8.1 Proposed interventions for Hayse degraded site, Lemo
district
As an effort to mitigate moisture stress, trenches on the degraded land and other water
harvesting structures in combination with stone-faced soil bunds are found to be essential.
Direct sowing of Accacia decurrens and planting of deep rooted trees such as Grevillea robusta,
need to be considered.
4.8.2 Proposed interventions for Ajo degraded site (Lemo,
Anlemo and Shashigo districts)
Rehabilitation activities for the upper catchment such as spot planting of tree species by digging
planting holes/micro basins on the hardened rocky hill along with placing fertile soil and
compost. Owing to the availability of huge biomass like bushy plants compost preparation is
feasible in appropriate localities for supporting tree establishment.
The candidate tree species for rehabilitation are Dodonea viscosa, Acacia decurrens, Acacia
saligna, and Ficus thonningi. These species are recommended to meet the dire needs for forage
and in order to combat land degradation. So as to make the development interventions
successful, the area needs to be gazetted and free grazing needs to be prohibited. Thus, along
the boundary between the plantation and the agricultural land, a fodder bank must be
established with fodder trees including Leucaena leucocephala, Celtis africana, and Ficus
thonningi.
41
4.9 Proposed interventions for Shafe degraded site
(Mirab Abaya District)
Soil and water conservation interventions are indispensible that include hillside terraces,
contour bunds, trenches and runoff diversion channels; and these must be in place prior to
rehabilitation and plantation endeavors. Gully reclamation measures such as check dams and
embankment plantings with suitable trees such as Acacia saligna, Oxythenantera abyssinica,
Acacia decurrens, Erythrina brucei and grasses (desho, etc.) are also pertinent.
42
43
Table 1: Tree species selected for rehabilitation of degraded lands and their ecological and management requirements
No.
Tree species
Elevation
Slope
Rainfall
Ecological and Management Requirements
Propagation Browse
Soil depth frost
technique
tolerance
1
Ficus thunningii
1600-2300
<50%
900-1400
<100 cm
Not
resistant
Not
resistant
cuttings
<100 cm
Not
resistant
seedlings
Browse
species
Palatable for
goat and
camel
Less browse
3
Ziziphus spina-cristi
0-2200
<50%
<250-500
<100 cm
4
Grevillea robusta
1500-2700
<50%
900-1400
5
Acacia decurrense
1600-3000
<50%
>900
>100 cm
Not
resistant
Seedling
Browsable
6
Acacia melanoxylon
1600-3000
<50%
>900
<100
resistant
seedling
Not browsable
8
Albizia amara
<2400
<75%
<700
<100
not
browsable
Olea Africana
<1500-2400
<50%
>900
<100
>1600
<80%
>500
<100
11
Dodonaea
viscosa/angustifolia
Acacia saligna
Not
resistant
Resistant
1000-2400
<80%
>500
<100
Seedling,
wildings
Seedlings,
wildings
Seedlings,
wildings
seedlings
9
10
12
Casurina equistifolia
500-2800
<80%
400-1400
>100
seedlings
Not browsable
Non
resistant
Not
resistant
Seedlings,
cuttings
Non
browsable
Not browsable
browsable
Source: Azene Bekele-Tesema, Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia, identification, propagation, and management for 17 agroclimatical zones, 2007, RELMA/ICRAF, Nairobi, kenya.
44
Use
Animal fodder
Edible fruit,
fodder
Bee forage
Fuel, timber,
Windbreak &
SWC
Fire wood,
charcoal, bee
forage
Timber, fire
wood, charcoal
Bee forage,
Timber, medicinal
SWC, fire wood,
live fence
Fodder, SWC, Nfixing
Timber, N-fixing
plant, fuel wood
Table 2: Ecological and bio-physical conditions of sites selected for rehabilitation
Ecological and bio-physical conditions
Districts
sites
Elevation
(masl)
Mean
Annual
Rainfall
(mm)
Endamehoni
Menkere
2423
700
Alaje
Betmera
(Genji)
2447
Wadla
027Shireta
Mean Annual
Temperature
(oc)
Soil depth
(cm)
Natural vegetation
Planted trees/shrubs
70%
<100cm
Albizia amara, Acacia abayssinica Opuntia
ficus-indica, aloes, reed, Juniperus
procera, Euclea shimperi, Dodonea
viscosa, Olea Africana
Eucalyptus globulus,
<700
70%
<100cm
Olea africana, Dodonia angistifolia,
Accacia abyssinica, Opuntia ficus-indica,
aloe, reed, Juniperus procera, Vernonia
amygdalina
Eucalyptus globulus, E.
camaldulensis, A.decurrense, A.
saligna, Rhamnus prenoides,
Leucaena leucocephala, Tree lucerne,
Sesbania sesban, and fruit tree like
apple.
2833
900-1300
75%
<100cm
Euphorbia Abyssinica, Acacia Abyssinica,
and Cordia Africana
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Tree
lucerne, Sesbania sesban
015
(Zugera)
2820
800-1200
75%
<100cm
Ficus vasta, Dodonea angustifolia, Olea
africana, Acacia abyssinica, and Cordia
Africana
Rhamnus preminoides, Coffee
robusta, mango, banana, avocado
Meket
026
(Debko)
and 027
(Aydefer)
2813 –
2000
800
50-80%
<100cm
Euclea shimperi, aloes, Euphorbia triculli,
Dodonea viscosa,
Euclea shimperi, Dodonia viscosa,
Adinsonia digitata, Euphorbia triculli,
cordia africana
Dessie Zuria
Atintmesb
eria
1650-3500
45
18
Slope
(%)
Erica arborea, Hypericum revolutum,
Megera
Eucalyptus globulus, Treelucerene,
Hagenia abyssinica, Hypericum
revolutum
Table 3: Site suitability for tree species
Selected sites for rehabilitation
No.
Tree species
Menkere
(Endamehoni)
Betmera (Genji)
(Alaje)
Shireta (027)
(Wadila)
Zugera (015)
(Wadila)
Debko (026) and
Aydefer (027 )
Atintmesberia
(Dessie Zuria)
(Meket)
1
Ficus thunningii
S1
S1
S2
S2
S2
S3
3
Ziziphus spina-cristi
S2
S2
S3
S3
S2
S3
4
Grevillea robusta
S2
S2
S3
S3
S2
S2
5
Acacia decurrense
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
6
Acacia melanoxylon S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
8
Albizia amara
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2
S1
9
Olea Africana
S1
S1
S2
S2
S3
S2
10
Dodonaea
S1
viscosa/angustifolia
Accacia saligna
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2
Casuarina
equistifolia
Sesbania sesban
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
Chamacytesus
palmensis (Tree
S3
S3
S2
S1
S1
S1
11
12
13
14
46
15
16
lucern
Dombeya
torrida(Wolkefa)
Acacia abyssinica
S3
S3
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
Table 4: Trees/shrubs proposed for gully reclamation and river bank fixation across all sites
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Tree/shrub species
Populus tremiloides
Reeds
Elephant grass
Erythrina species
Salix subserrata
Desho grass
Euphorbia triculli
Acacia saligna
Dodonea species
Vetiver
Aloe species
Sisal
Cactus
Ficus thunnungii
47
Physical measures to be integrated
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Ecology
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Chapter 5
Development of short rotation forest plantations
5.1 Introduction
Short rotation forest plantation development is essential to produce renewable and CO2 neutral
biomass as a clean source of fuel, chemicals and materials, and the potential biomass species
include several eucalyptus species, which are suitable for fuel and charcoal production, pulp
and paper manufacturing, and sawn wood (Rockwood et al., 2008). Eucalyptus is the most
valuable and widely planted hardwood in the world, and E. grandis, E. urophylla, E.
camaldulensis, and E. globulus, account for about 80% of the eucalypt plantations worldwide
(Rockwood et al., 2008). In Ethiopia, Eucalyptus spp. constitute 56% of the forest plantations
(Bekele, 2011), and the promising and well-adapted eucalypts for use in short rotation
plantations are E. globulus, E. camaldulensis, E. grandis and E. saligna.
The other species of interest for short rotation forestry globally besides eucalypts include
Populus spp., Salix spp., Australian Acacia spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Gmelina arborea,
Prosopis spp., Paulownia spp., Casurina spp., bamboos, Melia azedarach, Cordia spp. and
Cupressus spp. In Ethiopian case, the fast growing indigenous trees, Cordia africana and Acacia
tortilis and the well adapted and widely growing exotic tree species, Casuarina equsetifolia,
Melia azedarach, Cuppresus lusitanica and Acacia decurrens, the lesser known but well adapted
introduced tree species, Cordia alliodora, Populus spp., Cuppresus torulosa and Gmelina
arborea, as well as the bamboos (Oxythenantera abyssinica & Arudinaria alpina) and a number
of other fast growing tree species can be considered.
48
Farmers in Ethiopia practice short rotation management on copping tree species ranging from
2-3 years for fuelwood, 4-5 years for short poles, and 7-9 years for telegraph poles (Bekele,
2011).
The plantation sites identified and made available for establishment of plantations in both
Tigray and Amhara are communal, degraded sites with very steep (over 50-100% slope) with
undulating features characterized by rocky nature with shallow soils. Hence the sites require
bench terracing, gully stabilization and when possible addition of soil from elsewhere. In
addition, the areas are characterized by very unreliable short rains in spring and longer but
erratic rains in summer, and the mean annual rainfall is generally below 900. Most of the areas
fall in the dry Afromontane forest and grassland ecosystem complex ecosystems, which are
found between (1600)-1900-3300 m altitude, whereas the Delanta and Dessie Zuria sites fall
under the Afroalpine and Sub-Afroalpine ecosystems, which are found between 3200-3500 and
3500-4620 m altitudes, respectively (IBC, 2005). Whereas various remnants of characteristic
natural vegetation are observed, the plantations observed in the sites are predominantly
Eucalyptus globulus. Apart from the various natural and planted forest populations, the land
use is characterized mainly by rain-fed agriculture and livestock production in open grazing
system; however some level of irrigated agriculture and stall feeding are also practiced in some
of the woredas.
5.2 Land preparation for planting
Existing soil conservation structures need to be maintained and new ones should be
constructed. Existing structures in the areas include stone bunds, trenches, half-moon
structures, diversion channels and check dams. An additional type of conservation structure
that needs to be integrated with such type of structures is the construction of bench terraces
on a few selected contours along the gradient. A detailed and meticulous planning is needed on
the diversity and intensity of the soil conservation structures. In addition, the land preparation
49
will also include slashing of unwanted vegetation, removal of big stones and digging of standard
planting halls way before the planting season. Soil, as appropriate, and compost will be
transported to the planting sites as part of the land preparation for planting.
5.3 Tree species for short rotation forestry
Each of the sites will be classified as protection zone and production catchment. The protection
zone in a given site will be a mixed plantation with better soil and water conservation role. The
production zone will be managed for short rotation plantation development. Appropriate
Eucalyptus species and other fast growing tree species will be planted in each site in 70: 30
ratio (i.e. 70% Eucalyptus and 30% other tree species) in the lower catchment as pure stands.
Plate 17: Protection and Production Zones
50
5.4 Water Harvesting
Generally all the selected sites are dry receiving mean annual rainfall of < 900 mm, and they are
characterized by long dry seasons and erratic rainfall. Hence, water harvesting is the highest
priority exercise in order to be able to water seedlings during the dry season. In addition to the
rain, rivers and streams and ground water resources can be harnessed through various means
including developing wells and ponds.
5.5 Nursery management and seedling production
Seedling production in the selected woredas mainly targets quantity and not quality. However,
there are not enough well equipped and managed nurseries, and as a result they tend to
produce low quality, which are usually bare-rooted or produced in very small pot sizes that do
not allow vigorous seedling production. For seedlings to be able to successfully establish out in
the field in such harsh conditions, they need to have very high seedling vigour, which usually
have high root to shoot ratio, high sturdiness and good size (i.e. around 50 cm height). To
produce vigorous seedlings, the pot size should be at least 12 to 15 cm lay flat. Hurdles of
getting tree seeds of high genetic and physiological quality need to be overcome. Hence, the
right species from the appropriate seed sources/provenances should be obtained in the right
time and sown accordingly following the prescribed seed pretreatment techniques. Training on
modern seedling production systems needs to be organized to all the practioners of seedling
production in the woredas.
5.6 Stand establishment and management plan
Silivicultural calendar from land preparation to planting and tending operations need to be
worked out in detail. The first and most important task is realizing high seedling survival
through proper pit preparation several weeks before planting, seedling protection and
51
watering. The first year or two are very critical years in plantation establishment, and hence all
possible efforts need to be made to realizing high seedling survival and fast growth. The
operation plan may need to specify the period and volume of work involved in land
preparation, transport and distribution of fertilizers (P,K), planting out in the field, weeding and
cultivation, pest and disease control, fertilization, watering, harvesting and transport and reestablishment.
Table 5: Silivicultural calendar from land preparation to planting
Practices and operations per
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
year
Land preparation (clearing,
X
pitting)
Establishment and
X
maintenance of soil and
water conservation
structures
Establishment of water
X
harvesting and supply
structures
Transporting soil to micro-
X
sites with little original soil
Transporting compost &
X
mulch
Planting out (+ composting &
X
mulching)
Weeding and cultivation
X
Application of fertilizers (P, K)
X
Pest and disease control
X
Application of fertilizers (N)
Watering
Harvesting and transport
Re-establishment
52
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
5.7 Infrastructure and capacity building
The most important infrastructures need for the development of the small scale plantation in
the woredas include access road construction to facilitate both planting and harvesting,
standard nurseries, ponds and other water harvesting structures and soil and water
conservation structures. There is also a need to capacitating practitioners with knowledge and
skill in seedling production, silviculture, short rotation plantation management and water
harvesting.
5.8 Species diversification trials
The forest plantations in the woredas are dominated by Eucalyptus tree species. While this
project still predominantly employs eucalypt for the short rotation plantations, it will be
necessary to have research plots as sideline activities in which a number of fast growing
indigenous and exotic tree species will be screened in randomized complete block designs. The
survival, growth and biomass production of the species will be evaluated in these trials. The
findings from the experiments will be instrumental in guiding future diversification efforts in
short rotation plantation development endeavors.
5.9 Proposed intervention for Alaje plantation site
Alaje-Betmera (Genji) plantation site is estimated to be 1200 ha. The proposed tree species to
be planted as pure stands for production of wood are Eucalyptus globulus and E. camaldulensis
and Acacia decurrens and Cordia africana. A mixed stand composed of Rhamnus prenoides,
apple, Vernonia amygdalina, Popular, Cordia africana, Ficus thonningi, Sesbania sp. and Acacia
abyssinica will be established for watershed protection purposes. Upgrading the existing
nursery at Adugra will be necessary to produce quality seedlings. In addition, establishment and
53
maintenance of deep trench, series of ponds, check dams and gully stabilization will also be
conducted.
5.10 Proposed Interventions for Enda Mehoni
Endamehoni-Argibeda plantation site has an estimated area of over 1000 ha. Pure stands of
Eucalyptus globulus, E. camaldulensis, Acacia decurrens, Casuarina equsetifolia, Cuppresus
lusitanica and Cordia africana will be established for wood production purposes. An additional
mixed stand composed of A. decurrens, C. equsetifolia, C. lusitanica, C. africana, Vernonia
amygdalina and Ficus thonningi will be developed for watershed protection purposes. Increase
moisture availability through water harvesting and mulching will be important activities to
survival and growth. At the bottom of the plantation site, construction of access road should be
conducted. In addition series of ponds shall be constructed along with terracing structures.
5.11 Proposed Interventions for Meket
Meket-Jirele-Akat plantation site has an estimated area of xxx ha. Pure stands of Eucalyptus
globulus and E. camaldulensis will be established for wood production purposes. In addition
mixed stand composed of Acacia abyssinica, Cordia africana, Casuarina equsetifolia and
Grevillea robusta will be established for watershed protection purposes. The existing nurseries
close to the planting sites will be upgraded for quality seedling production. Construction of
access road to the site and establishment of irrigation system will also be needed.
5.12 Proposed Interventions for Wadla
Wadla-Shireta plantation site is estimated to be 100 ha. Expansion of the plantation site to the
village can make the plantation feasible, and hence further work is needed by the woreda office
to include some of the existing agricultural fields to be developed under the forest plantation.
54
Pure stands of Eucalyptus globulus, E. camaldulensis and Cordia africana are recommended to
be established as production plantations. Mixed stands of Acacia abyssinica, A. decurrens and
Juniperus procera are recommended for watershed protection purposes. Access road to the
site, irrigation infrastructure, water harvesting structures will be needed for overall upgrading
of the plantation site and its performance.
Wadla-Zugera plantation site is the second plantation site selected in the woreda, and it is
estimated to have over 1000 ha of land. Pure stands of Eucalyptus globulus, E. camaldulensis,
Casuarina equisetifolia and Populus sp. will be established for production purposes whereas
mixed stands composed of Casuarina equisetifolia, Populus sp. and Juniperus procera will be
developed for watershed protection purposes. Construction of access road to the site, irrigation
infrastructure and water harvesting structures will also be conducted.
5.13 Proposed Interventions for Delanta
Delanta -Mekelet-Entugna site is estimated to be over 629 ha. Originally, only the Mekelet site
was allocated for the project, but after the field visit, the team has recommended the inclusion
of the neighboring site in Entugna Kebele to be part of the project site. Pure stands of
Eucalyptus globulus, Hagenia abyssinica, Cuppresus lusitanica and poplar will be established for
wood production purposes and mixed stand composed of H. abyssinica, Juniperus procera, C.
lusitanica and poplar will be established for watershed protection purposes. The project will
improve the existing nurseries at Amboafaf and at Melkumecheferia. In addition, improving and
maintaining stone bunds, eyebrows, water ways and constructing bench terraces and putting in
place gully stabilization structures will be necessary.
5.14 Proposed Interventions for Dessie Zuria
Dessie Zuria-Gelsha Bukasa-Haroye plantation site has an estimated area of 1200 ha. Pure
stands of Eucalyptus globulus, E. camaldulensis and Grevillea robusta will be established at
different belts. Though there are five state nurseries in the woreda, an additional nursery needs
55
to be established at the appropriate site to supply seedlings to the plantation. At least two
more nurseries should also be upgraded for quality seedling production. Construction of ponds
is essential for watering the plantation site.
5.15 Proposed interventions for Amawte, Sodo
Integration of trees like E.viminalis, A. decurrens, A. melanoxylon, C. lusitanica, J. procera,
Arundinaria alpina, Populus spp. and Malus domestica (Apple) into the pasture land and
establishing fodder banks with tree species such as Sesbania sesban, Chamaecytisus proliferus
(tree lucern), and the local Desho grass need to be considered. Stone, gabion, and wooden
check dams in combination with planting embankments with Erythrina brucei and Desho grass
need to be considered to tackle the advancing gully formations.
5.16 Proposed interventions for Hayse, Lemo
Mulching is crucial for already planted seedlings. As an effort to mitigate moisture stress,
trenches on the pasture land and other water harvesting structures in combination with stonefaced soil bunds are found to be essential. Candidate tree species for planting are E.
camaldulnesis, C. africana, A. melanoxylon, C. equistifolia, Popular, P. gracilior, and G. robusta.
5.16.1 Proposed interventions for Ajo (Lemo, Anlemo and
Shashigo Districts)
A tree nursery for massive production of seedlings can be established at the valley bottom near
water source. At the lower catchment tree species such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Grevillea
robusta, Cordia africana, Acacia decurrens, Populus spp. and Podocarpus falcatus are
recommended for plantation. However, these tree species can be planted in the upper
56
catchment as long as the soils depth remains deeper. In addition, fruit trees like mango and
papaya can be grown provided the ground water is developed. In order to make the
development interventions successful, the area needs to be gazetted and free grazing needs to
be prohibited. Thus, along the boundary between the plantation and the agricultural land, a
fodder bank must be established with fodder trees including Leucaena leucocephala, Celtis
africana, and Ficus thonningi.
5.17 Proposed interventions for Shafe (Mirab Abaya
District)
Soil and water conservation interventions are indispensible that include hillside terraces,
contour bunds, trenches and runoff diversion channels; and these must be in place prior to
plantation endeavors. Tree plantation efforts need to consider tree species such as Eucalyptus
camaldulnesis, Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus saligna, Causarina equisetifolia, Cordia africana,
Juniperus procera, Acacia melanoxylon, Acacia decurrens, Populus spp., and Arundinaria alpina.
Fodder trees like Terminalia brownii and Celtis africana, Chamaecytisus proliferus (tree lucern)
and also edible fruit trees such as apple at the upper catchment need to be considered.
57
Table 6: Candidate short rotation plantation species
Tree species
Elevation
Slope
Rainfall
Soil
depth
Frost
tolerance
Propagation
technique
Browse
tolerance
Uses
Acacia decurrens
1600-3000
<50%
>900
>100
cm
Not resistant
Seedling
Browse
Fire wood, charcoal, bee
forage
Acacia melanoxylon
1600-3000
<60%
>900
<100
Resistant
Seedling
Not browsable
Timber, fire wood, charcoal
Arudinaria alpine
2200-3300
<50%
> 900
>100
Resistant
Seedling and
vegetative
Browsable
Furniture, fodder, soil
conservation
Casurina
equisetifolia
1000-2800
<50%
400-1400
>100
Not resistant
Seedlings
Not browsable
Timber, N-fixing plant, fuel
wood
Cordia Africana
900-2500
<50%
<900->1400
>100
Not resistant
Seedlings
Browsable
Timber, fodder, firewood
Cuppresus lusitanica
1500-3000
<50%
<900->1400
> 100
Resistant
Seedlings
Not browsable
Timber, windbreak,
E. globulus
1700-2800
<80%
<900->1400
<100
Resistant
Seedlings/coppice
Not browsable
Timber, poles, firewood
E. grandis
1700-2500
<80%
>900
<100
Resistant
Seedlings/coppice
Not browsable
Timber, poles, firewood
Eucalyptus
camaldulensis
1200-2800
<80%
<1400
<100
Resistant
Seedlings/coppice
Not browsable
Timber, poles, firewood
Grevillea robusta
1500-2700
<65%
900-1400
<100
Not resistant
Seedlings
Less browse
Timber, poles, firewood
Melia azedarach
<2400
<80%
<900->1400
<100
Not resistant
Seedlings
Firewood, windbreak,
fodder
Populus tremiloides
1500-3000
<80%
900-1400
<100
Seedling
Timber, firewood, soil
conservation
58
Table 7: Ecological and bio-physical conditions of sites selected for short rotation plantation
Ecological and bio-physical conditions
Sites
Elevatio
n
(masl)
Mean
Annual
Rainfall
(mm)
Mean
Annual
Temperatur
e (oc)
Slope (%)
Soil depth
(cm)
18
70%
<100cm
Albizia amara, Acacia abayssinica Opuntia
ficus-indica, aloes, reed, Juniperus procera,
Euclea shimperi, Dodonea viscosa, Olea
Africana
Eucalyptus globulus,
Natural vegetation
Planted trees/shrubs
Endame
honiHargibe
da
2423
700
AlajeBetmera
(Genji)
2447
<700
70%
<100cm
Olea africana, Dodonia angistifolia, Accacia
abyssinica, Opuntia ficus-indica, aloe, reed,
Juniperus procera, Vernonia amygdalina
Eucalyptus globulus, E.
camaldulensis, A.decurrense, A.
saligna, Rhamnus prenoides,
Leucaena leucocephala, Tree
lucerne, Sesbania sesban, and fruit
tree like apple.
WadlaShireta
2833
9001300
75%
<100cm
Euphorbia Abyssinica, Acacia Abyssinica, and
Cordia Africana
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Tree
lucern, Sesbania sesban
MeketJireleAkat
2813
800
50-80%
<100cm
Euclea shimperi, aloes, Euphorbia triculli,
Dodonea viscosa,
Euclea shimperi, Dodonia viscosa,
Adinsonia digitata, Euphorbia
triculli, cordia africana
Desie
ZuriaGelsha
Bukesa
16503500
59
Erica arborea, Hypericum revolutum, Megera
Eucalyptus globulus, Treelucerene,
Hagenia abyssinica, Hypericum
revolutum
Table 8: Site suitability for the proposed short rotation species
Selected sites for short rotation plantation
Tree species
Alaje-Betmera
(Genji)
EndamehoniHargibeda
MeketWadlaJirele-Akat Shireta
Delanta-MekeletEntugna
Dessie Zuria-Gelsha
Acacia decurrens
S2
S2
S1
S1
S2
S1
Acacia melanoxylon
S2
S2
S2
S2
S3
S2
Arudinaria alpine
S3
S3
S3
S3
S2
S2
Casurina equisetifolia
Cordia Africana
S2
S2
S3
S1
S2
S2
S1
S1
S3
S2
S2
S3
S1
S2
S2
S1
S1
S2
S2
S3
S3
S1
S2
S2
S1
S1
S3
S2
S2
S3
S1
S2
S1
S1
S1
S3
S3
NS
S2
S1
S2
S2
S3
S3
NS
S2
S3
S2
S1
S2
S2
S1
S1
S3
S3
S3
S3
S3
NS
S3
Cuppresus lusitanica
E. globulus
E. saligna
E. grandis
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Grevillea robusta
Melia azedarach
Populus tremiloides
NS= Not suitable
60
Bukasa
5.18 Agroforestry species
The afforestation and degraded land rehabilitation project planned to enhance forestry
development in this region are welcomed by the local community, local administration and
woreda experts as substantial support to their development endeavor. The area, however,
apart from forestry development as plantation has also immense potential to include fruit,
fodder, fuel wood and timber trees in the farm land in some form of spatial arrangement to
improve land productivity, change the microclimate, support animal feed in the dry season,
sequester huge amount of carbon, maximize production from different system components,
and diversify farm income in the localities. Inclusion of woody perennial component in the farm
lands is so important that the trees can serve as insurance in times of crop failure in the areas
aggravated by inconsistent rains in the Berlg and Meher seasons. In any comparison, tree based
agricultural systems are more healthy as a land use system. Therefore, the following tree species
with agroforestry potential are proposed for the district sites:
1. Endamahoni and Alaje districts
At about 1.5m pollarding height for lopping as fodder supplement in the dry season, Vernonia
amygdalina and Ficus thonninghii are proposed for Endamahoni and Alaje sites. These can be
planted at the farm boundary as shelter belts. Lopping intensity of one to two times a year can
stimulate the growth of fresh and succulent leaves from lopping for fodder supply in the form
of stole feeding to ruminant livestock.
Casuarina equisetifolia tree rows of two at planting distance of 2m x 2m in close proximity with
annual crops in the field or as boundaries planting can support improve crop productivity by its
N-fixing ability in association with the abundant actinomycete Frankia. The tree due to its
suitable sparse canopy form casts minimum shade over the under storey crops where it
transmits sufficient light for photosynthesis. The tree's integration apart from improving crop
production can improve livelihood options from the sale of branch wood pollarded at about 2m
61
above ground. The tree profusely regenerates a number of new branches for subsequent future
pruning as sustainable source of fuel wood. The construction and timber needs can also be
supported from this source.
2. To the warm and mid highland agricultural belt of Meket where cereal mono-cropping is
widely practiced, Croton macrostachys, Cordia africana, Moringa stenopetala, Leucaenia
leucocephala, Grevillea robusta, Celtis africana, Rhamnus prenoides, Acacia polyacanta, Albizia
spp, Faedherbia albida, Acacia abyssinica, Milletia feruginea has to be included in line planting
of wider spacing to complement agricultural production.
3. At the mid to high altitudes of north and south Wollo zones, temperate fruit trees such as
apple, pear, plum, and apricot can successfully grow below the frost lines of 3000masl.
Provided appropriate training on the growing and management techniques of these fruit tree
species is given and closely monitored for their success. These fruit trees can transform the
living conditions of the population from subsistence cereal farming to fruit and vegetable
growing areas with substantial surplus income. In addition, the district agriculture and rural
development offices at north Wollo claim that the areas repeatedly face crop failures and the
population faces food shortage. Thus, introduction of the drought tolerant perennial crop,
enset as homestead planting would support animal fodder in the dry season. Even though,
there is cultural and knowledge gap in growing and management of enset in this region, the
population through cultural exchange to the southern Ethiopia can learn to process enset for
supplementary food.
5.19 Fertilizing Plantations
During the field mission, it was observed that soils in all the surveyed sites are heavily eroded
and the nutrients are depleted. This sign of unhealthiness will have a grave consequence on the
soil productivity to bear plantation; hence, it is pragmatic to fertilize tree species for remedying
62
of nutrient deficiencies, increasing wood yield, improving tree appearances, stimulation of seed
production and the increased production of subordinate plant species that are valuable as
forage for animals. Therefore, we strictly recommend to use both organic and mineral fertilizers
such as compost, nitrogenous, phosphate, Ca-, Mg- and S- fertilizers. In addition, it order to
maintain cool and wet root zone, mulching with straw and scoria is highly recommended.
63
64
Table 9: Ecological and management requirements of tree species selected for plantation and rehabilitation of degraded lands
Tree species
Elevation
Slope
Rainfall
Ecological and Management Requirements
Soil
Propagation
Browse
Frost
Use
depth
technique
tolerance
Acacia abyssinica
1500-2800
<60%
>600
<100
Not
resistant
Seedling
Browsable
Firewood,
charcoal, bee
forage
Lopping, pollarding,
coppice
Acacia decurrens
1600-3000
<50%
>900
>100
cm
Not
resistant
Seedling
Browsable
Coppicing
Acacia melanoxylon
1600-3000
<50%
>900
<100
resistant
seedling
Not
browsable
Fire wood,
charcoal, bee
forage
Timber, fire
wood,
charcoal
Acacia polyacantha
500-1600
< 50%
<1400
>100
Not
resistant
Seedling
Browsable
Fuel wood,
construction,
Timber, Bee
forage
Pollarding, coppicing
Acacia saligna
1000-2400
<80%
>500
<100
seedlings
Browsable
<2400
<75%
<700
<100
Seedling,
wildings
Browsable
Fodder, SWC,
N-fixing
Bee forage,
Pollarding, coppicing,
Albizia amara
Non
resistant
Not
Arudinaria alpine
2200-3300
<50%
> 900
>100
Resistant
Seedling and
offsets
Browsable
Furniture,
fodder, soil
conservation
protecting from termite
attack and borers
Balanites aegyptiaca
<1800
<70%
<1400
<100
Not
resistant
Seedling,
direct sowing
Browsable
Fuel wood,
excellent
charcoal,
Edible fruits,
soil
reclamation
Coppicing
65
Management
requirement
Lopping for firewood
Casuarina equisetifolia
500-2800
<80%
4001400
>100
Not
resistant
Seedlings
Not
browsable
Celtis Africana
1300 2300
<50%
<1400
>100
Not
resistant
Seedling
Browsable
Chamaecytisus ploriferus
1700 -3300
<70%
>700
>100
Resistant
Seedling
Browsable
Cordia Africana
900-2500
<50%
>700
>100
Not
resistant
Seedlings
Croton macrostachyus
1100 - 2500
<50%
>700
>100
Not
resistant
Cuppresus lusitanica
1500-3000
<50%
>800
> 100
Dodonaea viscose
>1600
<80%
>500
Dombeya torrid
1600-3400
<40%
Erythrina brucei
1400 -2800
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Eucalyptus citriodora
66
Timber, Nfixing plant,
fuel wood
Fodder,
Fuelwood,
timber
Fodder, soil
fertility
Pruning for clear bole
Browsable
Timber, fodder,
firewood
Pollarding, lopping,
coppicing
Seedling
Not
browsable
Timber,
charcoal, fuel
wood, soil
fertility
Pollarding, lopping,
coppicing
Resistant
Seedlings
Not
browsable
Timber,
windbreak,
Pruning, thinning
<100
Resistant
Seedlings,
wildings
Not
browsable
SWC, fire
wood, live
fence
none
>500
>100
Not
resistant
Seedling
browsable
Firewood,
timber, poles
Pollarding, lopping,
coppicing
<50%
>900
>100
Resistant
Cutting
Browsable
Fuel wood,
soil
conservation,
fodder, bee
forage
Pollarding, coppicing
1200-2800
<80%
<1400
<100
Resistant
Seedlings/coppi
ce
Not
browsable
Timber, poles,
firewood
Copping, pollarding
1700 - 2400
<80%
>900
<100
Pruning to clear bole
Pruning (frequent
fodder harvesting)
Coppicing
Eucalyptus globulus
1700-2800
<80%
>600
<100
Resistant
Seedlings/coppi
ce
Not
browsable
Timber, poles,
firewood
Coppicing
Eucalyptus grandis
1700-2500
<80%
>900
<100
Resistant
Seedlings/coppi
ce
Not
browsable
Timber, poles,
firewood
Coppicing, protecting
from termite attack
Eucalyptus saligna
1700 - 2300
<80%
>900
<100
Resistant
Seedlings/coppi
ce
Not
browsable
Timber, poles,
firewood
Copping, avoid planting
in wind-prone area
Ficus thonningii
1600-2300
<50%
<100
<50%
Browse
species
Less browse
Animal fodder
1500-2700
Not
resistant
Not
resistant
cuttings
Grevillea robusta
9001400
9001400
Bee forage
Fuel, timber,
Windbreak &
SWC
Pollarding, lopping,
coppicing, pruning
Juniperus procera
1500 -3300
<60%
>900
<100
Resistant
Seedlings
Not
browsable
Timber
Pruning, thinning
Leucaena leucocephala
0 -1600
<40%
>700
>100
Not
resistant
Seedlings/Direc
t sowing
Browsable
Fodder, Soil
fertility, fuel
wood, Charcoal
Lopping, coppicing
Malus domestica
>1800
<30%
>900
>100
Resistant
Grafted
Seedling
Browsable
Fruit
Remove leaves and
fruits if less than 2 years
old for massive fruiting
latter
Melia azedarach
<2400
<80%
9001400
<100
Not
resistant
Seedlings
Browsable
Firewood,
windbreak,
fodder
Pollarding, lopping,
coppicing, pruning
Olea Africana
1500-2400
<50%
>700
<100
1200 1800
<40%
500 1400
>100
Seedlings,
wildings
Rhizomes,
suckers,
Non
browsable
Browsable
Timber,
medicinal
Fodder,
furniture,
Slow growing
Oxytenanthra abyssinica
Not
resistant
Not
resistant
67
<100
seedlings
Control by cutting
from expansion to
seedling
Not
resistant
Seedling
Not
browsable
scaffolding,
walking sticks
Timber
unwanted sites
Timber,
firewood, soil
conservation
Prescribed burning
promotes sprouting
Podocarpus falcatus
1500 -2500
<50%
>900
>100
Populus tremiloides
1500-3000
<80%
9001400
<100
Prunus Africana
1200 - 2500
<60%
>900
>100
Not
resistant
Seedling
Browsable
Excellent
timber,
medicine,
construction
Slow growing
Sesbania sesban
300 -2000
<80%
>900
<100
Not
resistant
Seedling, direct
sowing
Browsable
Fodder, soil
fertility, fuel
wood
Pruning
Terminalia brownie
300 -2000
<60%
>700
>100
Not
resistant
Seedling, direct
sowing
Browsable
Fodder,
construction,
timber, fuel
wood
Pollarding, lopping,
coppicing
Trichilia dregeana
1100 - 2200
<40%
>900
>100
Not
resistant
Seedling
Not
browsable
Timber, fuel
wood
Pollarding, coppicing
Seedling
Slow growing
Source: Azene Bekele-Tesema, Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia, identification, propagation, and management for 17 agroclimatical zones, 2007, RELMA/ICRAF, Nairobi, kenya.
68
Table 10: Ecological and bio-physical conditions of sites selected for plantation and rehabilitation in southern region
Ecological and bio-physical conditions
Districts
sites
Elevation
(masl)
Mean
Annual
Rainfall
(mm)
Mean Annual
Temperature
(oc)
Slope
(%)
Soil depth
(cm)
Natural vegetation
Planted trees/shrubs
Amawite
3040
1022
17oC
25
<100
Juniperus procera, Arundinaria alpina
Eucalyptus globulus, Grevillea
robusta
Lower
Meki
1700
1022
20
25
<100
Cordia africana, Acacia seyal, Acacia
albida, Balanites aegyptiaca, Acacia
tortilis.
Melia azedarach, Moringa
stenopetala, Grevillea robusta,
Olea africana, Eucalyptus
camaldulnesis, Cordia africana,
and Dovyalis abyssinica.
Lemo
Hayse
2212
1150
18
15
<100
Juniperus procera, Podocapus
falcatus, Cordia africana, Olea
africana, Carissa edulis (Agam)
Cupressus lusitanica, Eucalyptus
globulus, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis
Lemo, Anlemo,
Shishigo
Ajo
2114
1150
18
20
<100
Dodonia viscosa, aloe species, Ficus
vasta
No notable artificial plantations
Mirab Abaya
Shafe
14002700
1000
240C
30
>100
Dodonea viscosa, Cordia africana,
Croton macrostachyus, Terminalia
brownii, Juniperus procera, Ficus
vasta.
Eucalyptus camadulensis,
Cupressus lusitanica and Grevillea
robusta. The lower boundary of
the watershed is covered by
Balanites aegyptiaca and
Terminalia brownii
Sodo
69
Table 11: Site suitability for tree species for rehabilitation of degraded lands
Selected sites for rehabilitation
Tree species
Menkere
(Endamehoni)
Betmera
(Genji)
(Alaje)
027Shireta
(Wadila)
015
(Zugera)
(Wadila)
026
(Debko)
and 027
(Aydefer)
Atintmes
beria
(Dessie
Zuria)
Lower
Meki
Hayse
Ajo
(Lemo)
(Lemo,
(Mirab
Anlemo, Abaya)
Shashigo)
(Sodo)
Shafe
(Meket)
Acacia abyssinica
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2
S1
S1
S1
Acacia decurrens
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2
S1
S1
S1
Acacia melanoxylon S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S3
S1
S1
S1
Acacia tortilis
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
S1
NS
NS
S2
Accacia saligna
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
Albizia amara
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2
S1
NS
NS
NS
NS
Casuarina
equistifolia
Chamacytesus
palmensis (Tree
lucern
Dodonaea
viscosa/angustifolia
Dombeya
torrida(Wolkefa)
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S3
S3
S2
S1
S1
S1
S3
NS
NS
NS
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S3
S3
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
70
Ficus thonningii
S1
S1
S2
S2
S2
S3
S1
S1
S1
S1
Grevillea robusta
S2
S2
S3
S3
S2
S2
S2
S1
S1
S1
Olea africana
S1
S1
S2
S2
S3
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
Sesbania sesban
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
Ziziphus spina-cristi
S2
S2
S3
S3
S2
S3
S1
S3
S3
S3
71
Table 12: Site suitability for the proposed short rotation species
Selected sites for short rotation plantation
Tree species
AlajeBetmera
(Genji)
Endamehon
i(Hargibeda)
Meket(JireleAkat)
Wadla(Shireta)
Delanta(MekeletEntugna)
Dessie
Zuria-
Sodo
(Amawte)
Lemo
(Hayse)
(Gelsha
Bukasa)
Lemo,
Anlemo,
Shashigo
Mirab
Abaya
(Shafe)
(Ajo)
Acacia decurrens
S2
S2
S1
S1
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
Acacia melanoxylon
S2
S2
S2
S2
S3
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
Acacia polyacantha
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
S1
Arudinaria alpine
S3
S3
S3
S3
S2
S2
S1
NS
NS
S1
Casuarina
equisetifolia
S2
S2
S2
S2
S3
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
Cordia Africana
S2
S2
S3
S2
NS
S3
S3
S1
S1
S1
Cuppresus
lusitanica
S3
S3
S3
S3
S2
S2
S1
S2
S2
S1
Eucalyptus
citriodora
S2
S1
S2
S2
NS
NS
S3
S1
S1
S1
Eucalyptus globulus
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
NS
NS
S1
72
Eucalyptus saligna
S2
S2
S2
S2
S2
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
Eucalyptus grandis
S2
S2
S2
S1
S2
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
Eucalyptus
camaldulensis
S1
S1
S1
S1
S3
S1
S2
S1
S1
S1
Grevillea robusta
S1
S1
S1
S1
S3
S1
S1
S1
S1
S1
Melia azedarach
S3
S2
S3
S3
NS
S3
NS
S1
S1
S1
Populus tremiloides
S3
S3
S3
S3
NS
S3
S3
S1
S1
S2
Prunus Africana
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
S1
S1
S1
Trichilia
emetica/dregeana
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
S1
73
Table 13: Trees/shrubs proposed for gully reclamation and river bank fixation across all sites
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Tree/shrub species
Populus tremiloides
Reeds
Elephant grass
Erythrina species
Salix subserrata
Desho grass
Euphorbia triculli
Acacia saligna
Dodonea species
Vetiver
Aloe species
Sisal
Cactus
Ficus thunnungii
74
Physical measures to be integrated
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro-basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Check dams across gullies, bench terraces and micro basins on embankments
Ecology
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Middle to high altitude
Spacing recommendations for short rotation plantations
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12
Tree species
Accacia decurrense
Accacia melanoxylon
Arundinaria alpina
Casuarina equistifolia
Cordia africana
Cuppressus lusitanica
Eucalyptus globulus
Eucalyptus
camaldulnesis
Eucalyptus grandis
Grevillea robusta
Melea azedarach
Poupulus species
75
Construction
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
2x2
Spacing for different objectives
Fuel wood
Furniture
Pulp and paper
2x1
2x1
1x1
2x1
2x1
3x3
3x3
1x1
3x2
1x1
3x2
2x2
2x2
-
1x1
1x1
1x1
-
3x3
-
3x2
3x1.5
Remarks
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Recommendation
At the inception, the mission paved its way to carry out its activities as reiterated in the terms
of reference, nine sites suitable for plantation and rehabilitation were chosen with full
participation of local authorities and expert judgment. Furthermore, candidate tree species for
both short rotation plantation and rehabilitation purposes have been shortlisted. Unlike the
traditional afforestation and reafforestation activities, critical factors for increasing seedling
survival rates have been identified and holistic post seedling managements have also been
proposed. At last we believe that the forest sector can help hugely to build the nation’s
economy and therefore, we strongly recommend that the candidate tree species must be
handled and treated scientifically so that the forest industry in Ethiopia can gain a momentum
to contribute.
76