UTRECHT UNIVERSITY
Fairtrade Utrecht
A Research on the Motives and Barriers of Fairtrade Consumers and
how these are addressed by the Fairtrade Town of Utrecht.
Wal, E.M. van der
1/24/2014
“Fairtrade Towns in Europe are a uniquely powerful movement for local change and global
sustainable development” (Taplin, 2009; 1)
-1-
Bachelor Thesis SGPL
21990 words
Eeke M. van der Wal
3588874
University of Utrecht
January 2014
Supervisor: MSc. M. Bergmans
-2-
Preface
The unfortunate conclusion of C. Riddell in ‘Does Foreign Aid Really Work’ (2007) indicated
that foreign aid in the previous years has not resulted in any substantial difference. Yet many
forms of foreign aid have attempted to improve both the social and economic situation of the
marginalized neighbours. The upcoming of the notion trade before aid entailed a major
change in the perception of development, introducing fair trade relations as an alternative and
more sustainable way to stimulate development.
For me too, the improvement of trade relations seems like feasible solution for many
issues of global inequality. Yet until today inequality exists, development issues are far from
solved and fair trade relations remain scarce.
As an idealist, however, I feel that these trade relations can and should be altered. A
movement I therefore much admire is the fair trade movement, a movement stimulating the
consumption of fair products, in order to create fairer trade networks. Stimulation of fair trade
is done on many different levels, but one of the most important actors involved in this
movement are the consumers as they determine if products are worth consuming and thus
producing.
By beloved city Utrecht is one of the many cities attempting to promote fair trade
within the community by declaring themselves as a Fairtrade Town as of 2010. This notion
and effort has unfortunately gone unnoticed by many inhabitants of Utrecht. For me this
raised several questions: Why do the efforts of Fairtrade Utrecht remained unnoticed amongst
so many people? Is this because the campaign does not target consumers? Or does the
campaign target the wrong aspects, those aspects that are not considered important by
consumers?
This thesis provided me the opportunity to investigate the notion of Fairtrade Town
Utrecht more thoroughly; what was achieved since its commencement; and how it contributes
to a global movement of improving trade relations. Furthermore it gave me an opportunity to
research, at a local level, what factors drive consumers to purchase fairly traded products. A
subject that greatly sparked my interest and became even more interesting and challenging
when it became clear that the insights might actually prove useful for the Fairtrade Utrecht
campaign.
This first research ever conducted by myself was challenging as I was full of doubts
about my own abilities, knowledge, insights and analyses. Yet, despite of the struggle it has
also been a great learning path for me. Therefore I would like to thank my supervisor M.
Bergmans for the support, guidance and reassurance during this project. Also I would like to
thank E. Meijer for collaboration during this research and the elaborate interview full of new
insights on the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign.
-3-
Abstract
This research investigates the motives and barriers experienced by consumers when
purchasing Fairtrade and those targeted by the goals and strategies of the Fairtrade Utrecht
campaign. By targeting more specifically on those aspects that are deemed important by
consumers the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign is likely to improve the effect of their
undertakings. The results indicate that the extrinsic determinants of Fairtrade consumption are
targeted more by the strategy than intrinsic motives. The respondents of the survey sample of
consumers in Utrecht indicated to intrinsic motives important underlying their choice of
consumption, but that low quality and high costs are extrinsic barriers they experience.
-4-
Index
Preface
3
Abstract
4
1. Introduction
7
1.1
A Short Introduction of Fair Trade and Fairtrade Towns
7
1.2
Problem Statement
9
1.3
Relevance
10
1.3.1
Social Relevance
10
1.3.2
Scientific Relevance
10
1.4
Readers’ Guide
11
2. Theoretical Framework
12
2.1
Fair Trade as Means of Development in a Context of Increasing Globalization
12
2.2
Fair Trade Networks as a result of Ethical Consumerism
14
2.3
Enacting Care and Responsibility through Fair Trade Consumption
15
2.4
Other determinants of Fair Trade as Consumption Choice
16
2.4.1
Visibility and Recognition
17
2.4.2
Access and Availability
17
2.4.3
Ethical beliefs
18
2.4.4
Trust
19
2.4.5
Costs and Quality
20
2.4.6
Socio-demographic Characteristics
21
3. Research Approach
22
3.1
Research Design
22
3.2
Methods of Data Collection
24
3.2.1
Document Analysis
24
3.2.2
Interview
24
3.2.3
Surveys
25
3.3
3.4
Method of data-analysis
26
3.3.1
Document and Interview Analysis
26
3.3.2
Survey Analysis
26
Operationalization
27
3.4.1
Intrinsic factors
28
3.4.2
Extrinsic factors
30
3.4.3
Socio-demographic Characteristics
32
4. Results – Fairtrade Utrecht
4.1
4.2
35
Goals of the Fairtrade Utrecht Foundations regarding consumption
35
4.1.1 Goals Concerning Intrinsic Determinants
36
4.1.2 Goals Concerning Extrinsic Determinants
36
Policies and Strategies used by Fairtrade Utrecht in order to reach Consumers
38
-5-
4.2.1 A Disquisition of the Focus Groups and Strategies of Fairtrade Utrecht
38
4.2.2 Activities on raising Awareness
40
4.2.3 Activities on Visibility and Recognition
40
4.2.4 Activities on Access and Availability
41
5. Results – Consumers and Fairtrade
42
5.1
Survey Sample Analysis
42
5.2
Consumers Involvement with Fairtrade Utrecht
44
5.2.1 Consumer knowledge of Fairtrade Utrecht
44
5.2.2 Consumption Patterns and Knowledge of Fairtrade Utrecht
47
Intrinsic Motives & Barriers regarding Fairtrade Consumption
49
5.3.1 Awareness, Care and Responsibility
49
5.3.2 Ethical Beliefs
52
5.3.3 Trust
53
Extrinsic Motives and Barriers regarding Fairtrade Consumption
55
5.4.1 Visibility and Recognition
55
5.4.2 Access & Availability
56
5.4.3 Quality
57
5.3
5.4
5.4.4 Costs
59
6. Discussion & Conclusion
62
6.1
Discussion
62
6.11 Discussion of the Methodology
62
6.1.2 Discussion of Results on Fairtrade Utrecht Strategy
63
6.1.3 Discussion of Results on Consumers and Fairtrade Utrecht
63
6.1.4 Discussion on Results on Consumer Motivators and Barriers
64
6.2
Conclusion
64
6.3
Recommendations
65
References
66
-6-
1. Introduction
‘Bangladeshi factory workers locked in on 19-hour shifts’ is the title of one of the many
articles addressing the poor working conditions of the factory workers producing our clothes
and other products we purchase. The workers earn about 2 pounds (or about 2,50 euro) a day
for the 19-hour shift that they run, starting at 7:00 in the morning and ending at 2:30 at night
(Bilton, 2013). Besides the many hours and low payment, the working conditions of many
producers are very poor and often dangerous. In Bangladesh alone three accident occurred in
2013 during which the factory either collapsed or burned down (NOS, 2013).
Such accidents have led to much criticism on the current conditions of the producers
of our products. Often consumers are blamed partially for the poor working conditions of
producers. Uffelen (2013), for example, writes in the opinion section of the Volkskrant that
Europe is also responsible for the working conditions in clothing factories. According to him
the consumers approve of the poor working conditions of the producers by purchasing clothes
made in such factories. The consumption choice of consumers thus approves such
‘sweatshop’ practices.
Uffelen is not the first one to indicate the involvement of consumers in such practices.
Many others agree with his perception of consumer involvement in the production and trade
process. A great segment of conscious consumers wants to bring about change by altering
consumer involvement in the supply chain (Goodman, 2004, p.901).
Fair trade practices are an alternative form of involvement that attempts to improve the
trade relations by providing products that are produced under ‘good’ circumstances. They
base their conception on consumer concern and involvement towards the producers of their
products. As the Fairtrade Foundation states on their website “Fairtrade is about better prices,
decent working conditions, local sustainability, and fair terms of trade for farmers and
workers in developing countries” (Fairtrade Foundation, 2013a). The supporters of fair trade1
thus believe that the purchase of such ‘good’ products can alter the living conditions of the
producers of their products (Goodman, 2004, p. 907).
1.1 A short introduction of fair trade and Fairtrade Towns
Fair trade products are products that are traded under circumstances that are considered ‘fair’
by both the consumers and producers. The aim of creating fair trading conditions is to allow
producers in developing countries to develop themselves and work towards greater social
wellbeing and a more sustainable future (Fairtrade Gemeenten, 2013). By doing so, fairer and
more equal trade relations are established.
The fair trade movement commenced in the years following the Second World War,
simultaneous with the initiation of modern development aid (Potter et. al., 2007, p.354). A
humanistic explanation is the growing sense of care and responsibility towards geographically
distant and marginalized others after the deterioration of colonialism (Raghuram et. al., 2009,
p.5). Another explanation is the context of post-World War II and the increasing tensions
between the Soviet bloc and the capitalist west at the time. By providing aid and improving
The term ‘Fairtrade’ is the name of the Fairtrade label. It shall therefore only be used in this research paper
when referring to the actual Fairtrade label. The term ‘fair trade’ expresses a wider vision of development and
refers to trade that can be considered ‘fair’ according to ones’ principles. Although this term is versatile and
subjective it shall be used when referred to any products or form of trade that can be considered fair, as it is a
more inclusive term. The term ‘fair trade’ includes products carrying the Fairtrade mark, any other type of ‘fair’
mark, as well as other products that are considered fair.
1
-7-
their trade relations the US and Western Europe attempted to gain support during of
producing countries (Potter et. al. 2007, p.355).
Sales of fair trade products really took off after labelling initiatives emerged in the
80s. The Dutch Max Havelaar label was the first to indicate fairly trade coffee through the
means of labels in 1988 (Renard, 2003, p.89). This commencement facilitated the
consumption of fair products tremendously, thus reinforcing the fair trade market networks
(Mann,2008, p.2035). Nowadays the label is joined together with several other labels, under
the name of ‘Fairtrade’, in order to avoid competition amongst the different labels.
Furthermore many other products than coffee can now be deemed Fairtrade, such as foods,
clothing and handcrafted products (Fairtrade Foundation, 2013b).
‘Fairtrade’ is the name and a mark that identifies products that are considered fair
according to a range of specified criteria as provided by an international Fairtrade Labelling
Organization (FLO). These criteria cover three areas of development: social, economic and
environmental (Fairtrade Foundation, 2013c). Producer organizations have to meet detailed
requirements concerning both the producing process and the products, in order to be certified
(Raynolds et. al., 2004, p.1111). Over time they must meet more requirements to demonstrate
permanent improvement (Fairtrade Foundation, 2013b).
As of 2001 towns have been positioning themselves as ‘Fairtrade Towns’ expressing
their support for the fair trade movement. Garstang, a town in the United Kingdom, declared
itself the first Fairtrade Town after they successfully ran a Fairtrade promotion campaign
involving the council, businesses, schools, churches and other community organizations
(Fairtrade Towns, 2013a). After this success other towns in the UK, and later globally,
followed their example. Certain goals and standards were set up by the FLO that would allow
towns to promote fair trade under the name of Fairtrade. The goal of Fairtrade Towns is to
promote Fairtrade and fair trade in their specific region and so create a communal identity and
responsibility in their town towards the disadvantaged and often exploited global South
(Fairtrade Towns, 2013b). Furthermore Fairtrade Towns attempt to conduct collaboration
between different actors in the network by bringing together communities and business with
common goals and the shared commitment to increasing fair trade consumption locally
(Taplin, 2008, p.7). The core goals set up by the FLO are (Fairtrade Towns, 2013c):
- Local council passes a resolution supporting Fairtrade, and agrees to serve Fairtrade
products (e.g. in meetings, offices and canteens);
- A range of Fairtrade products are available locally (targets vary from country to
country);
- Schools, workplaces, places of worship and community organizations support
Fairtrade and use Fairtrade products whenever possible;
- Media coverage and events raise awareness and understanding of Fairtrade across the
community;
- A Fairtrade steering group representing different sectors is formed to co-ordinate
action around the goals and develop them over the years.
Fairtrade Towns are considered successful due to their achievements hitherto. Awareness and
understanding of fair trade has increased tremendously within Fairtrade Towns. Furthermore
the recognition of the Fairtrade brand has increased tremendously (Taplin, 2009, p.11).
For inhabitants and consumers the Fairtrade Town campaign has made it easier to
contribute to global development within their own locality, as Fairtrade Town campaigns
allow people to act on Fairtrade development concerns within their own time and space
constraints (Taplin, 2009, p.12).
Utrecht joined this initiative in December 2010 (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht,
2013a). It obtains the title each year from the Dutch Fairtrade Town jury. Fairtrade Towns in
-8-
the Netherlands have included broader issues of ethical trade and sustainable development in
the Fairtrade Town goals (Taplin, 2009, p.19). The Dutch Fairtrade Town campaign has thus
included a sixth goal: the encouragement of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in order to
broaden the goals of the Fairtrade Town and incorporate other forms of social contribution by
organization (Fairtrade Gemeenten, 2013).
1.2 Problem Statement
Fairtrade Towns in Europe are considered to be a powerful movement for local change and
global sustainable development (Taplin, 2009, p.1). The purchase and consumption of
Fairtrade products can be seen as the realization of global citizenship and as an expression of
involvement with international collaboration (Goodman, 2004, p.910). The question,
however, remains what exact measures local municipalities take in order to obtain and
maintain the Fairtrade title, how they implement this strategy, and how this influences the
consumption choice of the inhabitants.
This research shall focus on the specific strategies that Utrecht deploys in order to
stimulate fair trade consumption and how these strategies correspond with consumer
motivators for purchasing fair trade. According to Taplin (2009, p.19) different municipalities
implement localized strategies according to their specific and unique local context (Taplin,
2009, p.19). Therefore this research shall be confined to the particular case of Utrecht as a
Fairtrade Town. The main research question shall be:
To what extent does the strategy of Fairtrade Utrecht correspond with consumer
motivation for purchasing Fairtrade products in Utrecht?
The goal of this research is firstly analyse the strategies that the Fairtrade Utrecht foundation
uses to motivate consumer to purchase fair trade. Secondly the outcome of this research shall
provide more insight in consumer motives that induce (fair trade) purchasing behaviour in
Utrecht. Improving and increasing the knowledge on these motives can improve the strategy
of Fair Trade Utrecht. By indicating the specific aspects that determine fair trade consumption
and other forms of involvement by consumers in Utrecht the Fairtrade Utrecht foundation can
better target the most influential motivators.
In order to answer this central question an inductive method shall be used where
several general statements shall be made in order to reach a logical and plausible conclusion.
The following sub-question shall be used to answer the main research question:
1. To what extent do the goals of Fairtrade Utrecht target the notion of consumption?
2. What policies and strategies does Fairtrade Utrecht use to stimulate Fairtrade
consumption?
3. To what extent is the consumer familiar and involved with the notion of Utrecht as a
Fairtrade town?
4. What factors are most influential and motivating for consumers to purchase
Fairtrade?
5. What are the main barriers that consumers in Utrecht experience when purchasing
Fairtrade products?
With the answers to these sub-questions, a logical conclusion can follow which can form the
answer to the central question.
-9-
1.3 Relevance
The relevance of this research is twofold: it lies as much in indicating the effectiveness of the
strategy of the Fairtrade Utrecht foundation, as in an increased theoretical insight in the
motives and barriers of consumers while purchasing fair trade products.
1.3.1 Social Relevance
The social relevance of this research is an increased insight in the success of the contemporary
strategies of Fairtrade Utrecht. More insight in the correspondence between the Fairtrade
Utrecht foundation’s strategy and consumer motivation can indicate to what extent the
strategy actually reaches its target.
The participation of consumers is of key importance for the success of fair trade.
Consumers are at the end of the supply chain and are therefore the drivers of the fair trade
movement (Goodman, 2004, p.901). Increasing fair trade consumption is thus important
aspect for Fairtrade Towns to target.
A better understanding of consumer motivators in Utrecht can firstly provide a better
understanding of the consumption choices of the majority of the Utrecht consumers.
According to Alexander & Nicholls (2006, p.1242) the sternest challenge of fair trade is “[…]
how to market fair trade products to a wider audience beyond the sympathetic segment of
ethically aware consumers”. Insight on factors determining consumption choice can thus
increase the knowledge on how to better market fair trade product, improving the
effectiveness of fair trade.
Furthermore this knowledge can be used to improve Fairtrade Utrecht’s policy
strategies in such a way that they are adapted and customized to the specific case of Utrecht.
The strategy can become more effective, increasing its scope and reaching more inhabitants
and enterprises.
On the larger-scale the improvement of Fairtrade Utrecht’s strategy can increase the
success of the fair trade movement. If more consumers are willing to purchase fair trade, more
people in the producing countries shall obtain fair prices and work in under good working
conditions. Utrecht can thus create a large platform of consumers supporting more equal trade
relations and global development.
1.3.2 Scientific Relevance
This research is not merely relevant because of its social contribution. It is also important
because of its contribution to scientific knowledge on the subject of fair trade. A lot of
research has been done to factors determining fair trade and ethical consumption.
Much research, however, confines itself to those concepts that underlie and cause fair
trade consumption. The notion of awareness is for example a concept of key importance for
fair trade consumerism (Barnett, et. al., 2005). On the other hand Popke (2006) and
Raghuram, et. al. (2009) focus on the concepts of care and responsibility as being the most
pressing concepts underlying the consumption of fair trade.
Other research on fair trade focuses more on marketing strategies of fair trade.
Alexander & Nicholls (2006) for example investigated the relation between the consumers
and producers within the fair trade network. They highlight the importance of information
exchanges as a marketing strategy. Castaldo, et. al. (2009), however focus more on the
concept of trust as an important factor determining consumer involvement in the fair trade
network. Barnett, et. al. (2005) also elaborate on the importance of corporate social
responsibility as a means of providing fair or ethical products, arguing that awareness is
subordinate to availability.
- 10 -
This research contributes to scientific knowledge as it includes these different motives
of consumers. In consumer decision-making different determinants of fair trade consumption
are interrelated and connected, complicating the decision-making tremendously (Connolly &
Shaw, 2006). Combining the different factors determining consumption choice shall thus
contribute to the knowledge on fair trade, by including and combining these different factors
influencing fair trade consumption, creating a more comprehensive understanding of how
these determinants work together. Furthermore this research shall contribute due to its
measurements of the importance of the different concepts, determining fair trade consumption
choice. It shall provide an overview of the most and least important factors, as experienced by
the consumers, giving more theoretical insight on ethical consumption motives.
1.4 Reader’s Guide
This research shall be based on the theoretical framework as provided in chapter 2
(Theoretical Framework). The theoretical framework shall be based on academic literature
and previous research that has been done on this, or similar, subjects. Firstly the geographical
context in which fair trade networks function shall be addressed. Furthermore the theoretical
framework shall elaborate on the most important concepts underlying the consumption of fair
trade. Finally this chapter shall address the most important determinants of fair trade
consumption.
In the following chapter, chapter 2 (Research Methods), the methods used in order to
conduct this research shall be explained. It shall address the methods in which results shall be
obtained and motivate the choices. Furthermore it shall discuss the methods of data analysis
that shall be used. Finally this chapter shall provide an operationalization of the concepts that
are to be researched.
In chapter 4 (Results – Fairtrade Utrecht) the results of the document analysis and
interview shall be presented, answering the first two sub-questions and the first part of the
research question concerning Fairtrade Utrecht’s goals and strategies.
Chapter 5 (Results – Consumers and Fairtrade) shall elaborate on the last three subquestions and provide the results concerning consumers in Utrecht.
Finally chapter 6 (Discussion & Conclusion) shall provide the discussion of the
results, linking them again to the theory, combining the different results in order to provide an
answer to the research question, but also addressing the limitations of this results.
Subsequently this chapter shall provide the conclusions of the results and end with several
recommendations for further research, but also for the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign.
- 11 -
2. Theoretical Framework
This chapter shall provide a theoretical framework for this research on the motives of
consumers in the Fairtrade Town of Utrecht for purchasing Fairtrade products. Several themes
shall be discussed. Firstly in (2.1) Fairtrade as Means of Development in a Context of
Increasing Globalization the context in which the Fairtrade movement has commenced shall
be briefly analysed from the perspective of increasing globalization. Secondly in (2.2)
Fairtrade Networks as a Result of Ethical Consumerism the notion of fair trade consumption
as a form of ethical consumerism shall be addressed in order to provide more insight on the
act of consuming fair trade products. Thirdly, in (2.3) Enacting Care and Responsibility
through Fair Trade Consumption the concepts of consumer awareness, care and responsibility
shall be addressed as the most important concepts underlying fair trade consumption. Finally,
in (2.4) Other determinants of Fair Trade as Consumption Choice, factors that either motivate
of prevent consumers from purchasing fair trade products shall be addressed. The information
provided in this section shall form a base for the subsequent empirical research.
2.1 Fair trade as means of development in a context of globalization
Fair trade networks have emerged in a context of increasing global trade networks and
intensifying worldwide social relations. These intensified global relations link distant
localities and thus local events influence, and are influenced by, events elsewhere (Hoogvelt,
2001, p.124). The increased interdependency of distant localities has resulted in unequal trade
relations between the low-income, producing countries of the global South and the highincome, consuming countries of the global North (Renard, 2003, p.89). In this context fair
trade or Fairtrade networks attempt to create equitable and more equal trade relations between
these distant but interdependent localities.
Hoogvelt states that the contemporary unequal global market is largely the result of
export competition between producers in different countries offering similar products
(Hoogvelt, 2001, p.132) . In order to compete globally production costs need to be as low as
possible. Therefore the wages of labourers in production countries are driven down
(Hoogvelt, 2001, p.134). Such unequal international trade networks create a core-periphery
hierarchy in which free trade undermines, rather than stimulates, the development of Third
World countries.
International trade networks, however, do not necessarily need to maintain these
unequal trade relations. The notion of a transnational moral economy has established
circumstances and conditions in which fairer trade networks can emerge. In a transnational
moral economy as has been depicted by Wolf (2004, p.218) both producers and consumers
are willing to participate in alternative and more equal forms of trade because of their
morality and social norms. In such trade relations the producing enterprises – often located in
developing countries – are expected to be able to make their own policy decisions concerning
their long-term development. In addition there has to be a demand for such products by
consumers in consuming countries (Wolf, 2004, p.218).
Within such a moral economy alternative forms of trade can be established.
Alternative trade networks dissociate themselves from the mainstream capitalist trade
networks because they include alternative (moral) values, other than solely economic or
monetary profit. A characteristic of alternative trade is that consumers are willing to pay
higher prices than usual without obtaining extra product or product quality, in order to assure
for instance the protection of the environment or the social well-being of producers.
Alternative trade networks thus include social, biological, ecological or other moral factors as
- 12 -
determinants of the value of commodities (Mann, 2007, p.2034). It thus includes a vast
variety of unusual types of trade, including fair trade (Renard, 2003, p.90).
Fair trade networks are alternative networks that can be distinguished from regular
trading networks due to their focus on the origin of the products and the social well-being of
its producers. The aim is to link the end – the consumers – with the beginning – the producers
– of the supply chain. This is mainly done by focussing on the production process of the
supply chain and communicating the course of the production process with its consumers
(Alexander & Nicholls, 2006; p.2042).
Fair trade relations, however, are often not merely exemplified as an alternative form
of trade but also as an alternative and unconventional form of development. Fair trade is said
to promote trade rather than aid, but its underlying principle is to stimulate development in
peripheral countries. The emergence of fairer trade networks has challenged the existing,
traditional trade networks that maintain the unequal trade relations and thus keep many
producing peripheral countries poor. By paying fairer prices to the producers in peripheral
countries development is stimulated (Goodman, 2004, pp.892-893).
Fair trade networks are thus noteworthy because they operate both in and against the
market. They have emerged in the context of increasing globalization and intensifying
international trade networks. Furthermore they function within the “interstices of
globalization” and so attempt to stimulate development (Goodman, 2004, p.897).
The challenge of alternative and fair trade lies in the way in which trade and
consumption are embedded in this complex system that includes, suppliers, retailers,
consumers, non-governmental organizations and various institutional arrangements. Together
these actors form a network through which rules and standards are negotiated (Popke, 2006,
p.508). Fairtrade Towns, such as Utrecht, can be perceived as foundations that attempt to
mediate the interests of these various actors, with the aim of creating marketing possibilities
for fair trade in their region (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.361).
The realization of such a fair market is greatly dependent on the perception and
interests of various actors and their normative visions of society (Popke, 2006, p. 506).
Fair trade remains a complex and versatile concept because of the involvement of numerous
actors with their own specific norms, values and interests. Its meaning is dependent on the
actors’ specific interpretation of the concept (Goodman, 2004, p.900).
However, the inherent contradiction of the concept of fair trade lies in the implication
that all actors have an equal say in the sense-making and implementation of fair trade. Fair
trade networks originated from a sense of ‘connectedness’ to others, mutual obligations and
equal interdependence. Yet, here the contradiction lies as the essential assumption that
underlies fair trade is that consumers have enough power to change the social situation of the
producers, by purchasing their products (Renard, 2003, p.92). Social change is thus mainly
dependent on consumer choice (Goodman, 2004, p.909). Therefore, although fair trade
attempts to establish equitable and more equal trade relations, the implementation and
outcome are mainly determined by certain actors involved in the supply chain; namely, the
consumers of the rich, consuming global North. Fair trade is thus considered to be a primarily
consumer-dependent movement that – despite its pursuit of equity and equality – functions
within the existing global hegemony (Goodman, 2004, p.901)
In short, fair trade networks have emerged within the context of increasing
globalization. They function as an alternative trade network within a global moral economy
and distinguish themselves from capitalist trade networks by including social wellbeing of its
producers as a factor of trade or a form of commodity. Consumers are thus willing to pay
more for the product if the well-being of the producer is assured. Though fair trade networks
attempt to create more equity and equality the outcome, social change, is mainly consumer-
- 13 -
dependent. Within this context Fairtrade Towns, such as Utrecht, function and strive to
promote fair trade consumerism in their specific region.
2.2 Fair Trade Networks as a result of Ethical Consumeri sm
As consumers are at the end of the supply chain their position and participation within the
trade network are of key importance for the existence of fair trade. As Goodman states (2004,
p.901), the fair trade movement is mainly a consumer-dependent movement. Consumption
patterns and habits are thus important aspects of the fair trade movement.
Ordinary consumption is shaped by many different factors. These factors are a diverse
range of values and commitments that guide people’s routine shopping and consumption
practices. These values range from personal health, to brand loyalty, faith-based
commitments, caring for the local community, environment or global poverty amongst many
others (Barnett, et al., 2005, p.7).
Consumption based on specific values of caring, either for the environment or other
people, is often termed ethical consumption. It is often supposed that ethical consumers are
aware of certain consequences of their everyday consumption and therefore consciously
consume ethically sound products (Barnett, et. al. 2005, p.3). In other words, ethical
consumption implies that consumers consciously participate in alternative trade networks,
such as fair trade, that function within the moral economy as depicted previously (Wolf, 2004,
p.218).
According to Raynolds (2002, p.415) the growth of ethical consumerism is a main
driver behind the commencement of the fair trade market. Fair trade networks support and are
supported by increasing concerns amongst consumers over global ethics and their practices of
conscious and ethical consumption (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p. 357).
The power of ethical consumerism lies in the influence that conscious participation in
the global market can have. Conscious or ethical consumption can be used as a political
expression, for example by purchasing certain products while boycotting others. By
participating in such alternative forms of politics consumers can influence the privatized, and
non-democratic, global market (Barnett, et. al. 2005, p.5). Ethical consumerism can thus be
seen as a way of mobilising soft power over powerful actors; privatized corporations as well
as policy makers (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.13).
The main shortcoming of the concept of ethical consumerism is that is it often
primarily understood “[…] in terms of the role of effective consumer demand as a medium
through which ethical preferences of consumers and the ethical records of business are
signalled in the market place” (Barnett, et. al. 2005, p.3). This notion implies that mere
awareness of the consequences of consumption patterns shall lead to ethical consumption
choices by consumers, and consequently indicate the consumers’ ethical preferences. Barnett
et. al. (2005, p.19) state that this is a narrow understanding of markets and their consumers.
They proclaim a more complex disquisition of practices of consumption that includes
individual actions, social interactions and organised regulations.
This complex disquisition of interactions can well be understood through the
separation of the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. “To be motivated means to
be moved to do something” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p.54). Yet this motivation can be originate
either from inherent interest from external outcome such as a reward. The first is referred to as
intrinsic motivations, the latter as extrinsic. More elaborately intrinsic motivation refers to the
natural motivational tendency, and is thus based on the individual’s perception of reality
(Ryan & Deci, 2000, p.56). Extrinsic motivation, however, is induced due by the separate
- 14 -
outcome. People can thus engage be motivated to do ‘something’ without enjoying the act
(Ryan & Deci, 2000, p.90).
The importance of this distinction, when regarding fair trade consumption, is that
consumer can thus be both intrinsically and extrinsically motivated to purchase ethically.
Determinants can thus either be intrinsic, which makes it more difficult for organizations to
induce motivation, or extrinsic, which can be induced more easily by organizations (Barnett,
et. al., 2005, p.13).
Including this more complex perception on (ethical) consumption behaviour the
following subsections shall deal with the complexity and different determinants of ethical
consumption, focussing more specifically on fair trade consumption. The upcoming
subsection (2.3 Enacting Care and Responsibility through Fair Trade Consumption) shall
analyse the concepts of care, responsibility and awareness as intrinsic motivators and the
primary concepts underlying fair trade consumption. The final subsection (2.4 Other
determinants of Fair Trade as Consumption Choice) shall elaborate on other aspects – both
intrinsic and extrinsic – that determine the choice of consumption.
2.3 Enacting Care and Responsibility through Fair Trade Consumption
Underlying the consumption of fair trade products is the consumers’ awareness of unequal
trade relations and the consumers’ sense of care and responsibility towards the geographically
distant and marginalized producers. These senses of care and responsibility are important
intrinsic motivators underlying fair trade, as they can be seen as both the cause and a
requirement for fair trade networks to exist (Raghuram et. al., 2009, p.5).
The concept of awareness is thought to precede the sense of care and responsibility. It
refers to the ability to perceive, feel and be conscious of the surrounding and happenings in
the surroundings. In regard to fair trade it refers to being conscious of occurrences in
geographically distant places (Popke, 2006, p.507). With regard to fair trade consumption this
concept is important as it underlies the motivation of consumers to want to purchase Fairtrade.
The concept of awareness relates closely to the concepts of care as depicted by
Raghuram, et. al. (2009, p.6): the concerns over people and place. If such care subsequently
leads to a sense of responsibility amongst people, they become willing to enact this care.
Responsibility is thus the sense of a social obligation towards others, including geographically
distant people (Raghuram, et. al. 2009, p.8).
The main course of thought is that the relatively privileged consumers of the global
North are to be aware and care about the geographically distant and marginalized producers of
their products (Raghuram, et. al. 2009, p.5). Though care is stretched across space in many
different ways, the general notion underlying the fair trade movement is that care should and
does flow from North to South (Raghuram, et. al. 2009, pp. 5-6).
According to Raghuram, et. al. (2009, p.6) this idea originates from the colonial
history. For a long time the actions of the privileged North have been seen as a cause for the
suffering experienced by others: during colonialism, but also in the post-colonial world the
great demand for cheap products is said to have undermined the position of its producers in
peripheral countries (Raghuram, et. al., 2009, pp.5-6). The increasing presence of the media
and the ease and accessibility of traveling nowadays have increased the awareness of interglobal connectedness and thus increased the consumers’ awareness of the global trade
networks in which they too participate (Raghuram, et. al., 2009, p.7). According to Goodman
(2004, p.907) this has instilled on ‘us’ (the privileged consumers of the North) the notion that
we are to care and feel responsible for the living condition of ‘them’ (the disadvantaged
producers of the South). This notion thus supports the idea underlying the fair trade
- 15 -
movement: that the consuming North can, and even has a responsibility to, improve the social
standards of the producing South.
Pokpe (2006, p.507), however, argues that it remains a challenge to instil a sense of
care and responsibility towards distant others, to the larger part of the population. The
challenge is that the senses of care and civic responsibility have to stretch beyond the bounds
of place, making it more difficult to relate with the others and envision the consequences of
their purchasing behaviour (Massey 2004, p.16). Besides the aware and sympathetic segment
of ethical consumers Popke (2006, p.507) argues that most people feel a greater sense of
responsibility towards the people with whom they have caring relationships, often people
nearby. Therefore a sense of care and responsibility towards geographically distant people is
easily neglected, resulting in a majority of seemingly careless consumers in the North.
The perspectives of Goodman and Popke differ, but their underlying assumptions are
the same nevertheless. They both reason from the idea that fair trade is dependent on its
consumers. In order for fair trade to be successful they both assume that consumers in
consuming countries are to be or become aware of the consequences of their consumption
patterns. Furthermore consumers have to feel a sense of care and responsibility towards
geographically distant localities and enact this through the purchase of ethical products
(Goodman, 2004, p.901; Popke, 2006, 510).
The consumption of fair trade products is first of all dependent on an awareness of the
consequences of the consuming practices for the producers elsewhere. Furthermore
consumers of the rich north are to feel a sense of care and responsibility towards the
marginalized producers of their products. They can enact this awareness, sense of care and
sense of responsibility by purchasing ethically sound products. However awareness, care and
responsibility do not automatically lead to the purchase of ethical or fair products. The
practice of consumption is influenced by many different factors that are determined by
individual circumstances and thoughts, social interactions as well as organised regulations
(Barnett et. al., 2005, p.19). These determinants shall be elucidated in the following
subchapter (2.4 Other determinants of Fair Trade as Consumption Choice).
2.4 Other determinants of Fair Trade as Consumption Choice
Though awareness, care and responsibility underlie the notion of fair trade they do not
necessarily invoke ethical or fair trade consumption. As Barnett et. al. put it (2005, p.7)
“people find themselves ‘locked into’ certain patterns of consumption” which do not
necessarily include ethical products.
The sternest challenge of the fair trade movement today is how to include a wider
audience beyond the sympathetic segment of ethically aware consumers (Alexander &
Nicholls, 2006, p.1242). There is more to changing consumer behaviour than intoning them to
care and be more responsible for the producers of their products. According to Barnett et. al.
(2004, p.8) people do not merely lack information about fair trade. Consumers often seem
very aware of such phenomena, but do not feel that they have the opportunities or resources to
be able to engage in these sorts of activities. Being an ethical or fair trade consumer is thus
dependent on many different factors other than awareness, care and responsibility. It depends
on being provided with opportunities of participating in such forms of consumption which can
then become routinized (Barnett, et. al. 2005, p.8). Furthermore it depends on the consumer’s
evaluation of product attributes (Pelsmacker, Driesen & Rayp, 2005, pp. 364).
- 16 -
Different researches, drawn upon below, provide determinants that are considered to
be most important factors influencing fair trade as a consumption choice. These determinants
vary from individual to social and organizational aspects that can influence fair trade as a
consumption choice. Per determinant it shall be indicated if it is an intrinsic or extrinsic
motivator.
2.4.1 Visibility and Recognition
Two of the most obvious extrinsic determinants are visibility and recognition. Visibility refers
to the extent to which the products can be seen by consumers. Recognition of the fair trade
products refers to the extent to which consumers are familiar with the label (Renard 2003,
p.90). These determinants are of key importance for the consumption of fair trade products
because it firstly invokes a sense of awareness to the consumer. By indicating that there is a
fair option available the consumer becomes aware of her or his choice. Furthermore the
increase of the recognition and visibility of fair trade products can stimulate ethical consumers
to more easily and consciously choose their products (Renard, 2003, p.90).
Increasing visibility and recognition are determinants that can easily be targeted
through organizational means. This first happened in 1988 when the first fair label was
introduced in the Netherlands in order to improve the visibility of fairly traded products.
Consumers could recognize fairly traded products and knew that when they would purchase
products with a label their products would meet the requirements that had been set by the
particular labelling organizations (Renard, 2003, p.90).
Labelling has proven to be successful. By increasing the visibility of fair trade
products through labelling, fair trade products could be recognized more easily. In 2003, 15
years after the introduction of the Fairtrade label, the label already enjoyed widespread
recognition in Europe; in the Netherlands 80% of its inhabitants recognized the label (Renard,
2003, p.91). Recognition of fairly traded products increased the knowledge, awareness and
familiarity of fair trade amongst consumers, stimulating the consumption of fair trade
products (Barnett, et. al., 2005, pp. 11-13).
In short, increasing the visibility of fair trade products has increased recognition of fair
trade and simultaneously increased the sales of fairly traded products. Increasing the visibility
and recognition of fairly traded products is thus likely to stimulate the sales.
2.4.2 Access and Availability
Access and availability are two other important extrinsic concepts influencing the purchase of
fair trade products. By increasing the accessibility and availability of fair trade products
consumers come into contact with fair trade much more easily. As the consumption of fair
trade products is more convenient consumers are more easily inclined to actually purchase fair
trade products (Renard, 2003, p.90).
Renard (2003, p.90) argues that the improvement of accessibility and availability of
fair trade products has increased the sales of fair trade tremendously, due to the improved
convenience of purchasing fair trade. He also argues that the introduction of labelling did not
merely increase visibility and recognition, but also ensured widespread accessibility and
availability.
Before the introduction of labels consumers had to go to alternative stores in order to
purchase several specific fair products. Even the most dedicated and convinced consumers
experienced this inconvenience as a major obstacle for purchasing fairly traded products
(Renard, 2003, p.90).
The introduction of labels made it easier to recognize fairly traded products in
ordinary shops (Renard, 2003, p.91). Instead of constructing an alternative market that
consumers would have to engage with, labels ensured the recognition of fair products in these
- 17 -
ordinary shops. As these products could now be sold in ordinary shops it was much easier for
consumers to obtain such fair trade products (Renard, 2003, p.89-90).
The increased availability of fair trade products also resulted in more conscious
consumers. More consumers encountered fair trade products and thus became aware of the
conditions and consequences of their consumption choices, where their purchases came from
and how their purchases have affected social and ecological conditions of production
countries (Goodman, 2004, p.900).
Barnett et. al. (2005, p.7), however, argue that the availability of fair trade products
can also effect less aware consumers. They draw upon a case study of Bristol to indicate the
importance of the availability of fair trade products. Bristol is a Fairtrade Town in England
with many shops in the city centre where one can only purchase fairly traded or biological
foods and cloths. It is therefore “[…] difficult not to be an ‘ethical consumers’ if you live
close to the middle-class part of town” because the products available are mainly ‘ethical’
products (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.7). Barnett et. al. (2005, p.14) thus suggest that fair trade
consumption can also be stimulated without addressing the consumers directly, but by
changing the systems of collective provisioning of organizations – both (local) businesses and
public bodies. By providing merely fairly traded or other ethical products in canteens and
restaurants ethical consumption is less dependent on consumer choice. It is, however, more
dependent on the willingness of organizations to participate in such forms of corporate social
responsibility2 (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.13).
Increasing availability and accessibility of fair trade products thus has influence
consumer behaviour in three different ways. Firstly, it makes the conscious purchase of fair
trade products low threshold as it is more easily accessible in shops. Secondly, more
consumers become aware of fair trade encounter the products more often. Thirdly, the
increase of availability can encourage less conscious consumers to purchase ethically by
limiting their options of choice. The latter consequence, however, remains greatly dependent
on the willingness of private and public organizations to provide for such products.
2.4.3 Ethical beliefs
The ‘ethical beliefs of an individual’ is an important concept underlying fair trade
consumption. It is an intrinsic determinant, at this motivation depends on the consumers
perception of reality. Consumers of ethical products often have certain ideals. Fair trade
consumers for instance aspire the realization of a more equal world system. These beliefs
determine social identification with the fair trade as and with the associated products
(Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.361). Fair trade products, however, are only one type of ethical
products amongst the growing diversity of other ethical alternatives. The range of ethical
alternatives has increased, and labels on the market now include eco labels, organic food
labels, forest certification labels amongst many others (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.359).
The basis for ethical purchasing is essentially normative (Castaldo, 2009, p.2). With
the increasing range of ethical alternatives and associated labels consumers are often forced to
make choices (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p. 359). Though consumers can agree with different
ethical beliefs labels are only authentic in those acclamations that the particular label stands
for (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.360). Labels are thus not able to include the entire range of
ethical beliefs and convictions, forcing consumers to choose those products that best fit their
beliefs.
Furthermore, different ethical issues of concern to consumers are in many instances
interrelated to others. For example Connolly’s study of green consumption (as mentioned by
Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.360) indicated that its participants prefer to purchase local
Corporate Social Responsibility refers to the “strategic choice to take responsibility for the impact of business
operations with respect to economic, environmental and social dimensions” (Werre, 2003, p. 259).
2
- 18 -
products and reduce the consumption of products from overseas, to improve environmental
matters. Fair trade consumers, however, purchase products produced under fair circumstances
in geographically distant places, in order to stimulate Third World development. The issue of
green consumerism thus counterpoises environmental concerns of long distant transportation
against Third World development (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.362). In other circumstances
the ethical issues of environment and Third World development would likely be unconnected.
The existences of different labels with different acclamations have, however, manifested the
co-existence and consistency of these ethical issues, which only adds to the complexity of
consumer decision-making (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p. 360).
An important concept underlying fair trade consumption is thus the ethical beliefs of
the consumer. Fair trade groups thus draw on consumer attachment to the underlying ethical
issues (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p. 361). Yet, though consumers might agree with the ethical
issues underlying fair trade they might find other issues more substantial at that time.
2.4.4 Trust
Consumer trust is an influential and important intrinsic determinant regarding the success of
any product sales, including fairly trade products. This is evident from the research by Brown
and Dacin (1997, p.68) on the effect of corporate associations on consumer response to new
products. Their research showed that consumer opinions about a company’s ability to produce
socially good products had stronger effect on consumer attitudes toward a company than the
company’s perceived response to its social obligations. Consumer opinions and trust in the
company’s ability to produce ethical products is thus proven to be more important for the
company’s success than the actual (social) performance of the company (Brown and Dacin as
mentioned by Castaldo et. al., 2009, p.3). Because the fair trade movement is mainly
consumer dependent, consumer trust should be perceived as an important factor concerning its
success (Castaldo et. al., 2009, p.6-7).
Trust, however, is a versatile concept that influences consumption patterns. Regarding
fair trade consumption, consumers must firstly trust and believe in the concept of fair trade.
Consumers have to trust and believe in the values that the fair trade movement declares to
uphold. Furthermore consumers have to trust that their purchase can and will have a positive
impact on the social wellbeing of producers elsewhere, in order to be willing to participate in
the fair trade network (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.8). Yet, the concept of fair trade is often
considered an idealistic and respectively unrealistic aspiration. Explanations for this
perception of fair trade are diverse, differing from a lack of concrete proof to the (ethical)
beliefs systems of consumers.
Consumers often want proof that their extra expenditure positively influences the
circumstances of the marginalized producers. This direct proof, however, is often difficult to
obtain due to the complicated networks through which trade proceeds (Alexander & Nicholls,
2006, p.1243). Another causer of the credibility gap of the concept of fair trade is the notion
that it is a western-oriented movement that particularly upholds western standards. Fair trade
is therefore not always considered to be the best form of development (Renard, 2003, p.92).3
A second aspect of trust is that consumers have to trust the organizations underlying
fair trade. Consumers have to trust the implementation of fair trade as executed by particular
organizations (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p.1241). Fair trade organizations gain their
supporters and consumers by creating issue-awareness and building trust in the authenticity of
the fair trade process. Accredited fair trade products guarantee consumers that they are
purchasing genuinely fairly trade products (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p.1242).
3
The perceptions and discussions on the different and best forms of aid or development are manifold and very
diverse. Although these perceptions underlie the lack of trust in the concept of fair trade they shall not be
elaborated on further, as this discussion is too extensive and does not conduce to the further research.
- 19 -
Notification of the production conditions thus insures consumer trust. Labels function
as market communication through which the conditions of production are commuted to
consumers (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p.1246). These information flows are driven by
producer narratives and these have to be convincing enough to establish sustainable trust in
the fair trade case and improve loyalty towards the case (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006,
p.1236).
A main causer of the credibility gap of fair trade organizations is that their goals are
twofold. First of all fair trade functions within the existing market as an alternative and
competing choice of consumption. They thus attempt to achieve economic expansion within
the existing global market. Secondly, however, fair trade organizations strive for political
consolidation (Renard, 2003, p.92). The availability and consumption of fair trade is therefore
also a political statement, through the means of politics of choice (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.5).
The difficulty for fair trade organizations lies in the dilemma of remaining ‘pure’ and
marginal, or aligning with larger distributions, but ‘losing their soul’ (Renard, 2003, p.92).
These conflicting and contradictory goals result from the notion that fair trade operates both
in but also against the market, the very essence that makes the fair trade movement so
uniquely powerful (Goodman, 2004, p.897). The consequence, however, is a lack of
understanding and trust from certain consumers who want the fair trade movement to remain
transparent and pure about their goals (Renard, 2003, p.92).
The fair trade movement and organization that participate in fair trade thus have to
deal with two aspects of consumer trust. Firstly consumers have to trust the concept of fair
trade and believe that fair trade can function as an alternative trade network within a context
of globalization. Secondly consumers have to trust the organizations that are involved with
fair trade.
2.4.5 Costs and Quality
Two obvious, but nevertheless important, extrinsic determinants of fair trade consumption are
the costs and the quality of the products. Firstly the participation and willingness of
consumers to pay more for higher social standards in producing countries are of key
importance of the existence of fair trade (Mann, 2003, p.2041). Consumers of fair trade
products do not merely pay for the cheapest product, but also cooperate in international aid by
paying a higher premium. The Fairtrade label, for instance, has implemented higher social
premium for livelihood improvement in developing countries (Goodman, 2004; p.897). The
costs of fair trade products are thus higher than the costs of many other products. The income
of individual’s is therefore often a crucial factor determining fair trade as consumption choice
(Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.8). Consumers have to be able to afford the products.
Consequently the quality of the products is an important determinant of fair trade
consumption. By assuring product quality consumers are more likely to be willing to pay
these higher prices.
Furthermore the improvement of product quality increases the range of consumers
interested in fair trade products, drawing on conscientious consumers rather than merely the
ethically responsible consumers. By shifting the focus of fair trade products from merely the
process to the product itself, fair trade can obtain more consumers and better position itself
within the contemporary global market (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p.1243). Also the
improvement of product quality can further guarantee satisfaction amongst consumers and
thus guarantee future purchases of the product (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p. 1244).
- 20 -
2.4.6 Socio-demographic Characteristics
Though ethical consumption choice is greatly dependent on the consumers’ values sociodemographic characteristics are in general thought to be determinants in ethical or fair trade
consumption behaviour (Pelsmacker, Driesen, Rayp, 2005, p.365).
There has been a lot of discussion regarding the influence that socio-demographic
characteristics have on consumption choice. In general an ethical consumer is considered to
be a person with a relatively high income, high level of education and high social status
(Carrigan and Attalla 2001; Roberts 1996). Dicksons (2001, as mentioned in Pelsmacker,
Driesen & Rayp, 2005, p.366), however, found that the socio-demographic characteristics of
age, income and employment did not distinguish socially conscious consumers from the less
conscious consumer.
Research conducted by Loureiro & Lotade (2005, p.135) proved that the level of
education had a statistically significant effect on fair trade consumption. They proclaimed this
to be in accordance with Blend and Van Ravenswaay (1999, as mentioned in Loureiro &
Lotade, 2005, 135-136) who stated that higher educated consumers were more likely to
purchase eco-labelled apples over the regular ones.
Furthermore, gender is considered a factor determining fair trade consumerism.
According to Dicksons (2001, as mentioned in Pelsmacker, Driesen & Rayp, 2005, p.366)
ethical consumers were often female. According to Loureiro & Lotade (2005, p.135) female
respondents with higher income are more likely to pay a premium for fair trade, while older
consumer are less likely to pay for these distinguished goods. Other studies, however,
concluded that ethical purchasing behaviour was not influenced by gender (e.g. Sikula &
Costa, 1994; MORI, 2000, as mentioned in Pelsmacker, Driesen & Rayp, 2005, p.366).
The results of these different researches are not inconclusive. Yet the sociodemographic factors that are most likely to influence fair trade consumption are level of
education, level of income, employment, age and social status.
- 21 -
3. Research Approach and Methodology
This research is an explorative research that examines the relation between Fairtrade
consumption choice and the notion of a Fairtrade Town. It focuses on the specific case of
Utrecht. The first subsection, (3.1) Research Design, of this chapter shall elaborate on the way
in which this research is built up. The subsequent chapter elaborates on the methods used to
collect the data in (3.2) Methods of Data Collection. In the third, (3.3) Methods of DataAnalysis, subsection the analysis methods shall be addressed. The final subchapter provides
the operational and measurable definitions of the main concepts that are researched in this
paper (3.4) Operationalization.
3.1 Research Design
In order to conduct this research an inductive research method shall be used in order to
determine the relation between different variables (Baarda & De Goede, 2006, p.50). The
research attempts to find coherence between Fairtrade Utrecht´s goals and strategies and the
interests of its target group, consumers. Both qualitative as quantitative research approaches
shall be used in order to make several general statements that shall lead to a plausible and
logical conclusion to the research question: To what extent does the strategy of Fairtrade
Utrecht correspond with the consumer motivation for purchasing Fairtrade products in
Utrecht?
This research uses a ´mixed method´ to reach to its conclusion, using both qualitative
and quantitative research methods (Bryman, 2006, p.100) Qualitative research is a research
that is used to interpret social phenomena. The researcher attempts to see from the perspective
of the respondent but also takes into account that the social phenomena are subject to the
perspective of the researcher (Berg, 2009, p.9). This research shall consist out of two
qualitative research methods: a document analysis and an interview. These two methods shall
provide more information about the strategies and goals of the Fairtrade Utrecht foundation
and the Utrecht municipalities. The policy documents of Fairtrade Utrecht shall be analysed
and subsequently an interview with E. Meijer, the coordinator of the steering group of
Fairtrade Utrecht. The interview shall allow for a more thorough exploration of the
specificities of the goals and strategies of Fairtrade Utrecht. These two strategies shall be used
to answer the first two sub-questions:
1. To what extent doe the goals of Fairtrade Utrecht target the notion of
consumption?
2. What policies and strategies does Fairtrade Utrecht use to stimulate Fairtrade
consumption?
A qualitative research method shall be used in order to answer the questions concerning
consumer motivation. By conducting open survey amongst consumers information shall be
obtained about barriers and motivators experienced by consumers. These barriers and
motivators shall be derived from the theoretical framework presented in chapter 2.
The survey shall be used to answer last three sub-questions:
3. To what extent is the consumer familiar and involved with the notion of Utrecht as
a Fairtrade Town?
- 22 -
4. What factors are most influential and motivating for consumers to purchase
Fairtrade?
5. What are the main barriers that consumers in Utrecht experience when purchasing
Fairtrade?
Using more than two research methods to investigate the same phenomena increases the
reliability and validity of a research. The combining of different research methods is referred
to as ‘triangulation’ (Mogalakwe, 2006; 228).
Finally the different information provided by the different research methods shall lead
to a conclusion and possible recommendations for the Fairtrade Utrecht foundation. Although
this research provides information on the motivations and barriers for Fairtrade consumerism
there are important factors that should be taken into account when drawing conclusions and
making recommendations. Assumptions should be carefully made due to the specific research
design, the representativeness of the respondents and the specific interpretation of the
researcher (Berg, 2009, p.10). These aspects shall be discussed in a final chapter containing a
discussion of the findings of this research.
Figure 3.1 shows a schematic diagram representing the steps that shall be undertaken
during this research It shows the different phases of the research. The theoretical framework
shall provide the knowledge underlying the document analysis, interviews and surveys.
Knowledge obtained in the interview shall also be used to set up the interview. Finally the
results of the document analysis, interviews and surveys shall eventually lead to a conclusion.
Research Question: To what extent does the strategy of Fairtrade Utrecht correspond
with the consumer motivation for purchasing Fairtrade products in Utrecht?
Theoretical Framework
 Context of fair
trade

Fair trade
consumerism

Determinants of
fair trade
consumption
Document Analysis of
Policy Documents
Surveys Amongst
Utrecht Consumers
Conclusion
Fig. 3.1 – Schematic diagram of the Research Approach
- 23 -
Interview(s) with
Expert(s)
3.2 Methods of Data Collection
As several research methods are used there shall also be several methods of data collection:
document analysis, interview, survey.
3.2.1 Document Analysis
The first phase of the research shall consist of an analysis of several policy and evaluation
documents by the Fairtrade Utrecht Foundation. These were obtained through E. Meijer, the
coordinator of the steering group of Fairtrade Utrecht, and B. Girjasing, the contact person
within the Utrecht municipality.
The documents consist out of the 2013 annual plan of the Fairtrade Utrecht, which was
made to obtain prolongation of the Fairtrade Town title; two reports on the results of Fairtrade
Utrecht in 2011 and 2012; two jury reports on Utrecht, one of 2012 and one of 2010, by the
Fairtrade Municipality Foundation (‘Fairtrade Gemeenten’); and a communication plan of
2012 of the Fairtrade Utrecht team.
3.2.2 Interview
An interview is conducted in order to obtain more knowledge about the strategies of Fairtrade
Utrecht. The interview shall have a semi-standardized structure. Interviews that are formally
structured have a previously determined question order, but in semi-standardized interviews
questions might be added or adjusted according to the information received (Berg, 2009,
p.105).
The interview shall start with a short introduction, introducing the goals of this
research. Subsequently the topics shall be addressed. The previous literature study and
document analysis shall provide sufficient information for the interview topics. The essential
questions that concern the central focus of the research shall however be marked, so that those
themes are not forgotten (the ‘Topic List’ is added in appendix I).
There are some complications and drawbacks of this research strategy. It is important
to note that interviewees often provide somewhat subjective information. This can be caused
firstly due to ‘selective memories’: people can remember certain events differently than how
they actually occurred. Secondly people tend to give socially-desirable answers in order to
profile themselves or their projects in a more positive way (Berg, 2009, p.132). Furthermore
respondents might be biased in their perception of the situation or want to render the situation
more positively than it actually is (Baarda & De Goede, 2006, p.222).
Such bias can be reduced by using interview techniques, such as reformulating the
question, asking a more elaborate explanations, asking examples, or in the case that the
interviewee provides multiple answers the interviewer can ask the interviewee to prioritize the
answers. Yet, the possible bias that occurs during interviews should also be taken into account
when analysing and drawing conclusions from the interview data.
The interviewee was E. Meijer, the coordinator of the steering group of Fairtrade
Utrecht. The steering group of Fairtrade Utrecht is responsible for achieving the Fairtrade title
annually. The steering group therefore sets up and implements the annual strategy in order to
achieve the goals as set by the Fairtrade Municipality jury (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente
Utrecht, 2013a, p.2). As coordinator E. Meijer knows most about the execution of Fairtrade
Utrecht’s policies and can therefore provide a lot of necessary information on the functioning
of Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town.
- 24 -
3.2.3 Survey
In this research we shall conduct open surveys amongst consumers in order to obtain
information about consumer motivation for purchasing Fairtrade products (the survey is
available in appendix II). The results of the surveys shall provide descriptive information on
consumer motivators that influence Fairtrade consumption. Descriptive information simply
describes certain characteristics and how frequently they occur, but does not attempt to
provide causal explanations for the observed phenomenon (Baarda & De Goede, 2006,
p.102).
This research investigates the diversity of consumer views, yet surveys are used as a
research method, firstly because it allows for many consumers to be reached in a relatively
short amount of time and secondly because it provides more options to research relationships
(Bryman, 2006, p.111). The possible answers shall be derived from the theoretical framework.
As there is not enough time to conduct thorough interviews with a substantial number of
respondents an open survey is the best research method. An open survey allows for more
space for comments or alternative answers that might not have arisen from the theoretical
framework (Baarda & De Goede, 2006, p.238).
The survey research concerns the following population:
Theoretical population:
Operational population:
Survey Sample:
Consumers
Consumers in Utrecht
> 150 consumers in Utrecht
The Utrecht population was 321 916 in 2013 (CBS, 2013g). According to Baarda & De
Goede (2006, p.167) approximately 600 respondents would necessary to have a guaranteed
reliability margin for this population with a random sample group. Due to time restraint and
confined possibility during this research this research shall be conducted under at least 100
people, as is
recommended by Baarda & De Goede (2006, p.166).
In order to obtain survey data from respondents a Simple Random Sampling strategy
shall be used in combination with internet surveys. The Simple Random Sampling strategy is
based on chance as each individual is chosen randomly. Surveys shall be conducted in
different shopping areas in Utrecht and every third person shall be addressed. All subsets shall
therefore have an equal probability to be surveyed which minimises the bias of the results
(Baarda & De Goede, 2006, p.153).
This sample strategy, however, provided only a few respondents. The target group,
consumers, were often not willing to participate in street surveys. Due to the time restraint
during this research a second sampling strategy, internet sampling, was used to obtain a larger
sample group. The internet survey was held through means of a Snowball Sampling. It was
conducted under a view people that were considered part of the target population, and those
people were asked to forward the internet survey amongst other people they knew whom met
the requirements of the target population (Baarda & De Goede, 2006, p.360).
A drawback of internet sampling is that the chance that certain groups are
overrepresented is quite large because some people have better access to the internet.
Furthermore the snowball sampling strategy is a select sampling strategy and can therefore
more easily result in respondents from a similar social network (Baarda & De Goede, 2006,
p.163).
Because a combination of select and random sampling is used the reliability of the
results of this sample is considered low. This shall be improved by correcting the possible
bias to the socio-demographic factors of the inhabitants (and thus consumers) of Utrecht as
- 25 -
presented by the Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS) (see Chapter 5.1 Survey Sample
Analysis). The socio-demographic factors that shall be included, based on the theoretical
framework, are: gender, age, income and educational level.
3.3 Method of data-analysis
The data shall be analysed through several means: a document analysis, interview and survey.
All the different analysis shall be combined in order to reach a conclusion. A document
analysis and interview shall provide information about the strategy of Fairtrade Utrecht. The
outcome and analysis of the survey results shall offer more insight in the consumers’
motivators and barriers of purchasing Fairtrade products.
3.3.1 Document Analysis and Interview
The document analysis and interview are about the goals and strategy of the Fairtrade Utrecht
foundation, concerning consumers. Important when analysing the interview and documents is
that the interpretation of the researcher is important. Phenomena are subject to their social
environment, change and interpretation. Therefore the researcher’s interpretation of
qualitative data is influences the analysis (Berg, 2009, p.339).
The documents that are to be analysed have a communicative function; they inform
the Utrecht municipality and overarching organization ‘Fairtrade Gemeenten’ about the goals,
achievements and policies in order to justify their actions and expenditure. The purpose of the
analysis of Fairtrade Utrecht’s documents is to obtain and interpret the meanings of the people
who produced the documents. It is therefore important to take into account the purpose of the
texts, when they were written and by whom they were written. This retains the credibility of
the analysis (Mogalakwe, 2006, p.221).
The interview shall provide additional information on the goals and execution of the
policy strategy. Information provided during the interview shall also be summarized and
interpreted. It shall provide added value to the previously conducted document analysis. The
information of both the interview and the document analysis shall than be organized
according to the previously described determinants of Fairtrade consumption (in Chapter 2:
Theoretical Framework). Interview fragments shall be paraphrased in the results chapter to
substantiate the arguments made.
The interview is to be recorded and subsequently transcribed. Transcribing is
necessary because the human brain is incapable of remembering all the information provided
in an interview. This transcript allows for the interview to be listened to more often and can
thus be analysed more thoroughly (McLellan, MacQueen & Neidig, 2003, p.64).
The knowledge obtained from the document analysis and interview shall be combined
to obtain more thorough and inclusive knowledge of the strategies and goals of Fairtrade
Utrecht. The concepts derived from the document analysis, interview and also the theoretical
framework shall subsequently be included in the survey.
3.3.2 Survey Analysis
In order to analyse the quantitative data from the surveys the statistics software package SPSS
shall be used. The results of the survey shall be entered in SPSS and per question statistical
analyses shall be made. These analyses shall provide results from which conclusions can be
drawn. The goal of the survey is mainly to describe the trends that are visible in motives
determining consumption choice in Utrecht. The survey thus mainly provides ordinal and
nominal data, indicating the perception of respondents (Bryman, 2006, p.110).
- 26 -
As this research is mainly descriptive the main analysis method that shall be used is
that of frequency calculation. Frequency calculations can provide insight in the proportions
and percentages of respondents per sought category. The mode is the most common category
under the respondents and thus provides information about the distribution the answers
(Baarda & De Goede, 2006, p.289).
Furthermore the estimated errors (σp ) of the data shall be calculated to indicate to what
extent the results can be generalized amongst consumers. With the estimation error a
percentage range can be calculated in order to indicate the percentage of the population likely
(with a certainty of 95%) to agree with the results of the survey sample (Baarda & De Goede,
2006, p.297).
Besides descriptive data analysis this research shall also investigate if consumers that
are knowledgeable of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign are more likely to purchase Fairtrade
products. This shall be done by looking at the differences between the two groups; those
familiar with Fairtrade Utrecht and those who are not. In order to calculate the significance of
the differences in ordinal data the Mann-Whitney U test shall be conducted (Leliveld &
Blaauwendraad, 2013, p.35). The significance level which is maintained shall be: p = 0,05,
corresponding with a probability of 5% that the outcome is coincidental (Baarda & De Goede,
2006, p.360). Appendix III contains a list of the statistical tests performance per question.
3.4 Operationalization
The goal of operationalizing concepts is to create concrete and measurable terms that can be
depicted in categories. An operational concept regulates how the research units, in this case
the consumers in Utrecht, are to be classified. The operationalized concepts are the properties
of these units and are called variables (Baarda & De Goede, 2006, p.363).
This research includes the following research units and properties that shall be examined:
Units:
Properties:
Consumers in Utrecht
Age, Gender, Income, Educational Level, Awareness, Care
and Responsibility, Ethical Beliefs, Trust, Visibility and Recognition,
Access and Availability, Costs, Quality.
In the interview these properties are included in the topic list. The interviewee shall
investigate how these concepts are perceived and included in the goals and strategy of
Fairtrade Utrecht.
In order to obtain information about these properties amongst consumers in Utrecht,
however, the concepts have to have a measurable or operational definition. Both conceptual
and the relating operational definitions are provided below. The conceptual definitions,
however, are often diverse van versatile. In this research a conceptual definition shall be given
that best suits the characteristics that are researched. It should thus be kept in mind that the
definitions have their limitations and there might not always satisfy during other research.
In the Theoretical Framework intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were distinguished.
Extrinsic motivators being those motivations that are external from the individual’s perception
of things and intrinsic motivators as motivation that comes from personal perception or
interest and is thus internally driven (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p.54). Though both motivators can
be influenced externally, intrinsic motivation is usually more difficult to influence as the task
or idea has to fit with the personal values and beliefs. Below the determinants have thus been
- 27 -
distinguished as either intrinsic or extrinsic determinants, as explicated in the Theoretical
Framework.
3.5.1 Intrinsic factors
Intrinsic motivation is driven by ones’ personal believes and practices. These motivations are
often difficult to determine as the beliefs and practices of individuals are complex, diverse and
multifarious. Below both the conceptual definitions and the operational definitions are
provided and explained. In Appendix IV the operational definitions, measurement levels and
belonging statistical tests are displayed in an overview.
Awareness, Care and Responsibility:
Awareness is the ability to perceive, feel and be conscious of the social conditions,
happenings and surroundings (Raghuram et. al., 2009, p.5). This concept was elaborated on
in the theoretical framework and is an important concept underlying ethical consumption.
In this case care can be best described as concerns over people and place (Raghuram
et. al., 2009, p.6). These concerns can be invoked by initial awareness of an issue.
If a sense of care also leads to a sense of responsibility people are usually willing to
enact this sense of care and responsibility, resulting for example in ethical consumption.
Responsibility in this situation refers to a sense of social obligation towards other, also
geographically distant, people (Raghuram, et. al., 2009, p.8).
Creating an operational definition that measures the separate, but complex and
interconnected, concepts of awareness, care and responsibility is difficult. Therefore the
operational definitions shall measure all these three concepts simultaneously and not
distinguish between these three theoretical concepts. Due to the complexity of the concepts of
awareness, care and responsibility they shall be measured in several ways. The operational
definitions are provided in table 3.1.
Operational definition
How often Fairtrade is
purchased by the consumer.
How important the
contribution to a better world
is rendered by the consumer.
How important the promotion
of fair trade relations is
rendered by the consumer.
How important helping the
poor producers abroad is
rendered by the consumer.
To what extent is ‘not thinking
about it’ experienced as an
obstacle for purchasing
Fairtrade.
Explanation
Consumers that purchase Fairtrade products
often are likely to either be more aware or
experience a greater sense of care and
responsibility. Therefore this operational
definition gives insight in the ‘importance’
of Fairtrade for the consumer. Consumers
that do not pay attention while purchasing
can be considered less ‘aware’.
This question measures the importance as
perceived by the consumer.
Measurement level
Nominal (/Ordinal if
the last variable is not
included)
This question measures the importance as
perceived by the consumer.
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-4)
This question measures the importance as
perceived by the consumer.
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-4)
This question measures the restriction
perceived by the consumer.
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-3)
-
-
(Almost) Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
(I do not pay
attention to this)
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-4)
Table 3.1 – Operational definitions measuring ‘awareness, care and responsibility’ amongst consumers
- 28 -
Ethical Beliefs:
Ethical beliefs are the underlying principles, values and motives that any person, but also
consumers, have. Ethical beliefs that underlie purchasing behaviour, however, do not always
have to concern fair trade issues but can also concern other issues, such as environmental or
health issues. These issues can conflict with the fair trade principles and can then become a
barrier for consumers to purchase fair trade. On the other hand the ethical beliefs can be
motivating for consumers to purchase fair trade products, if these beliefs are in line with the
fair trade movement’s goals (Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.360).
In order to measure the ethical beliefs the operational definition shall measure the
importance of other ethical issues compared to the issue that fair trade addresses, as shown in
table 3.2.
Operational definition
How important does the
consumer find other labels or
brands (concerning other
ethical issues) compared to
Fairtrade?
How important
biological/ecological reasons
are rendered by consumers
when purchasing Fairtrade
Explanation
This question measures the importance of
other ethical consumerism compared to
Fairtrade consumerism. A high result
indicates that other ethical issues are
considered more important than fair trade.
This question measures the importance of
other ethical issues when purchasing
Fairtrade, as perceived by the consumer.
Measurement level
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-3)
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-4)
Table 3.2 – Operational definitions used to measure ‘ethical beliefs’
Trust
Trust is a versatile concept that can relate to many different aspects of consumption. Firstly it
addresses the intrinsic believes of consumers, regarding their perception of reality. In order
for consumers to want to purchase fairly traded products they have to trust the concept of fair
trade (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.8). Secondly the concept of trust addresses the issue of relying
on the actual organizations, in this situation the FLO (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p.1241).
In order to measure trust accordingly these two aspects of trust have to thus be measured
separately. Therefore two operational definitions are used. These are depicted in table 3.3.
- 29 -
Operational definition
Trust in the concept of fair trade
To what extent is the idea that
‘purchasing Fairtrade does not
contribute to a better world’
experienced as an obstruction by
consumers.
Trust in the concept of fair trade
Would the consumer purchase
(more) Fairtrade if it was sure
that it would have the desired
effect
Trust in the Fairtrade label
To what extent is the lack of
trust in the Fairtrade label
experienced as an obstruction by
consumers.
Explanation
This question measures the experienced
obstruction of trust in the concept of fair
trade.
Measurement level
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-3)
This questions measures if more trust in
the concept of fair trade could alter the
consumption behaviour
Nominal
(yes, no)
This question measures the experienced
obstruction due to lack of trust in the
Fairtrade labelling organization.
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-3)
Table 3.3 – Operational definitions used to measure consumer ‘trust’
3.5.2 Extrinsic factors
Extrinsic motivators are those motivators that come from external factors, such as rewards,
clear visibility and easy accessibility. Such motivators are easier for organizations to target as
it often has to do with practical means of motivating (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.8).
Visibility & Recognition
In this case visibility and recognition refers to the extent to which Fairtrade products can be
seen by consumers and to what extent the consumer are familiar with what they see. It is an
important concept concerning Fairtrade consumption as it visibility and recognition make sure
that consumers know where those products are available (Renard, 2003, p.90). It is especially
measured in this research by focussing on the knowledge of where products are available, as
this is dependent on how known (recognition) and visible the products are (table 3.4).
Operational definition
To what extent is the lack of
knowledge of where to
purchase Fairtrade
experienced as an
obstruction.
Would the consumer
purchase (more) Fairtrade if
the label was more clearly
visible on the product.
Would the consumer
purchase (more) Fairtrade
products if it was better
known where the products
are sold.
Explanation
This question measures the experienced
obstruction due to lack of visibility &
recognition of Fairtrade products
Measurement level
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-3)
This question measures if visibility would
alter consumption behaviour.
Nominal
(yes, no)
This question measures if visibility would
alter consumption behaviour. Visibility and
recognition determines if consumers are
aware of where Fairtrade products are sold.
Nominal
(yes, no)
Table 3.4 – Operational definitions used to measure the importance of ‘visibility & recognition’
- 30 -
Access & Availability
In this research access and availability refer to how easily products are obtainable for
consumers. If it is easy for consumers to obtain Fairtrade products they are sooner inclined to
do so (Goodman, 2004, p.900). In this research access and availability are measured in several
ways. The operational definitions are presented in table 3.5.
Operational definition
Does the consumer purchase
Fairtrade if it is available at
the store she/he is at.
Does the consumer purchase
Fairtrade if the product is
only available as Fairtrade in
the store.
Would the consumer
purchase (more) Fairtrade if
it were available in more
supermarkets.
Would the consumer
purchase (more) Fairtrade if
the product he/she wanted
would be available as
Fairtrade product.
Explanation
This question measures of availability &
access determines if Fairtrade products are
consumed.
This question measures if availability
determines if Fairtrade products are
consumed.
Measurement level
Nominal
(yes, no)
This question measures if access &
availability would alter consumption
behaviour.
Nominal
(yes, no)
This question measures if availability
would alter consumption behaviour.
Nominal
(yes, no)
Nominal
(yes, no)
Table 3.5 – Operational definitions used to measure the importance of ‘access & availability.
Quality
Quality refers to the experienced worth of a product. If consumers deem the quality high they
are more likely to want to pay more (Alexander & Nicholls, 206, p.1243). This concept is
measured in two ways as presented in table 3.6:
Operational definition
Would the consumer
purchase Fairtrade if the
quality of the product is
considered good
How the quality of a product
is rendered by the consumer
when purchasing Fairtrade.
Explanation
This question measures if the quality of the
product influences consumption behaviour.
Measurement level
Nominal
(yes, no)
This question measures the importance of
quality as perceived by the consumer.
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-4)
Table 3.6 – Operational definitions used to measure the importance of ‘quality’
Costs
The fair trade movement depends on the willingness of consumers to pay more for higher
social standards. The costs are therefore usually higher than the costs of other, comparable,
products (Mann, 2003, p.2041). This concept is operationalized in several ways (table 3.7):
- 31 -
Operational definition
How important the consumer
finds that the Fairtrade
product was on sale, when
purchasing it.
To what extent the costs of
Fairtrade products are
rendered an obstruction by
consumers.
Would the consumer
purchase (more) Fairtrade if
the products were cheaper
Would the consumer
purchase (more) Fairtrade if
they had more money to
spend
Explanation
Measures the stimulation of low(er)
products costs as experienced by the
consumer.
Measurement level
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-4)
Measures the obstruction of product costs
as experienced by the consumer.
Ordinal
(on a scale from 1-3)
Measures if the costs influence
consumption behaviour.
Nominal
(yes, no)
Measures if the costs influence
consumption behaviour.
Nominal
(yes, no)
Table 3.7 – Operational definitions used to measure the importance of ‘costs’
3.5.3 Socio-demographic characteristics
The socio-demographic characteristics are mostly based on figures provided by the Centraal
Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS). Below the concepts and their operation definitions are given
and explained.
Gender:
Definition:
Gender refers to the social and cultural aspect of the different sexes,
addressing the mental and behavioural characteristics of masculinity
and femininity (Loureiro & Lotade, 2005, p.135).
Measurement level: Nominal.
Operational concept: Indicate gender, either male or female.
Age:
Definition:
The amount of whole years that have passed since the date of birth of
the person (CBS, 2013a).
Measurement level: Scale.
Operational concept: The exact age in years.
Level of Education:
Definition:
The level of education refers to the type of education that is followed
and completed by an individual. Every education type is assumed to
have their specific goals , and provides the individual with certain
knowledge and skills. The specific levels of education are socially
determined (CBS, 2013b).
Measurement level: Ordinal.
Operational concept:
The operational definition used in this research is derived from the educational standards as
set the CBS (2006). These are depicted in table 3.8.
- 32 -
Education Level as defined by CBS (2006)
Operational Definition for
this Research
No education
Education for Toddlers
Primary Education
Secondary Education –
First Phase
Secondary Education –
Second Phase
Higher Education
Higher Education –
Second Phase
Higher Education –
Third Phase
Low
Medium
High
Low
Medium (HAVO or equivalent)
High (VWO or equivalent)
Low (MBO or equivalent)
Medium (HBO or equivalent)
High (University or equivalent)
(University master or
equivalent)
(PhD or equivalent)
Primary Education
(completed)
VMBO or equivalent
(completed)
HAVO/VWO or equivalent
(completed)
MBO or equivalent
(completed)
HBO or University bachelors
or equivalent (completed)
University Master or PhD or
equivalent (completed)
Table 3.8 - Operational Definition of Education level
Disposable income per person:
Definition:
The gross income minus income transfers, income protection
insurances, health insurances and taxes on income and capital, per
individual in the household (CBS, 2013c). The CBS has divided the
income groups in four, five or ten income groups. The most commonly
used income division is the five, or 20%, income group. All people
have been categorized in groups indicating 20% of the population. The
first 20% group are thus the households including the 20% of the
population that earns the least. The fifth 20% group are the 20% of
households with the highest income (CBS, 2013d).
Measurement level: Ordinal
Operational concept:
According to the CBS (2013e) the lowest 20% group of the population
has a maximum disposable income of €17,000 a year, corresponding with €1416,67 a month.
In the operational definition this income has been rounded to whole numbers, as respondents
are unlikely to know their exact disposable income per month. The other operational income
levels are displayed in table 3.9
- 33 -
Income group
1st 20 % (low)
2nd 20 %
3rd 20 %
4th 20 %
5th 20 % (high)
Maximum income
per year in €
17.000
24.200
33.500
46.400
-
Maximum income
per month in €
1416,67
2016,67
2791,67
3866.67
-
Operational income
in € (per household)
<1500
1500-2000
2000-2800
2800-3900
>3900
Table 3.9 - Operational Definition of Disposable Income
As disposable income is usually measured per household the amount of members of the
household should also be taken into account in order to get a standardised income (CBS,
2013j). asked (as a scale variable). By dividing the results of disposable income with the
amount of members in the household the respondents shall each obtain a score between 1 and
5 (as there are five ordinal income groups defined). These scores shall then correspond with:
Income group
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
Operational income in € (per person)
<1500 per person
1500-2000 per person
2000-2800 per person
2800-3900 per person
>3900 per person
Table 3.10 - Operational Definition of Disposable Income per person
- 34 -
4. Results - Fairtrade Utrecht
This chapter provides the results obtained from the conducted document analysis and
interview in combination with the information retrieved from the theoretical framework
provided in chapter 2. The first two subchapters shall be based mainly on the document
analysis and interview that was conducted. The results presented in the third, fourth and fifth
subchapter are obtained mainly from the surveys held amongst consumers.
In the first subchapter the first sub-questions of this research shall be addressed,
elaborating on the goals of Fairtrade Utrecht concerning consumption behaviour (in 4.1
Goals of the Fairtrade Utrecht Foundation concerning consumption). The second subsection
shall elaborate on the policies and strategies that the Fairtrade Utrecht foundation uses in
order to stimulate Fairtrade consumption (in 4.2 Policies and strategies of Fairtrade Utrecht
concerning consumers).
4.1 Goals of the Fairtrade Utrecht Foundation regarding consumption
The depiction of the goals of Fairtrade Utrecht regarding consumption is important because,
as was explicated in the theoretical framework, the fair trade movement is mainly consumer
dependent (Goodman, 2004, p.901). One of the main determinants of the success of Fairtrade
Utrecht thus depends on the willingness of consumers to participate, either consciously or
unconsciously, in the fair trade network. The goals of Fairtrade Utrecht should thus be
consistent with their target group, consumers. The first sub-question of this research, To what
extent do the goals of Fairtrade Utrecht target the notion of consumption?, addresses this
issue.
The goals of Fairtrade Utrecht are stated in the annual plan of the Fairtrade Utrecht
foundation. According to the annual plan the main goal of 2013 is increasing the knowledge
about fair trade products and production in Utrecht, and so serving the six criteria of the
national Fairtrade Town campaign (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.3). Five
of the criteria of the national Fairtrade campaign are set up by the international FLO, but the
sixth is included by the Dutch Fairtrade Town campaign in order to stimulate other ethical
initiatives besides fair trade. The criteria are (Fairtrade Gemeente, 2013):
- Local council passes a resolution supporting Fairtrade, and agrees to serve Fairtrade
products (e.g. in meetings, offices and canteens);
- A range of Fairtrade products are available in shops and food service industries;
- Schools, workplaces, places of worship and community organizations support
Fairtrade and use Fairtrade products whenever possible;
- Media coverage and events raise awareness and understanding of Fairtrade across the
community;
- A Fairtrade steering group representing different sectors is formed to co-ordinate
action around the goals and develop them over the years.
- Other ethical issues, e.g. environmental issues, are supported within the municipality
through the stimulation of CSR.
Precise indicators have been set up per criteria that are to be achieved in order to maintain the
title after march 2014 (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.10). The information
provided by the documents and interview analysis indicates that most goals were set up to
serve the criteria rather than to directly stimulate Fairtrade consumption.
- 35 -
In the annual plan of 2013 Fairtrade Utrecht it stated that several of their goals were
to: improve their organizational structure; collaborate more with other social partners; and
obtain more sponsorship in order to become less dependent on government subsidies
(Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht, 2013b, p.11). Although these improvements can eventually lead
to a greater effectiveness and improved results they do not directly target the issue of
consumption choice and shall therefore not be included in the analysis.
4.1.1 Goals Concerning Intrinsic Determinants
The table below shows the intrinsic determinants of Fairtrade consumption. These factors can
either be perceived motivators or barriers, was explicated in the theoretical framework
(chapter 2). The factors are derived from the theoretical framework and their operational
definitions are provided in chapter 3 (Methodology).
Intrinsic determinants of
Fairtrade consumption
Awareness
Care & Responsibility
Ethical beliefs
Trust
Goals concerning Fairtrade consumption as depicted in the
Fairtrade Utrecht Annual Plan of 2013.
- Create awareness and knowledge through events (e.g.
Fairtrade Fashion Event)
- Build a larger social network (e.g. through Facebook)
(Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.10)
Not mentioned
Not mentioned (in regard to Fairtrade consumption)
Not mentioned
Table 4.1 – Goals Targeting Intrinsic Factors
The determinant ‘awareness’ is the only intrinsic determinant targeted in the defined goals of
the Fairtrade Utrecht Foundation. The goal is to create awareness amongst consumers and
gain support by organizing events (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.10).
Furthermore a goal of Fairtrade Utrecht is to build a larger social network and so spread
awareness of the Fairtrade Town campaign in Utrecht (Meijer, 2013
The determinants ‘care & responsibility’, ‘ethical beliefs’ and ‘trust’ are not targeted
by the goals as they are now formulated
4.1.2 Goals Concerning Extrinsic Determinants
Extrinsic determinants influence Fairtrade consumption besides the intrinsic determinants
discussed above. These determinants are more easily targeted through organizational means
as they can be regulated externally (Barnett, et. al., 2004, p.19). Table 4.2 distinguishes the
goals per factor that influences consumption choice.
- 36 -
Extrinsic determinants of
Fairtrade consumption
Visibility & Recognition
Access & Availability
Cost
Quality
Goals concerning Fairtrade consumption as depicted in the
Fairtrade Utrecht Annual Plan of 2013.
- Improve visibility of Fairtrade at the location of the
municipality.
- Increase media attention of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign
to obtain support (the campaign should be in the media least
5 times this year).
- Increase visibility on website
(Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.10)
- More shops, food service industries, organizations and
corporations have to sell or use Fairtrade products ( the
target is an increase of 50 participants)
- More organizations should become sustainable and
offer/use Fairtrade products.
- Investigate the possibility to make the University of Utrecht
a Fairtrade University
(Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.10)
Not mentioned
Not mentioned
Table 4.2 – Goals Targeting Extrinsic Factors
The Fairtrade Utrecht annual plan mainly depicts goals to improve the ‘visibility &
recognition’ and ‘access & availability’ of Fairtrade. The determinants ‘cost’ and ‘quality’ are
not targeted in the goals that were set up.
Fairtrade Utrecht firstly attempts to do so by firstly targeting the visibility of Fairtrade
at the municipality. As of 2010 the Fairtrade Utrecht municipality Fairtrade products were
included in the municipalities procurement (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2012b,
p.3). According to E. Meijer (2013) the municipality does not have to provide 100% of the
coffee and tea as Fairtrade, but it should lead to that eventually.
Furthermore Fairtrade Utrecht a goals concerning the visibility of the Fairtrade Utrecht
campaign is attracting media attention. This can be all types of regular media such as
newspapers, the news and regional television. A minimal of 5 media appearances is set in
order to meet the fourth criteria of increasing media attention across the community (Meijer,
2013).
The factor ‘access and availability’ is targeted through means of increased provision
by shops, food service industries, organizations and corporations. By doing so Fairtrade
products are more easily available, making it low threshold for consumers to purchase
Fairtrade (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013, p.10). Additionally Fairtrade Utrecht
wants to more organizations to offer Fairtrade products, stimulating consumption of Fairtrade
amongst the employees there, increasing participation of the Fairtrade Town campaign and
functioning as an example to other organizations (Meijer, 2013).
- 37 -
4.2 Policies & Strategies used by Fairtrade Utrecht
Fairtrade Utrecht has set up several policies and strategies are used in order to achieve their
goals. These strategies either aim directly on the target group of consumers, or they stimulate
consumption through other means. This sub-section addresses on the following sub-question:
How do the policies and strategies of Fairtrade Utrecht stimulate Fairtrade consumption?
The main goal of Fairtrade Utrecht in 2013 is to increase the knowledge on fair trade
and the sales of Fairtrade products within Utrecht. This goal is to be accomplished through the
following means (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.3):
- The stimulation of trade, sales and purchases of Fairtrade products in Utrecht;
- The promotion of Fairtrade sales and purchases;
- The organization of campaigns supporting the national Fairtrade Town campaigns;
- The organizing of alternative activities that correspond with the overarching goal as
stated above.
4.2.1 A Disquisition of the Focus Groups and Strategies of Fairtrade Utrecht
The Fairtrade Utrecht campaign attempts to involve different groups, such as food catering
industries, consumers, organizations amongst many others, in order to achieve its main goal:
the increase knowledge of fair trade and trade in fair products. As the municipality is large
and diverse the foundation has decided create focus groups, on which they focus and with
whom they collaborate more intensively throughout one year (Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht,
2012a, p.2). In 2011 the focus group were corporations and organizations. The goal was to
stimulate the use of Fairtrade products within the corporations (Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht,
2012b, p.3). The annual report of march 2012 indicates that the food services industries still
used little Fairtrade products and participated little in the Fairtrade movement. One of the
main reasons given for this phenomenon is that the food service industries do not use
Fairtrade products is because of the perception that fair products have low quality and that
their prices are high (Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht, 2012b, p.2). Thus food service industries
became the focus target from March 2012 onwards. It is expected that improved participation
and collaboration of food service industries with Fairtrade shall improve the range,
availability and visibility of Fairtrade within the municipality (Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht,
2012a, p.2). As of March 2013 consumers and corporations were added ass focus targets as
increased participation of these groups can create more demand for fair products (Stichting
Fairtrade Utrecht, 2013b, p.14).
Fairtrade Utrecht has appointed the ‘push and pull’ strategy as their main approach to
obtain their goals. By using the ‘push’ strategy they want to motivate more shops and food
service industries to provide Fairtrade products. The goal is that the supplies of Fairtrade
products shall become more varied, more available and that their involvement shall put the
Fairtrade label more on the foreground (Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht, 2013b, p.17). This
strategy thus effects consumers by making it more available, accessible and increasing the
visibility of the products.
The ‘pull’ strategy is used to motivate companies, institutions and consumers to
purchase more Fairtrade products and so increase the demand for fair products (Stichting
Fairtrade Utrecht, 2013b, p.14). The annual strategy of 2013, however, does not provide any
notion of how to exactly to motivate these groups.
Yet the annual plan of 2013 has included a summary of all the activities that are held
in order to stimulate the supply of, and demand for, Fairtrade products. The following subchapters shall elaborate on these activities and subdivide them per determinant, as defined in
- 38 -
the theoretical framework. Not all activities shall be discussed, but several shall be addressed
in order to clarify how Fairtrade Utrecht attempts to achieve their goals.
The determinants ‘care & responsibility’, ‘ethical beliefs’, ‘trust’, ‘quality’ and ‘costs’
shall not be discussed elaborately as these determinants were not targeted specifically by the
strategy. They may however be discussed in occurrence with the other determinants as the
different determinants complement each other. A reason E. Meijer gave for not targeting
certain determinants is that there is little known about what people exactly need in order to
purchase Fairtrade or what would convince them to do so. Motivating people with little
affinity for the Fairtrade case remains difficult (Meijer, 2013).
Table 4.3 gives an overview of all the different determinants of Fairtrade consumption
and how/if they are targeted by the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign.
This aspect is targeted by Fairtrade Utrecht. By
increasing visibility & awareness and accessibility &
availability the campaign hopes to create more
awareness amongst consumers. Another means
through which the campaign addresses consumers is
by organizing events and appointing ambassadors
(Meijer, 2013).
This determinant was not targeted in the documents
that were analysed and in the interview. It, however,
does link closely to awareness which is targeted by
the campaign.
Ethical convictions are targeted by Fairtrade Utrecht.
Fairtrade Utrecht does this through the means of
stimulating CSR. The campaign also wants to
stimulate other ethical consumption (Stichting
Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.10). The
campaign does not, however, target the notion of
ethical convictions in regard to Fairtrade
consumerism.
This determinant was not targeted in the documents
that were analysed and in the interview.
Awareness
(+)
Intrinsic determinants
Care &
Responsibility
(-)
Ethical
convictions
(+-)
Trust
(-)
Visibility &
Recognition
(+)
Accessibility &
Availability
(+)
Extrinsic determinants
Quality
(-)
Costs
(-)
Visibility is targeted in many different way, through:
social media & media (Meijer, 2013); via the
municipality (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht,
2013b, p.15); by providing a data-base showing
where Fairtrade products are available (Meijer, 2013)
These are the main determinants targeted by Fairtrade
Utrecht. They are targeted through many different
means: informing corporations and organizations
about Fairtrade (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente
Utrecht, 2013c, p.5);
The perception of low quality is mentioned as a main
reason for food service industries not to sell Fairtrade
foods (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b,
p.17). This perception is however not further targeted
in the strategy and not mentioned as a barrier
concerning consumers.
The high cost is named as a reason that food service
industries are not willing to sell Fairtrade foods
(Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.17).
However it is not mentioned in regard to consumers
and not targeted in the entire campaign.
Table 4.3 – Overview of factors that influence Fairtrade consumption choice
- 39 -
4.2.2 Activities on raising Awareness
The annual plan of 2013 notes that ‘awareness’ should be increased amongst consumers in
Utrecht. This is to be done by informing people about the importance of Fairtrade. According
to the annual plan it is especially important to inform those people who do not purchase
Fairtrade yet, as participation of those consumers can increase the sales of Fairtrade products
tremendously (Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht, 2013b, p.16). Awareness is risen through several
means. Firstly the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign organizes activities such as the Fair Fashion
Event during the Fashion Week. The goal is to combine both the serious aspect of Fairtrade’s
underlying motives with fun activities. E. Meijer (2013) stated that during this event
entertaining activities were held in order to draw people to the event, but also substantive
talks and activities were held in order to inform people about the circumstances of the
producers of our products. By doing so the campaign attempts to raise more awareness (and a
sense of care & responsibility) amongst the consumers.
Other comparable activities were organized in order to promote the Fairtrade
movement, such as the ‘Puur’ restaurant week, a national week in which restaurants serve
mainly local, biological, ecological or Fairtrade foods in order to promote these ethical cases
and their own restaurants (Meijer, 2013).
Furthermore the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign attempts to create more awareness by
spreading information on (social) media. This is done especially through Facebook.
According to E. Meijer (2013) the followers on Facebook indicate that there is a support for
the Fairtrade case. Furthermore Facebook is used to spread the knowledge of Utrecht as a
Fairtrade Town (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.16).
During the interview it became clear that it is, however, much more difficult to reach
those people that do not come into contact with Fairtrade as much. People that are not yet
aware of the issues underlying Fairtrade are more difficult to target (Meijer, 2013). Events,
such as the Fair Fashion Event, especially draw those people already aware of Fairtrade and
the underlying concerns.
In order to also involve the ‘less aware’ consumer the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign for
instance held the Fair Fashion Event on a mainstream location in the centre of Utrecht,
allowing for bystanders, perhaps less aware of Fairtrade, to come into contact with Fairtrade
as well (Meijer, 2013).
Additionally Fairtrade Utrecht attempts to reach people whom are thought to be less
aware of Fairtrade by creating events targeting these groups specifically. An example is the
Fair Fashion Event that was organized in Kanaleneiland, echoing the example of the previous
Fair Fashion Event. Kanaleneiland deprived district in Utrecht where many ethnic minorities
live. This event was organized to spread awareness of Fairtrade amongst women with a
Moroccan background. The difficulty, however, is that these groups have different cultural
backgrounds with different norms and values and that they do not speak Dutch as native
language. It is therefore difficult to raise awareness amongst this target group (Meijer, 2013).
4.2.3 Activities on Visibility and Recognition
Another factor determining consumption choice that is intentionally targeted by Fairtrade
Utrecht is visibility and recognition. This is done partially done in order to create or reinforce
awareness but also to increase the recognition and so market the Fairtrade label (Meijer,
2013).
The Fairtrade Utrecht website, Twitter and Facebook are the main means used to
increase visibility and recognition of Fairtrade and the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign. These
social media keep the followers informed about the events and progress of Fairtrade Utrecht
(Meijer, 2013).
- 40 -
One way through which the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign wants to increase its visibility
and recognition is amongst ‘less involved’ consumers is by commuting it more through the
municipality communication channels. By presenting the Fairtrade label more within the
municipality, on the products used and served their and on the municipality website, Fairtrade
Utrecht hopes that the municipality will function as an example for other inhabitants of
Utrecht (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.15). According to E. Meijer (2013)
this could, however, be done even more in order to reach a larger group of citizens.
The campaign also makes use of media in order to increase Fairtrade’s visibility and
recognition. One of the goals is to appear in the media at least 5 times a year. This goal is set
to actively promote Fairtrade and the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign (Stichting Fairtrade
Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.17). Media attention is especially obtained during events
(Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013c, p.8)
Other means through which visibility and recognition is spread is by providing both
providers and consumers of Fairtrade with tools indicating where to Purchase Fairtrade. For
consumers a Fairtrade database is available online. This database gives an overview of all the
shops, organizations and corporations that sell Fairtrade (Meijer, 2013). Furthermore the
campaign provides a Fairtrade shopping route (Fairtrade Gemeenten, 2012). This route is
available on the Fairtrade Utrecht website and indicates not only those shops that provide
Fairtrade products, but also those shops that sell other ethical products (Meijer, 2013).
According to E. Meijer (2013) this is done because the Dutch Fairtrade campaign wants to
stimulate other types of ethical consumption too. By providing such information to consumers
in Utrecht it becomes easier for those consumers to obtain Fairly traded products.
For food service industries that sell Fairtrade products and collaborate with the
campaign stickers are provided, in order to promote Fairtrade and themselves (Stichting
Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.14).
4.2.4 Activities on Access and Availability
The strategy of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign mainly focuses on increasing the access and
availability of Fairtrade products. This is considered an important aspect because it becomes
easier for the consumers to obtain Fairtrade products (Meijer, 2013). Fairtrade Utrecht focuses
especially on the increasing the amount of shops, organizations and corporations that meet
the requirements that allow them to be included in the Fairtrade database .
Fairtrade Utrecht especially wants to stimulate more food service industries to provide
fair foods, drinks, coffee amongst other products (Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht,
2013b, p.17). This is done by conversing with people involved in different food service
industries in order to stimulate them to sell more Fairtrade products. Another means through
which this is done is by creating ambassadors that promote Fairtrade within the specific
business branches and thus gain support from other business branches (Stichting Fairtrade
Gemeente Utrecht, 2013b, p.10). This strategy or activity thus increases ‘awareness’ through
an external motivator, the ambassador. This is done because organizations that stimulate
others are considered more effective then when an external social organization attempts to do
so (Meijer, 2013).
Finally, Fairtrade Utrecht also attempts to involve more corporations in their campaign
to increase availability and access. Corporations and entrepreneurs are thus stimulated to
serve or provide fair or other ethical products. This is done through events were organized for
entrepreneurs. During such events ethical issues, such as those underlying Fairtrade, were
discussed (Stichting Fairtrade Utrecht, 2013c, p.5). Fairtrade Utrecht hopes to gain more
support from entrepreneurs by spreading this knowledge and thus creating more organisations
or corporations using or providing Fairtrade products.
- 41 -
5. Results – Consumers and Fairtrade
This chapter provides all the results that were obtained from the surveys held amongst
consumers. It thus addresses the last three sub question of this research.
The first subchapter analyses the survey sample (5.1) Survey Sample Analysis in order
to later be able to discuss the representativeness of the survey sample and thus the validity of
the results. The second subchapter analysis consumer awareness of, and involvement with,
Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town; addressing the third sub question of this research (5.2) Consumer
Involvement with Fairtrade Utrecht. The third and final subchapter analyses both the motives
and barriers experienced by consumers when purchasing Fairtrade. It thus provides the results
of the last two sub-questions (5.3) Consumer Motives and Barriers regarding Fairtrade.
5.1 Survey Sample Analysis
The survey is partially held via the internet and partially due to random sampling on the street.
This strategy was used to ensure a substantial and diverse sample group. A drawback of
internet sampling is that the chance that certain groups are overrepresented is quite large
because some people have better access to internet. In order to correct for such a bias the
socio-demographic characteristics of the survey sample are compared with the sociodemographic figures of that area. For the Dutch population these socio-demographic factors
are based on the population data as presented by the Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek
(CBS).
Income and educational level are included as socio-demographic factors as they are
also considered influential factors determining Fairtrade consumption. The SPSS outputs of
the results are all represented in appendix V.
Gender
In 2013 Utrecht had 321 916 inhabitants of which 156 223 male and 165 693 female (CBS,
2013g). This corresponds with 48,5% male and 51,5 % female. The survey results indicated
that 22,4% of the respondents were male and 77,6% were female. Females are thus
overrepresented in this survey sample.
Age
The population of Utrecht in 2013 is: 321 916 (CBS, 2013g). Research of 2012 distinguishes
population by age (CBS, 2012, p.22). As there is no more recently published data these
figures shall be abided.
Utrecht
% in Utrecht
Amount in
sample
% in sample
Total
0-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-64
65-79
80 or older
316 275
100,0
145
70 387
22,25
1
70 333
22,24
64
57 308
18,12
29
43 847
13,86
23
42871
13,55
22
23045
7,29
5
8484
2,68
1
100,0
0,69
44,14
20
15,86
15,17
3,45
0,69
Table 5.1 – Comparison of Age in Survey Sample and in Utrecht as provided by CBS (2012)
- 42 -
Table 5.1 shows that the group between the age of 20 and 29 is overrepresented in this group.
The groups 65 to 79 and 80 or older are both underrepresented. Furthermore the group of
respondents between the age of 0 and 19 is underrepresented, due to the fact that this research
was only held amongst consumers older than 18. The average age of the sample group was
35, and the mode was 23.
Level of Education:
The levels of education of the survey sample can be categorized in ‘high’, ‘medium’ and
‘low’ (CBS, 2013h). The results are represented in table 5.2 together with the percentages of
Dutch citizens that have completed this education according to the CBS (2013i).
Level of
Education
No education
Primary or
equivalent
VMBO or
equivalent
HAVO/VWO or
Frequency Definition by
in survey
CBS (2013h)
sample
1 Low
1
1
10
HBO/University
47 High
0,7
0,7
2,1
31
17,7
41
80,3
28
10,9
6,8
32,0
or equivalent
University
Master/PhD or
% of citizens
provided by
CBS (2013i)
0,7
16 Medium
equivalent
MBO or
equivalent
% in survey
sample
71
48,3
equivalent
Table 5.2 – Comparison of Level of Education of Survey Sample with the Dutch
population.
The results retrieved from the survey sample indicate that most respondents (80,3%) have had
a ‘high’ level of education, either obtaining a HBO or University bachelor’s degree, a
master’s degree or a PhD. This percentage is a lot higher than the percentage of the Dutch
inhabitants, which is 28%.
The amount of respondents with a ‘medium’ or ‘low’ level of education is a lot lower
than the data provided by the CBS.
- 43 -
Disposable income per person:
The disposable income per person was calculated by dividing the disposable income per
household by the amount of members of the household, giving an indication of the income per
person. The income was set on the 20% groups as set by the CBS (2013e). The outcome of
the results in presented in table 5.3.
Disposable income per
person
< €1500
€ 1500 – 2000
€ 2000 – 2800
€ 2800 – 3900
€ >3900
Frequency
Percentage
81
45
16
1
2
50,6
28,1
10,0
0,6
1,3
Table 5.3 – Survey Sample data of Disposable Income per person
The average personal disposable income is € 22.600 per year, corresponding with an average
of € 1883,33 per month (CBS, 2013k). More than half of the respondents, however, had an
income lower than € 1500. Only 28,1% of the respondents had an income that approximated
the average. 11,9% of the respondents had an income higher than €2000. The group of
respondents generally earns less than the average person in the Netherlands.
5.2 Consumer Involvement with Fairtrade Utrecht
This subsection addresses the third research question: To what extent is the consumer familiar
and involved with the notion of Utrecht as a Fairtrade town? It addresses the knowledge of
the consumer concerning Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town and if it relates in any way to
consumption behaviour.
5.1.1 Consumer knowledge of Fairtrade Utrecht
The results on the familiarity of consumer with Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town are represented in
table 5.4 and figure 5.1.
Frequency
Percentage
Cumulative %
Yes
37
25,2
25,2
No
110
74,8
100,0
Total
147
100,0
Table 5.4 – Does the consumer know Utrecht is a Fairtrade Town?
- 44 -
Familiarity of consumers with the Fairtrade
Utrecht campaign
Familiar
Not familiar
Fig. 5.1 – Does the consumer know Utrecht is a Fairtrade Town?
The table shows that the valid percentages (the percentage taking into account the missing
responses) of people who were familiar with Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town was 25,2%. The rest
of the respondents, 74,8 %, was not acquainted with Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town. The results
are represented in the figure 5.1.
The estimation error of these results in this survey sample is 0,0358. If the survey
sample is representative for its population it could be stated that, with a certainty of 95%, the
percentage of consumers acquainted with Fairtrade Utrecht lies between the 18,04% and
32,36% (for an elaboration on the statistical tests see appendix III).
5.1.2. Means through which familiarity was obtained
25,2% of the respondents are acquainted with Fairtrade Utrecht. Table 5.5 and figure 5.2
indicate the main means through which these respondents had become acquainted with
Fairtrade Utrecht. These results do not include those respondents not acquainted with Utrecht
as a Fairtrade Town. The multiple choice answers on the means through which consumers
became acquainted with Fairtrade Utrecht were based on the information provided from the
document analysis and interview.
Frequency
Via Event
Via Social Media
Via Friends
Via Media
Via Other
Total
Percentage
13
8
10
7
10
48
27,1
16,7
20,8
14,6
20,8
100,0
Cumulative %
27,1
43,8
64,6
79,2
100,0
Table 5.5 – Through what means was familiarity of Fairtrade Utrecht obtained?
- 45 -
The main cause of the familiarity of Fairtrade Utrecht was through organized events. The
respondents could give more than one answer to this questions. Therefore the frequencies and
valid percentages do not correspond with the actual amount of respondents, but with the
assessment of the multiple choice option relative to the others.
14
Through what means
is the respondent
familiar with
Fairtrade Utrecht
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Via Event
Via Social
Media
Via Friends
Via Media
Via Other
Figure 5.2 – Through what means was familiarity of Fairtrade Utrecht obtained?
‘Via events’ was rated highest, with a score of 13 out of 48 (27,1%). However ‘via friends’
and ‘via other’ were indicated as important means through which consumers became familiar
with Fairtrade Utrecht, both scoring 10 out of 48 (20,8%). The different results do not differ
much.
The option ‘via other’ scored rather high amongst this group of respondents. Other
means through which the respondents became familiar with the notion of Utrecht as a
Fairtrade Town were through work at the municipality (4 respondents indicated this), via
work or internships at organizations or stores that co-operated with Fairtrade Utrecht and via
the Fairtrade Town vouchers. This information was obtained through the ‘open option’ in the
survey.
5.1.2. Consumption Patterns and Knowledge of Fairtrade Utrecht
An important aspect is if consumption patterns and knowledge of Fairtrade Utrecht are
related. Figure 5.3 indicates how often consumers aware of Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town
purchase Fairtrade products in comparison to consumers unaware of Utrecht as a Fairtrade
Town (but aware of their consumption patterns).
- 46 -
60
50
40
Consumers Familiar with
Fairtrade Utrecht
30
Consumers unfamiliar with
Fairtrade Utrecht
20
10
0
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
Figure 5.3 – Do consumers aware of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign purchase more Fairtrade
products
The graph in figure 5.3 shows that the people that answered ‘yes’ to the question about being
familiar with Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town, were more likely to purchase Fairtrade ‘often’ or
‘always’ than those who were unfamiliar with Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town.
In total 37 out of 147 respondents indicated to be familiar with Utrecht as a Fairtrade
Town.
Frequency
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
Total
Percentage
5
19
12
1
37
Cumulative %
13,5
51,4
32,4
2,7
100,0
13,5
64,9
97,3
100,0
Table 5.6 – How often do consumers aware of Fairtrade Utrecht
purchase products with a Fairtrade label?
- 47 -
The mode, or answer that appeared most in the data set, was option 2 which corresponds with
the ‘often’. Table 5.6 indicates that 51,4% of the respondents purchases Fairtrade products
‘often’ according to their own perception.
110 respondents indicated to be unaware of Utrecht as a Fairtrade Town (see table
5.4). When regarding those respondents who are not familiar with Fairtrade Utrecht 87,4% of
the respondents still indicated to purchase Fairtrade products (table 5.7). The mode in this
sample indicated that most consumers (48,2%) in this group purchased Fairtrade ‘sometimes’.
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
I do not pay
attention 4
Total
Percentage
4
26
53
12
3,6
23,6
48,2
10,9
15
13,6
110
100,0
Table 5.7 – How often do consumers aware of Fairtrade
Utrecht purchase products?
with a Fairtrade label?
In order to research if there is a difference in Fairtrade purchasing frequency between
consumers whom have knowledge of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign and those who do not,
the variable ‘I do not pay attention to Fairtrade when purchase products’ is displayed as
‘missing’. The data than becomes ordinal. It should, however, be taken into account that the
‘missing’ option is an consciously chosen answer by respondents. Thus the difference
researched is only applicable for consumers whom are aware of how often they purchase
Fairtrade products.
Do you know that Utrecht
Frequency
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
is a Fairtrade Town?
How often do you
purchase products with a
Fairtrade label?
Yes
37
48,73
1803,00
No
95
73,42
6975,00
Total
132
Table 5.8a –Mann Whitney-U Ranks
13,6% of the respondents were labelled ‘missing’. In this case ‘missing’ corresponds with the survey answer ‘I
do not pay attention to Fairtrade when purchase products’. As the ‘missing’ option could be consciously chosen
by consumers the ‘missing’ variable is taken into account and the percentages are obtained from the column
‘percentage’ instead of ‘valid percentage’. The actual missing answers are taking out of the tables.
4
- 48 -
How often do you purchase
products with a Fairtrade
label?
Mann-Whitney U
1100,000
Sig. (2-tailed)
Table 5.8b – Mann Whitney-U Test Statistics
,000
a
a. Grouping Variable: Do you know that Utrecht is a
Fairtrade Town?
Figures 5.3 showed that the those people aware of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign also
purchase more Fairtrade products than the respondents unaware of the Fairtrade Utrecht
campaign. The Mann Whitney-U test (table 5.8a and 5.8b) indicates that the difference
between the group that does know Fairtrade Utrecht and the group that does not know
Fairtrade Utrecht is significant, as the significance (α = 0,000) is smaller than a probability of
0,05. It can thus be stated that there is a significant difference that those aware of the Fairtrade
Utrecht campaign consciously purchase more Fairtrade products than those consumers
unaware of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign.
5.3 Intrinsic Motives & Barriers regarding Fairtrade Consumption
This subsection addresses the main intrinsic motives and barriers as experienced by the
respondents. It thus partially provides the results of both the fourth and the fifth sub-question:
‘What factors are most influential and motivating for consumers to purchase Fairtrade?’ and
‘What are the main barriers that consumers in Utrecht experience when purchasing
Fairtrade products?’ As the determinants of Fairtrade can be either experienced as motivating
or as a restraint they shall be discussed together in this chapter.
5.3.1 Awareness, Care and Responsibility
Awareness, Care and Responsibility of the issues underlying fair trade were measured in
several ways throughout the survey. The first measurement is how often consumers purchase
Fairtrade products. The results are displayed in figure 5.4 And table 5.9.
- 49 -
50
Amount of Fairtrade
purchases by
consumers
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
I do not pay
attention to it
Fig 5.4 –Amount of Fairtrade purchases made by consumers (in % of respondents)
Frequency
Always
Often
Sometimes
Never
I do not pay attention to it
Total
Percentage
Cumulative %
10
6,3
6,3
47
69
17
17
160
29,4
43,1
10,6
10,6
100,0
35,6
78,8
89,4
100,0
Table 5.9 – How often do you purchase Fairtrade products?
Of the 160 respondents 10,6% of the respondents indicated not to be aware of their Fairtrade
purchases. 10,6% of the sample group indicated ‘never’ to purchase Fairtrade products, but
they were, however, aware of the fact that they did not do so.
At least 78,8% indicated to purchase Fairtrade at least ‘sometimes’. The estimation
error of these results is: 0,0323. It can thus be stated that (if the sample group is
representative) the percentage of consumer purchasing Fairtrade lies between 72,34% and
85,26%, with a certainty of 95%.
- 50 -
The second measurement of the variable ‘awareness, care & responsibility’ was by measuring
the importance of the argument of contributing to a better world, promotion of fair trade
networks and support for poor farmers abroad amongst the respondents. Results are shown in
figure 5.5.
60
50
40
Contribution to a better
world
30
Promotion of Fairtrade
networks
20
Support for poor farmers
abroad
10
0
Not important
A little bit
important
Important
Very important
Fig 5.5 – Importance according to Consumers (in % of respondents)
These exact results are displayed in table 5.10. 53,1% of the respondents indicated to find
contributing to a better world a ‘very important’ reason to purchase fair trade, 50,0% of the
respondents indicated to find promotion of fair trade networks ‘very important’, and 46,9%
indicated to find support for poor farmers abroad ‘very important’.
Contribution to a
Promotion of fair trade
Support for poor
better world (%)
networks (%)
farmers abroad (%)
Not important
1,0
1,0
5,1
A little bit important
8,2
9,2
13,3
Important
37,8
39,8
34,7
Very important
53,1
50,0
100,0
100,0
46,9
100,0
Total
Table 5.10 – Importance according to Consumers
These different measurements of ‘awareness’, ‘care & responsibility’ all show similar
patterns, indicating that this determinant is indeed found ‘very important’ by the respondents.
Only 1% of the respondents did not find this an important reason to purchase Fairtrade
products. 89,8% indicated to find it either important or very important, and 9,2 % indicated to
find it a little bit important (see table 5.13)
- 51 -
The measurement of how obstructive ‘unawareness of consumption choice’ is experienced by
consumers indicates that 38,3% of the respondents does not experience this as obstructive.
However at least 61,7% finds this an obstruction for purchasing Fairtrade, of which 24,3%
finds it very obstructive. The results are shown in figure 5.8 and table. 5.11.
Frequency
Not obstructive
A little obstructive
Very obstructive
Total
Percentage
41
40
26
107
Cumulative %
38,3
37,4
24,3
100,0
38,3
75,7
100,0
Table 5.11 – Experienced obstruction of ‘lack of awareness’ by consumers
5.3.2 Ethical Beliefs
Ethical Beliefs can be another intrinsic motivator underlying Fairtrade consumption. The
extent in which the beliefs of respondents are in line with the situation underlying Fairtrade
can be determined by the previous indicator: the extent in which the respondents are ‘aware’
and feel a sense of ‘care & responsibility’ for the case.
Yet other ethical beliefs, such as biological and ecological beliefs, can also withhold
consumers from purchasing Fairtrade products. Figure 5.6 and table 5.12 indicate how
obstructive other ethical labels were deemed by the consumers: 51,4% found the options of
other ethical labels an obstruction, of which 15,9% found it very obstructive.
Frequency
Not obstructive
Obstructive
Very obstructive
Total
Percentage
52
38
17
107
Cumulative %
48,6
35,5
15,9
100,0
Table 5.12 – Experienced obstruction due to importance of other labels
- 52 -
48,6
84,1
100,0
45
40
35
30
25
The importance of other labels
20
15
10
5
0
Not obstructive
A little obstructive
Very obstructive
Fig. 5.6 – Experienced obstruction due to importance of other labels (in % of respondents)
5.3.3 Trust
The intrinsic motivator trust was measured in two dimensions. Firstly trust in the concept of
fair trade was researched. Secondly trust in Fairtrade label specifically was researched.
The results were obtained through researching the effect as perceived by the
consumers. The results are provided in table 5.13 and in figure 5.7 on the following page.
Experienced obstruction due to Experienced obstruction due to
lack of trust in the concept of
lack of trust in the Fairtrade
fair trade (%)
label (%)
Not obstructive
70,5
58,8
A little obstructive
20,0
34,3
9,5
6,9
100,0
100,0
Very obstructive
Total
Table 5.13 – Experienced obstruction due to lack of Trust
- 53 -
80
70
60
50
40
Lack of trust in the conept of fair
trade
30
Lack of trust in the Fairtrade
lable
20
10
0
Not obstructive
A little obstructive Very obstructive
Fig. 5.7 –Experienced obstruction due to lack of trust in the ‘use’ of Fairtrade
A majority of 70,5% does not experience a lack in the concept of fair trade as an obstruction
for purchasing Fairtrade, thus suggesting that they do think it works. A lack of trust in the
Fairtrade label was experienced as a hinder more as 42,2% of the respondents indicated that
they did find a lack of trust in the Fairtrade label obstructive. Still the majority indicated to
not find this hindering.
A verification measurement was undertaken in order to research the importance of
trust for the consumers. These results presented in table 5.14. These results indicate that
72,5% of the respondents would purchase more if they were surer it would help and thus trust
that purchasing fair trade has the desired effect. These results thus contradict each other as
table 5.13 indicates that the majority of the consumers do trust the concept of fair trade.
Frequency
Yes
No
Total
Percentage
79
30
109
Table 5.14 – Would consumers purchase (more) Fairtrade if it was sure to help
- 54 -
72,5
27,5
100,0
5.4 Extrinsic Motives & Barriers regarding Fairtrade Consumption
This subsection elaborates on the extrinsic motives and barriers regarding Fairtrade
consumption. It focuses on visibility & recognition, access & availability, quality and costs.
5.4.1 Visibility and Recognition
Visibility and Recognition as a factor influencing Fairtrade consumption was perceived as a
barrier by almost half of the consumer respondents
Would purchase (more) Fairtrade if
the label was more visible
Frequency
(valid %)
Would purchase (more) Fairtrade if it
was better known where the products
are available.
Frequency
(valid %)
Yes
79
54,1
76
52,1
No
67
41,9
146
100,0
70
146
47,9
100,0
Total
Table. 5.15 – Importance of Visibility & Recognition
Table 5.15 shows that 54,1% of the respondents would purchase (more) Fairtrade products if
the label on the products was more visible.5 52,1% of the respondents indicated to purchase
(more) Fairtrade products if it was better known where the products were available, which
could thus be done by increasing visibility and recognition .6 The results and estimation
errors (of respectively 0,0412 and 0,0413) are very similar indicating that the results
correspond (see appendix III for the list of statistical analysis conducted).
When measuring how obstructive the respondents experienced the lack of visibility of
recognition 52,4% indicated to not find this obstructive. 13,1% found it very obstructive
(results are presented in table 5.16 and figure 5.8).7
Frequency
Not obstructive
A little obstructive
Very obstructive
Total
Percentage
76
50
19
145
52,4
34,5
13,1
100,0
Cumulative %
52,4
86,9
100,0
Table. 5.16 –Experienced obstruction due to lack of recognition/visibility
5
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0412, indicating that with certainty of 95% between 45,86% and 62,34% of the
consumers feel that they would purchase more Fairtrade products if they had more trust in the concept of
Fairtrade.
6
Estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0413, with a certainty margin of 95% between 43,84% and 60,36% of the consumers
feels they would purchase more Fairtrade products if it was better known where to obtain Fairtrade products.
7
Estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0415, indicating that with a certainty of 95% between 39,3 % and 55,9% of the
consumer experiences lack of recognition or visibility as an obstruction.
- 55 -
60
Experienced
obstruction due to lack
of recognition/visibility
50
40
30
20
10
0
Not obstructive
A little obstructive
Very obstructive
Fig. 5.8 – Experienced obstruction due to ‘lack of knowledge on where to purchase Fairtrade products’
5.4.2 Access & Availability
The results indicate that Access & Availability are also deemed important by the
respondents. The results are presented in table. 5.17 and figure 5.9.
Would purchase (more) Fairtrade Would purchase (more) Fairtrade
if it would be available in more
supermarkets
Frequency
Fairtrade. 9
Percantage
Yes
118
81,4
No
27
18,6
145
100,0
Total
if it the product was available in
8
Frequency
107
39
146
Percentage
73,3
26,7
100,0
Table 5.17 – Importance of Access & Availability
8
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0323, with a certainty of 95% the amount of consumers in Utrecht that would
purchase (more) Fairtrade products if it was more available lies between: 74,94% and 87,86%.
9
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0366, with a certainty of 95% the amount of consumer that would purchase (more)
Fairtrade products if it was more available lies between 65,98% and 80,62%.
- 56 -
90
80
70
60
Would purchase (more)
Fairtrade if the specific product
was available as a Fairtrade
option
50
40
Would purchase (more)
Fairtrade if it would be available
in more supermarkets
30
20
10
0
Yes
No
Fig. 5.9 – Would consumers purchase (more) Fairtrade if it was more available?
The results show that 81,4% of the respondents would purchase Fairtrade if it would be more
available in supermarkets and 73,3% of the respondents indicated to purchase more Fairtrade
products if the product would be available in a Fairtrade edition.
When regarding the situation in which Fairtrade consumers would purchase Fairtrade
products 48,1% indicated to purchase Fairtrade if it were to be available in the shop she/he
was at. 51,9% indicated that this would not be the case (shown in table 5.18).10
Frequency
Percentage
Yes
77
48,1
No
83
51,9
160
100,0
Total
Table 5.18 – Would consumers purchase (more) Fairtrade if it were available in the shop?
5.4.3 Quality
The variable quality was measured twice during the survey. Firstly by measuring the
importance as experienced by consumers. These results are displayed in figure 5.10 and table
2.20. Secondly by measuring what the (main) reason is for the consumer to purchase
Fairtrade, displayed in table 5.20.
10
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0395, with a certainty of 95% that the consumers in Utrecht that purchase
Fairtrade products if it is more available lies between: 44,5% and 59,8%.
- 57 -
50
Importance of product
quality for Fairtrade
consumption choice
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Not important
A little bit
important
Important
Very important
Fig 5.10 –Importance of ‘product quality’ for Fairtrade consumption choice
Frequency
Not important
A little bit important
Important
Very important
Total
Percentage
1
11
60
65
137
Cumulative %
,7
8,0
43,8
47,4
100,0
,7
8,8
52,6
100,0
Table 5.19 – Importance of ‘product quality’ for Fairtrade consumption
The results above indicate that the majority of the respondents find product quality important.
Only 0,7% of the consumers do not find product quality important.
When regarding the reason for consumers to purchase Fairtrade products 35,6% of the
respondents indicate to purchase Fairtrade products also for the quality (see table 5.20).11
Frequency
Yes
No
Total
Percentage
57
103
160
35,6
64,4
100,0
Table 5.20 – Importance of ‘product quality’ for Fairtrade
consumption
11
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0379, thus, with a certainty of 95%, between 28,02% and 43,18% of the
consumers purchase Fairtrade because of the good quality.
- 58 -
5.4.4 Costs
The variable Costs is also considered important by consumers. It is measured in several
ways. Firstly by determining how motivating consumers find it to purchase Fairtrade when it
is on sale; secondly by determining how obstructive the costs are deemed; and thirdly by
determining if they would purchase more if the products were cheaper or if they would earn
more.
Frequency
Not important
A little bit important
Important
Very important
Total
Percentage
30
47
35
25
137
Cumulative %
21,9
34,3
25,5
18,2
100,0
21,9
56,2
81,8
100,0
Table 5.21 – Importance of ‘product is on sale’ for Fairtrade consumption choice
Table 5.21 and figure 5.11 indicate how important the consumer respondents find the notion
that the Fairtrade product is on sale. 21,9% of the respondents that purchase Fairtrade
indicated to not find this important but the majority found it at least a little bit important.
40
Importance of the
product being 'on sale'
of choosing Fairtrade
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Not important
A little bit
important
Important
Very important
Fig 5.11 – Importance of ‘product is on sale’ for Fairtrade consumption
When determining how obstructive the costs were most of the consumers found it at least a
little obstructive. Only 21,4 % did not find the higher costs of Fairtrade products obstructive.
37,9% found it very obstructive. The results are displayed in figure 5.12 and table 5.22.12
12
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0341, thus with a certainty of 95% between 71,78 and 85,42 find costs (either very
or just a little) obstructive when purchasing Fairtrade.
- 59 -
Frequency
Not obstructive
A little obstructive
Very obstructive
Total
Cumulative %
Percentage
31
59
55
145
21,4
40,7
37,9
100,0
21,4
62,1
100,0
Table 5.22 – Experienced obstruction of ‘costs’ according to consumers
Furthermore, when regarding if people would purchase more Fairtrade products if the
products were either cheaper or if the consumers would earn more money the majority
indicated to do so in both cases (see table 5.23 and fig. 5.13).
Would purchase (more) Fairtrade if
consumer had more money
Frequency
Would purchase (more) Fairtrade if it
13
were cheaper. 14
Percentage
Frequency
Yes
99
68,3
No
46
31,7
145
100,0
Total
Percentage
117
30
147
79,6
20,4
100,0
Table 5.25 – Would consumers purchase (more) Fairtrade if it costs were less
68,3% indicated to purchase more Fairtrade products if they would have more money to spend
and 79,6% of the respondents would purchase more Fairtrade products if they were cheaper.
13
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0386, so with a certainty of 95% between 60,88% and 76,02% of the consumers
would purchase more Fairtrade products if they had more money to spend.
14
The estimation error 𝜎𝑝 = 0,0332; thus with a certainty of 95% between 72,96% and 86,24% of the consumers
would purchase Fairtrade if the products were cheaper.
- 60 -
45
40
Experienced
obstruction due to
'costs' of Fairtrade
products
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Not obstructive
A little obstructive
Very obstructive
Fig 5.12 – Experienced obstruction of ‘costs’ according to consumers
90
Would purchase (more)
Fairtrade if consumer had
more money
80
70
Would purchase (more)
Fairtrade if it were cheaper
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Yes
No
Fig 5.13 – Would consumers purchase (more) Fairtrade if it costs were less
- 61 -
6. Discussion & Conclusions
This final chapter shall discuss the results that were conducted from the research and place
them in perspective. The lessons that can be drawn and drawbacks of the research shall be
addressed in the first subchapter (6.1) Discussion of the Research. Afterwards the conclusions
of the research shall be summarized in (6.2) Conclusions. Finally, in (6.3) Recommendations,
several recommendations shall be made for subsequent research on the subject of Fairtrade
and Fairtrade Towns.
6.1 Discussion of the Research
This subsection provides the new insights obtained from the research and relates them to the
previously provided theories (in Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework). But this subsection also
discusses the critical notes on this research, how it was conducted and how it effects the
results and conclusions. Firstly the methodology shall be discussed as this determines greatly
how the results are to be interpreted. Subsequently the results shall be elucidated in relation to
the theories.
6.1.1 Discussion of the Methodology
The methodology of the research greatly influences the results and thus determines the
conclusions that can be drawn from this research. This research had theoretical
methodological substantiation, yet several aspects, especially involving the survey, could be
improved.
Firstly the representativeness of the results obtained from the survey is considered
low. The sample strategy for the survey conduction was based on two combined methods, one
being a random and the other a select sampling strategy. Due to this method the results could
not simply be generalized to the entire population of ‘consumers in Utrecht’. In order to
compensate this the socio-demographic characteristics of the survey sample were compared
with the socio-demographic characteristics of inhabitants of Utrecht (the largest group of
consumers there) in order to verify or attest the representativeness of the sample group. The
results in (5.1) Survey Sample Analysis indicated that the sample group was not
representative for the larger population. Therefore conclusions drawn from this research shall
only apply to the respondents of this survey.
Secondly the validity of the results could be enhanced. When analysing the survey
data it was revealed that certain survey questions had not measured what was intended. This
data has thus been excluded from the results section (it is, however, included in appendix V).
Lastly the design of the survey can have created a slight bias of the results. The
formulation of both the survey questions and the interview questions could have been posed
more neutrally. Especially with quantitative data, such as the survey data, the results do not
include nuanced information about the respondents making it hard to determine possible bias
caused by the formulation of questions.
Furthermore bias could have been prevented by using another measurement scale. The
3 and 4-point scales that were used in this research tend to over-scale, indicating a more
positive and more extreme values sooner than a scale with more options, such as the 5 or 7point Likert scale (Dawes, 2012, p.3). Also different scales were used per verification
question which made it more complicated to actually compare the data, although that was
intended.
- 62 -
Additionally the multiple-choice answers in this research were provided with a title,
for example of the range ‘not important’, ‘not that important, ‘a little bit important’ to ‘very
important’. By naming the options it is difficult to determine ‘how important’ the respondents
truly find the statement as it is greatly dependent on the respondents perception and
interpretation of the title of the option. Rating the importance with a number (e.g. on a scale
from 1-7) would have provided more substantial data and would have likely produced less
biased results.
Due to restricted possibilities of the research only one interview was conducted with
the coordinator of the steering group. Although the interviewee did provide good and precise
information on the strategies of Fairtrade Utrecht another, second, interview could have made
the results more neutral, filtering the possible bias in her perceptions.
In short, though certain results were found to be significant and thus reliable, the lack
of representativeness of the survey sample and validity of the survey questions ensure that the
results cannot apply for the larger population. The results obtained during this research thus
only apply for the respondents of the survey sample. The outcome of the survey might be
slightly biased and more present positive results due to the suggestive formulations of the
survey questions. However the interview conducted and document analysis do provide some
valid insights on which aspects are targeted with the Fairtrade Utrecht strategy.
6.1.2 Discussion of Results on Fairtrade Utrecht Strategy
The results provided in this research indicated that the main determinants of Fairtrade
consumption that were targeted in the goals and the strategies of the Fairtrade Utrecht
foundation were ‘awareness’, ‘visibility & recognition’. Fairtrade Utrecht attempts to gain
support for the Fairtrade case mainly by informing consumers, for instance on events or
through (social) media. Focusing on visibility and availability is considered an important
aspect for motivating fair trade consumerism, because as stated by Barnett, et. al. (2005, p.8)
people do merely not lack information about fair trade and the underlying issues, they lack the
means through which to engage with it.
The intrinsic determinants of ‘care & responsibility’, ‘ethical issues’ and ‘trust’ are not
targeted specifically by Fairtrade Utrecht. However it should be noted that although in this
research the determinants are distinguished and analysed separately the different determinants
do not function and influence consumers separate form one another. They are interconnected,
influencing one another and increasing the complexity of consumer decision-making
(Connolly & Shaw, 2006, p.360). Increasing awareness can thus also increase a sense of ‘care
& responsibility’ or increase ‘trust’, although this might not initially have been the intention
of a strategy or activity.
A similar principle applies to the extrinsic determinants. Increasing ‘visibility &
recognition’ can invoke a sense of awareness (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p.1244). The
information provided in the interview also revealed that the intention of increasing visibility
was to eventually raise more awareness and gain support.
The focus on increasing ‘access & availability’ can be very effective for aware
consumers but also for those unaware of their consumption patterns. As elaborated on the
theoretical framework increasing availability can motivate consumers to purchase Fairtrade
unconsciously, if for stance instance the foods and beverages at their work are Fairtrade this
would happen automatically (Barnett, et. al., 2005, p.14).
6.1.3 Discussion of Results on Consumers and Fairtrade Utrecht
The results on consumer acquaintance with the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign indicated that
25,2% of the respondents were acquainted with Fairtrade Utrecht. Of the 25,2% most
respondents became acquainted with Fairtrade Utrecht via events.
- 63 -
Furthermore the respondents acquainted with Fairtrade Utrecht appeared to purchase
Fairtrade products more often than the respondents who were unaware of the Fairtrade
Utrecht campaign.
The difference between those groups and their consumption behaviour was significant
on with a probability < 0,05, indicating that this difference was not merely based on
coincidence. However it should be taken into account, that because the survey sample group
is not considered representative for its population these results (though significant) still do not
apply for its population.
Furthermore, the reasons underlying this difference could either be that those people
aware of Fairtrade Utrecht are sooner inclined to purchase Fairtrade products or that those
who are involved with Fairtrade are more likely to come in touch with the campaign. It can
therefore not be stated if there is a causal relationship between the two variables and which
variable is the cause and the effect.
6.1.4 Discussion of Results on Consumer Motivators and Barriers
The results regarding the motives and barriers for Fairtrade consumption indicated that
‘awareness’, ‘care and responsibility’ were considered very important factors determining
consumption choice, according to the respondents. The majority of the respondents indicated
to find all the measurements of ‘awareness’, ‘care and responsibility’ either important or very
important reasons for consumer to purchase Fairtrade. This also correlates with the theories
discussed, as this sense of care and responsibility is considered the main driver behind
Fairtrade consumerism (Goodman, 2004, p.907).
The other intrinsic determinants were less clearly perceived as motivators or barriers
by consumers. The ‘belief in other ethical issues’ was perceived as obstructive by
approximately half of the respondents. And the results of the determinant ‘trust’ were drives.
Though the majority of the respondents did not find lack of trust obstructive (70,5%) a similar
amount (72,5%) indicated to purchase more Fairtrade if it were to be more available. These
contradicting results can either be the cause of wrongly formulated questions and thus invalid
measurements, or respondents gave the more socially accepted answer.
From the extrinsic determinants ‘access & availability’, ‘quality’ and ‘costs’ were
considered most important by the majority of the respondents. ‘Visibility and recognition’
were considered important by approximately half of the respondents.
Respondents consider costs as a high barrier for purchasing Fairtrade. However,
underlying the notion of the fair trade movement is those consumers are willing to pay more
for higher social standards elsewhere (Mann, 2003, p.2041). That quality is also considered
low can indicate that the respondents deem the product (quality) too low for the value of their
money (Alexander & Nicholls, 2006, p.1243).
6.2 Conclusions
The conclusions of this research were obtained through answering several sub-questions that
eventually led to an answer of the research question: To what extent does the strategy of
Fairtrade Utrecht correspond with consumer motivation for purchasing Fairtrade products in
Utrecht?
It has been found that the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign especially targets the aspects
‘awareness’, ‘availability and access’ and ‘visibility and recognition’ in order to influence
consumption behaviour. By making products more easily available the supply is increased,
also increasing the convenience of obtaining Fairtrade products. Furthermore ‘visibility and
- 64 -
recognition’ and ‘awareness’ are targeted to create more knowledge and concerned
consumers.
The survey respondents of consumers in Utrecht indicated to also find ‘awareness’
(together with ‘care and responsibility’) and ‘access and availability’ important factors as the
great majority indicated this. ‘Visibility’ was considered important by approximately half of
the respondents, indicating that it is an important factor, but not as important as the other two.
Factors that were considered very important by respondents, but that were not targeted
by the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign are: ‘care and responsibility’, ‘trust’ and ‘costs’. The first
two are considered more difficult to target as they are intrinsic motivators. ‘Costs’ is also a
complicated determinants as the willingness of paying higher prices underlies the notion of
the fair trade movement.
A great lesson learnt, however, is that the focus of the Fairtrade Utrecht campaign
could shift more from the extrinsic motivators to the intrinsic motivators. A lot is already
done to externally stimulate consumer to purchase Fairtrade, yet intrinsic motivation precedes
this.
6.3 Recommendations
This research has provided information about the determinants that are targeted by the
Fairtrade Utrecht foundation and those considered important by consumers for determining
their consumption choice. Subsequent research could follow up this research design but
address the group of respondents through more random sampling methods, obtaining a more
representative sample group and results. Furthermore the methodology of this research could
be improved, by for example using the 7-point Likert scale, which would allow for more
thorough statistical analyses of the data (Dawes, 2013, p.6).
Also follow-up research could distinguish between socio-demographic characteristics
and Fairtrade purchasing behaviour in order to investigate which (social) groups are already
well aware of Fairtrade in Utrecht and which social groups lag behind in participation with
Fairtrade. This information could be useful for Fairtrade Utrecht, as it becomes better known
which groups to target.
Another recommendation is to research strategies on targeting consumption behaviour
more thoroughly. The document analysis and interview indicated that, although Fairtrade
Utrecht uses strategies and organizes activities, these are based very little on scientific
knowledge. More insight on how to alter, for instance, intrinsic motivation could help
tremendously for a campaign such as Fairtrade Utrecht, but also for other organizations and
projects attempting to alter (planned) behaviour.
- 65 -
References
Alexander, A. & A. Nicholls (2006), Rediscovering consumer-producer involvement: A
network perspective on fair trade marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 40, pp. 12361256.
Baarda, D. B. & M. P. M. de Goede (2006), Basisboek Methoden en Technieken; handleiding
voor het opzetten en uitvoeren van kwantitatief onderzoek. Groningen/Houten: Noordhoff
Uitgevers. 4th edition.
Barnett, C., N. Clarke, P. Cloke, & A. Malpass (2005), The political ethics of consumerism.
Consumer Policy Review, 15(2), pp. 45-51.
Berg, B. L. (2009), Qualitative Research Methods; for the Social Sciences. Boston: Pearson
Higher Education. 7th edition.
Bilton R. (2013), Bangladeshi factory workers locked in on 19-hour shifts. BBC.
[online]. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24195441> Retrieved on December 8, 2013.
Brown, T.J. & P.A. Dacin (1997), The Company and the Product: Corporate Associations and
Consumer Product Responsess. Journal of Marketing, 61, pp. 68-84.
Bryman, A. (2006), Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: how is it
done? Qualitative Research, 6(1), pp. 97-113.
Castaldo, S., F. Perrinni, N. Misani & A. Tencatie (2008), The Missing Link Between
Corporate Social Responsibility and Consumer Trust: The Case of Fair Trade Products.
Journal of Business Ethics, 84, pp. 1-15.
Carrigan, M. & A. Attalla (2001), The myth of the ethical consumer – do ethics matter in
purchase behaviour? Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(7), pp. 560-577.
CBS (2006) Niveau-indeling. [online]. <http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/7C94DE33-621C-4355928A 8B90F9F5D777/0/2006soiniveauindeling201213.pdf> Retrieved on November 19,
2013.
CBS (2012), Demografische kerncijfers per gemeente 2012. Den Haag: Centraal Bureau voor de
Statistiek.
CBS (2013a), Leeftijd. [online].
<http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/methoden/begrippen/default.htm?ConceptID=989> Retrieved
on January 7, 2014.
CBS (2013b), Opleiding. [online]. <http://www.cbs.nl/nl-‘
NL/menu/methoden/begrippen/default.htm?ConceptID=2225> Retrieved on November 19,
2013.
CBS (2013c), Inkomen en bestedingen. [online]. <http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/inkomenbestedingen/methoden/begrippen/default.htm?ConceptID=137> Retrieved on November 19,
2013.
CBS (2013d), Inkomensgroepen. [online].
<http://www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/methoden/toelichtingen/alfabet/i/inkomensgroep-2.htm>
Retrieved on November 19, 2013.
CBS (2013e), Inkomensgroepen; particuliere huishoudens naar diverse kenmerken. [online].
<http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=71013ned&D1=0-2&D2=12&D3=0-10&D4=44-62&D5=l&VW=T>
CBS (2013f), Bevolking; geslacht, leeftijd, burgerlijke staat en regio, 1 januari. [online].
<http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=03759ned&D1=0-14&D2=129132&D3=11,33,65,87,780-781&D4=24-25&VW=T> Retrieved on January 4, 2014.
CBS (2013g), Bevolking; geslacht, leeftijd, burgerlijke staat en regio, 1 janurai. [online].
<http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=03759ned&D1=0- 14&D2=129132&D3=11,33,65,87,780-781&D4=24-25&VW=T>
CBS (2013h), Onderwijsniveau. [online]. <http://www.cbs.nl/nlNL/menu/methoden/toelichtingen/alfabet/o/onderwijsniveau.htm> Retrieved on
December 17, 2013.
- 66 -
CBS (2013i), Onderwijsniveau bevolking gestegen. [online]. <http://www.cbs.nl/nlNL/menu/themas/onderwijs/publicaties/artikelen/archief/2013/2013-3905-wm.htm> Retrieved
on December 17, 2013.
CBS (2013j), Gestandaardiseerd Inkomen. [online]. <http://www.cbs.nl/nlNL/menu/methoden/begrippen/default.htm?ConceptID=291> Retrieved on December 17,
2013.
CBS (2013k), Gemiddeld inkomen; personen in particuliere huishoudens naar kenmerken. [online].
<http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/publication/?VW=T&DM=SLNL&PA=70957ned&D1=a&D2
=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0,54-68&D6=l&HD=0805231734&HDR=G3,G2,G1,G5,T&STB=G4>
Connolly, J. & D. Shaw (2006), Identifying fair trade in consumption choice. Journal of
Strategic Marketing, 14(4), pp. 343-368.
Dawes, J. G. (2012), Do Data Characteristics Change According to the Number Scale Points Used?
An Experiment Using 5 Point, 7 Point and 10 Point Scales. International Journal of Market
Research. 51(1), pp.1-19.
Fairtrade Foundation (2013a), What is Fairtrade? [online].
<http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/default.aspx> Retrieved on September 30,
2013.
Fairtrade Foundation (2013b), History. [online].
<http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/history.aspx> Retrieved on December
7, 2013.
Fairtrade Foundation (2013c), Fairtrade Certification and the Fairtrade Mark: Fairtrade
Standards. [online].
<http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/fairtrade_certification_and_the_fairtrade_mark
/fairtrade_standards.aspx> Retreived on December 7, 2013.
Fairtrade Gemeenten (2012), Juryrapport behoud titel Fairtrade Gemeente – Utrecht. Utrecht:
Fairtrade Gemeenten.
Fairtrade Gemeenten (2013), Over Fairtrade Gemeente [online].
<http://www.fairtradegemeenten.nl/algemeen/over-fairtrade-gemeente/> Retrieved
September 30, 2013.
Fairtrade Towns (2013a), Garstang: The world’s first Fairtrade Town. [online].
<http://www.fairtradetowns.org/resources/case-study/garstang-uk-%E2%80%93-theworlds%E2%80%99-first-fairtrade-town/> Retrieved September 30, 2013.
Fairtrade Towns (2013b), What is a Fairtrade Town? [online].
<http://www.fairtradetowns.org/about/what-is-a-fairtrade-town/> Retrieved on October 22,
2013.
Fairtrade Towns (2013c), The Five Goals. [online].
<http://www.fairtradetowns.org/about/the-five-goals/> Retrieved on October 22, 2013.
Goede, I. de (2013), Nederlanders & Fairtrade 2012: Onderzoek naar aankoopgedrag en
aankoopmotieven bij fairtrade levensmiddelen. Amsterdam: NCDO.
Goede, I. de & R. Ruben (2012), Nederlanders & Fairtrade 2011: Onderzoek naar
aankoopgedrag en aankoopmotieven bij fairtrade levensmiddelen. Amsterdam:
NCDO.
Goodman, M. K. (2004), Reading fair trade: political ecological imaginary and the moral
economy of fair trade foods. Political Geography, 23, pp. 891-915.
Hoogvelt, A. (2001), Globalization. In: Globalization and the Postcolonial World. The New Political
Economy of Development (pp. 120-143). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 2nd edition.
Leliveld, M. C. & Blaauwendraad, G. (2013), SPSS Handboek: Gebruik, Tips, Toepassingen &
Technieken Rapportage. Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
Loureiro, M. & J. Lotade (2005), Do fair trade and eco-labels in coffee wake up the consumer
conscience? Ecological Economics, 53, pp.129-138.
Mann, S. (2008), Analysing fair trade in economic terms. Journal of Socio-Economics, 37, pp.
2034-2042.
McLellan, E., MacQueen, K. M., Neidig, J.L. (2003), Beyond the Qualitative Interview: Data
Preparation and Transcription. Field Methods, 15(1), pp.63-84.
- 67 -
Meijer, E. (2013), Interview over de doelen en strategieën van Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht.
Interviewed by Eeke van der Wal [report]. Conducted on November 19, approximately
between 15:00-16:00.
Mogalakwe, M. (2006). The Use of Documentary Research Methods in Social Research.
African Sociological Review, 10(2), pp. 221-230.
NOS (2013), Weer dodelijke brand in kledingfabriek Bangladesh. [online].
<http://nos.nl/op3/artikel/560377-weer-dodelijke-brand-in-kledingfabriek-banglad
esh.html> Retrieved on December 8, 2013.
Pelsmaker, P. de, L. Driesen & G. Rayp (2005), Do Consumers Care about Ethics? Willingness to Pay
for Fair-Trade Coffee. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 39(2), pp. 363-385.
Popke, J. (2006), Geography and ethics: everyday mediations through care and consumption.
Progress in Human Geography, 40(4), pp. 504-512.
Potter, R. B., Binns, T., Elliott, J. A. & Smith, D. (2008), Geographies of Development: An
Introduction to Development Studies. Pearson Education Limited: Edinburgh Gate, Harlow.
Raghuram, P., C. Madge & P. Noxolo (2009), Rethinking responsibility and care for a
postcolonial world. Geoforum, 40, pp. 5-13.
Raynolds, L. T. (2002), Consumer/Producer Links in Fair Trade Coffee Networks. Sociologia
Ruralis, 42(4), pp. 404-424.
Raynolds, L. T., D. Murray & P.L. Taylor (2004), Fair Trade Coffee: Building Producer Capacity via
Global Networks. Journal of International Development, 16, pp. 1109-1121.
Renard, M.C. (2003), Fair trade: quality, market and conventions. Journal of Rural Studies,
19, pp. 87-96.
Riddle C.(2007), Does Foreign Aid Really Work? Oxford University Press: Oxford/New York.
Roberts, J.A. (1996), Will the Real Socially Responsible Consumer Please Step Forward?
Business Horizons, 39(1), pp. 79-83.
Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000), Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classing Definitions and New
Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology. 25(1), pp. 54-67.
Sikula, A. & D.C. Adelmiro (1994), Are Women More Ethical than Men? Journal of Business
Ethics, 13, pp. 859-871.
Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht (2013a), Fairtrade Utrecht [online].
<http://www.fairtradeutrecht.nl/fairtrade-utrecht/> Retrieved: September 30, 2013.
Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht (2013b), Jaarplan 2013, Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht
Behoud van Titel. Utrecht: Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht.
Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht (2013c), Verslag resultaten Fairtrade Utrecht, juni t/m
december 2012. Utrecht: Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht.
Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht (2012a), Communicatieplan 2012. Utrecht: Fairtrade
Gemeente Utrecht.
Stichting Fairtrade Gemeente Utrecht (2012b), Verslag van het bestuur over de resultaten van
Utrecht Fairtrade in 2011 en de eerste helft van 2012. Utrecht: Fairtrade Gemeente
Utrecht.
Taplin, L. (2009), “We’re part of something huge”: An Evaluation of Impact of the European
Fairtrade Towns Movement. UK: Fairtrade Foundation. Available at:
<http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2009/f/ftowns_ltaplin.pdf>
Retrieved: September 26, 2013.
Uffelen, X. (2013), Elk goedkoop jurkje is goedkeuring van slechte werkomstandigheden.
Volkskrant [online].
<http://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/3184/opinie/article/detail/3435184/2013/05/02/Elkgoedkoop-jurkje-is-goedkeuring-van-slechte-werkomstandigheden.dhtml> Retrieved on
December 8, 2013.
Werre, M. (2003), Implementing Corporate Responsibility – The Chiquita Case. Journal of
Business Ethics, 44, pp.247-260.
Wolf, M. (2004), Why globalization works. In: Traumatized by Trade (pp. 173-219).
New Haven: Yale University Press.
- 68 -