Environmental Science Teachers’ Conference
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Life Cycle Assessment
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Krzysztof Ciesielski
Technical University of Łódź, Poland
Definitions of LCA
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) models the complex
interaction between a product and the environment from
cradle to grave. It is also known as Life Cycle Analysis
or Ecobalance.
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Definitions of LCA
According to the ISO DIS standards, LCA is defined as a
method for analysing and determining the environmental
impact along the product chain of (technical) systems.
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It includes the various types of technical conversions that occur in the
manufacturing process.
These consist of:
- change of material chemistry (chemical conversion), material
formulation, or material structure;
- the removal of material resulting in an increase of (primary) outputs over
the inputs;
- joining and assembly of materials resulting in a decrease of (primary)
outputs over the inputs.
ISO 1404x Definition of LCA
Life-Cycle Assessment Framework
Goal and Scope
Definition
(ISO 14040)
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Inventory
Interpretation
Analysis OF LODZ
(ISO 14043)
(ISO 14041)
Impact
Assessment
(ISO 14042)
ISO 1404x Definition of LCA
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Applications of LCA
•product design
•Improvement of efficiency and costs reducing
•product marketing
•compliance with environmental legislation
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LCA Drivers
• Help to secure market and competitive positions
• Answer requests for environmental and social information
• Enhance a company’s public image
• Participating in green purchasing policies
• Define R&D strategies and EMS systems
• Identify cost savings
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Environmental Assessment Methods
Management, decisions making
Technological System
Performances, life time
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Environmental Aspects
Concepts
•Life Cycle Thinking
•Environmental Design
Procedures
•Industrial Ecology
•Environmental
Impact Assessment
Assessment Methods
•Ecolabel
•Life Cycle Assessment
•Environmental
•Substance Flow Analysis
Audit.
•Risk Assessment
Economical
and
social aspects
(Life cycle
costing)
LCA compared to other environmental
tools
Tools
Object
LCA
Product or
Life Cycle
system
Assessment
Scale &
production
cycle
Considered
effects &
substances
Effects
Basic elements
Global,
(regional)
whole life
cycle
Multiples effects,
large number of
substances
Per
functional
unit
Mass balance,
environmental
multimedia models
No impact, single
substance
Time and
given region
Mass balance
Highly variable
For a given
absorption
capacity
Highly variable
Toxicity
For a given
period
Multimedia models,
effect evaluation
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SFA
Regional or
Substance
Polluting
global, subst.
Flow
substance
cycle
Analysis
EIA
New
Environment
localised
Local effects
al Impact
activity
Assessment
RA
Installation or
Local or
Risk
chemical
regional
Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment
Life Cycle Assessment
Cradle
Grave
Global
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LCA
Local
EIA
LCA among different environmental
impact assessment tools
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LCA among different environmental
impact assessment tools
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History of LCA
1969: first multicriteria study for Coca-Cola (By Harry E. Teastley Jr.)
Taking into account the whole environmental impacts, from the raw material
extraction to the waste disposal (which is called from the cradle to grave
approach)
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Clear objectives to:
choice between glass and plastic for the product bottling, choice between
internal or external bottle production, end of life options (recycling or oneway) for the chosen bottle.
The study revealed the plastic bottle as the best choice, contrary to all
expectations.
The study has never been published in its complete version. Only a summary
was published in April 1976 in « Science Magazine »
History of LCA
1984: publication by the EMPA (Forschungsinstitution für Materialwissenschaften und Technologie)
of the « Ecological report of packaging material »
1991: first works at SETAC (Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry )
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June 1992: creation of SPOLD
creation of a data exchange standard between 1995 and 1996
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March 1992: First European scheme on Eco-labels
,
(Society for Promotion of Life-cycle Assessment Development)
1996: NF X30-300, first standard in France for Life Cycle Assessment
1997-2000: ISO 14040, 41, 42, 43, international series of standard
defining the different stages of the LCA methodology
1999-2001: ISO 14020, 25 , 48, 49, series of standard and technical
documents
concerning
communication,
environmental
declaration directions and working methods…
TYPES OF LCA ANALYSIS
Well-to-Wheel
The term well-to-wheel is often used to refer to life cycle analysis applied to the
overall efficiency of fuels used for transportation. The analysis is often broken down
further into the stages such as "well-to-station" and "station-to-wheel or "well-totank" and "tank-to-wheel".
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Cradle-to-Grave
The term cradle-to-grave is often used to refer to life cycle analysis applied to the
overall performance starting upstream at the cradle of material and energy inputs
extracted from the earth and ending at the grave of the life cycle with matter
returning to earth.
TYPES OF LCA ANALYSIS
Cradle-to-Gate
The term Cradle-to-Gate is often used to refer to life cycle analysis applied to the
overall efficiency of a product or service up to the point where it is produced (or
delivered). This type of LCA is often used for environmental product declarations,
EPD.
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Cradle-to-Cradle
The term cradle-to-cradle is often used to refer to a way of thinking about life
cycles. If the grave of one cycle can be the cradle of its own or another, the life
cycles are connected rendering them cradle-to-cradle.
TYPES OF LCA ANALYSIS
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Spectrum of LCA
Full LCA
Not LCA
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Zone of
practical LCA
“Gate-to-gate” or “cradle-to-gate” = often
scope for facilities (not true LCA)
“Cradle to grave” = traditional LCA
“Cradle to cradle” = current/evolving LCA
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General Scope of LCA
Inputs
Life-Cycle Stages
Outputs
Raw Materials
Extraction/Processing
Water
Effluents
Airborne
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Emissions
Product Manufacturing
Solid
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LODZ
Product Use/Reuse
Wastes
Energy
Raw
Materials
Maintenance and Repair
EOL Disposition
Boundary
Products
CoProducts
LCA Steps
LCA is a 4-step tool defined in ISO standards.
Goal
definition
Inventory of
extractions and
emissions
Interpretation
Impact
assessment
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Goal definition: enables to
set theLODZ
problem, to define the objectives and
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range of the study. Determining the limits of the system and the
functional unit (the unit on which the study is performed) is crucial.
Inventory: this is the full listing of the required raw materials and the
air, water and soil emissions relative to the considered functional
unit.
LCA Steps
LCA is a 4-step tool defined in ISO standards.
Goal
definition
Inventory of
extractions and
emissions
Interpretation
Impact
assessment
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Impact assessment: evaluates the environmental impacts of the above
mentioned emissions.
Interpretation: allows to interpret the results of each of the former steps
and to point out the key factors for an environmental decision
making.
Goal definition
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System function
The system function has to be determined. The system function
allows the comparison of various products/services which fulfill the
same function.
For example:
– portable phones have a function of communication,
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– paintings share a covering function.
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In your opinion, what could be the system function of “soap”?
Washing
System function
LCA relates the environmental impacts to a specific product function.
Products or systems can only be compared on the basis of a similar
function.
One should not forget that the studied systems may have multiple
functions. If their secondary functions differ too much, the validity of
the comparison becomes questionable. It is therefore essential to care
about the secondary functions as well.
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In the phone secondary function could be “fashionable”
Painting is intended to cover
andLODZ
protect,
OF
it also has to look nice.
Let’s come back to soap. Do enumerate its secondary functions.
Perfuming, moisturising skin, relaxing…
at least according to advertisements
Functional unit
Based on the system function, it is possible to define the functional
unit (FU) common to all scenarios. It represents the system function
which will serve as a basis for scenario comparison: in the inventory
inputs and outputs are calculated per FU.
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The FU stands for what is offered. It is a quantified and additive value
– FU for phones could be 1000 hours timespan of conversation,
– a FU of painting is one square meter covered.
In the soap example, what could be a valid FU?
A definite number of shower.
Let’s take 50 “standard” showers
Reference flows
Next step of the LCA is the determination of the reference flows (what
is bought). They provide for each scenario the basic products
quantities needed per FU. In our previous examples:
a phone and electricity for charging the battery,
the quantity of paint and the brushes necessary to cover 1m2
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Back to the soap: what would you see as being the major references flows?
the mass of soap and the volume of
hot water required to take 50 showers
The lifetime and the number of reuse are linked with the reference flow. For example,
two 500h communication life time phones are needed to catch up with a good quality
1000h life time phone. Thus, greater reference flows.
Reference flows, product life time or number of reuse can be key parameters for
environmental optimization.
System boundaries
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Product system
The system boundaries are closely linked to the product system.
In the ISO 14041 standard, the product system has the following definition:
"A product system is a collection of unit processes connected by flows of intermediate
products which perform one or more defined functions. A product system description
includes unit processes, elementary flows and product flows accross the system
boundaries and intermediate product flows within the system”
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Manufacturing
Product flow
(from another system)
Product flow
(to another system)
Use
Energy
raw materials
Resources
(ideally elements)
Emissions
to air, water, soil
Waste
treatment
System boundaries
Unit process
The product system can be disaggregated into unit processes (UP).
Flows of intermediate products connect these UP together. In addition
each unit can have inputs or extractions from the environment
(consumption of resources, energy…) and outputs or emissions to the
environment (to water, air, soil...) also called elementary flows.
What would be the input and output of the UP “shoe production”?
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leather
raw
resources
rubber
shoe manufacture
emissions
etc.
Inputs are resources such as rubber, leather and energy, outputs are
emissions such as atmospheric pollutants, wastewater, waste etc.
The level of detail required to achieve the objectives of the study is determined both
by the number of UPs considered (level of detail of the product system) and their
boundaries (level of detail of the UP).
Mass and energy balances can be performed to verify that the unit processes and the
global system respect conservation laws.
System boundaries
According to ISO 14041 standard, "the SBs define the UP to be
included in the system to be modeled".
Usually, the ideal case where only elementary flows cross the SB is not
reached. Lack of money, time and resources often leads to hypothesis
settings.
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SB1
SB2
SB3
Rules to follow when setting system
boundaries
Rule 1: SB should cover the same reality in all scenarios.
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Rule 3: Identical processes in different scenarios can only be
Rule 2: Only processes with relevant extractions or emissions have
to be taken into account.
excluded if the reference flows corresponding to these processes
are strictly equal (total output of the system must also be identical).
System boundaries
In 1990, an environmental comparison between a take-away
(hamburger, French fries type) and a conventional restaurant was
carried out.
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This study showed that the fast-food requires:
6 time less energy,
The SBs retained for the study were the
restaurants walls (geographical boundaries).
7 time less water,
5 time less waste per customer than a conventional restaurant.
Process tree
Process trees are often used to describe the product system (UP and
elementary flows) and the SB.
The aim of the study is to compare plastic bottles made of different
polymers.
The functional unit is 1 bottle, non recycled.
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How would the corresponding process tree look like ?
energy
production
raw materials
extraction
transport
manufacture
of the bottle
transport
boundaries
polymer
production
sale
use
incineration
recovery
Process tree
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Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)
ENERGY
MANUFACTURING
AIR EMISSIONS
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WATER EMISSIONS
MATERIALS
WASTES
Life Cycle Impact Assessment
(LCIA)
The life cycle impact assessment is “aimed at
understanding
and
evaluating
the
potential
environmental impacts of a product system.”
(ISO 14040:1997)
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Life Cycle Impact Assessment
(LCIA)
• Uses the inventory data
• Models indicators, not actual impacts
• Indicators are assumed to correlate with impacts
• Takes hundreds to thousands of data points and boils
them down to 10-12
• Outcome is the ecoprofile
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Impact Assessment
Two problems exist in impact assessment:
•There are not sufficient data to calculate the damage to
ecosystems by an impact.
•There is no generally accepted way of assessing the
value of the damage to ecosystems if this
damage can be calculated.
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Impact Assessment
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Impact Assessment
?
≠
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You cannot add an apple and an
elephant, but you can actually
compare them.
To enable a comparison, it is necessary to define criteria. For example,
for transport, the comparison has to consider the weight. Thus
transporting one elephant is equivalent to transporting about 20.000
apples.
Impact Assessment
Impact assessment will allow us to aggregate all the inventory data in order to
quantify the environmental load. The SETAC – Society of Environmental
Toxicology And Chemistry – recommends to perform this aggregation in three
steps :
– Classification, organization of emissions in categories that represent given
kind of problems. SETAC standards define fifteen areas to protect:
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Input
Inputrelated
related
categories
:
categories:
abiotic
abioticresources
resources
biotic
bioticresources
resources
land,
land,erosion
erosion
Output
:
Outputrelated
relatedcategories
categories:
global
globalwarming;
warming;acidification;
acidification;noise;
noise;
depletion
depletionozone
ozonelayer;
layer;eutrophication;
eutrophication;odours;
odours;
human
humantoxicology;
toxicology;ecotoxicology;
ecotoxicology; radiation;
radiation;
photo
photooxidant
oxidantformation;
formation;casualties.
casualties.
– Characterization, application of specific weighting factors to emissions in
order to have a unique unit within each impact category (e.g. kg Pb for
human toxicity, …)
– Normalization + weighting, application of other weighting factors to these
impact classes in order to gather them into damage classes or a single
score.
Structure of impact assessment
Ecoindicator 99
Inventory Classification
CO 2
Characterisation and Normalisation
W eighting
Carcinogenicity
Respiratory organic pollution
Respiratory inorganic pollution
Radiation
Ozone layer depletion
Climate change
Human health
Ecotoxicity
Acidification, eutrophication
Land use
Ecosystem
quality
Minerals
Fossil fuels
Ressources
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crude oil
NO X
iron (ore)
phosphates
Indicators (pt)
Impact Assessment
Classification
The classification step allows to dispatch the pollutants
according to the area of protection they affect (e.g.:
CO2, CH4 and N2O influence the Global warming). This
step is required to carry on the LCA process.
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Impact Assessment
Characterization
The problem is to find a common unit to aggregate the
different emissions and perform comparisons. What is
required is a category indicator representative of the
considered area of protection.
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For example, a common indicator chosen for global warming is the
equivalent kg of CO2
Impact Assessment
Characterization
The categories and their indicators
Category
Carcinogenicity
Respiratory organic pollution
Respiratory inorganic pollution
Radiation
Ozone layer depletion
Climate change
Ecotoxicity
Indicator - unit
DALY
DALY
DALY
DALY
DALY
DALY
Acidification, eutrophication
PDF*m *year
Land use
Minerals
Fossil fuels
PDF*m *year
MJsurplus
MJsurplus
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2
PDF*m *year
2
2
DALY or "disability adjusted life years": the total amount of healthy life lost, to all causes,
whether from premature mortality or from some degree of disability during a period of time.
PDF*m2*years or "potentially of disappeared fraction": the percentage of species disappeared in
a certain area due to the environmental load.
MJsurplus: the energy requirements in mining and concentrating of ores with decreasing
material content, based on present known technology.
Impact Assessment
Normalization
The idea is to analyze the respective share of each impact in the overall
worldwide effect. This comparison between the scenarios’ and the average
European impacts enables evaluation of the relative importance of the former
scenario. It does not give a damage oriented comparison but a better intuition of
the impact of the scenarios.
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Impact Assessment
Weighting
Three main assessment methods are currently used to value weighting factors :
–Monetary methods (willingness to pay): here, the impacts are transformed into
costs, the central point is how much money we are ready to pay to avoid an impact.
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One year of life lost is estimated to 300’000 €
–Consensual methods involving expert panels or stakeholders, who gather to
determine the relative importance of the different safeguard subjects.
Global warming is currently considered as a hotter topic than eutrophication.
–Distance to target methods: the normalization results are compared with political
objectives.
In Southern countries, Human Health has a higher priority
than Ecosystem Quality.
Impact Assessment
Weighting
Points
Acid. Eutroph.
Ecotoxicity
10
Climate change
8
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Resp. Inorganics
Resp. Organics
Carcinogenicity
6
4
2
0
Steel
Aluminium
Recycled Aluminium
SMC
Impact Assessment
Weighting
Only three damage categories (endpoints) are to be weighted. This allows for
easy stakeholder involvement with the help of the weighting triangle.
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Life Cycle Interpretation
• ISO 14043 Standard
• „The objectives of life cycle interpretation are to
analyze results, reach conclusions, explain
limitations and provide recommendations based on
the findings of the preceding phases of the LCA or
LCI and to report the results of the life cycle
interpretation in a transparent manner”
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Life Cycle Interpretation
Interpretation Methods
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–Contribution analysis to determine significant
portions ofOF
the model
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–Sensitivity analysis
–Weighting of environmental impact categories
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