WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT (WDM): A CASE
STUDY FROM SOUTH AFRICA
MEWREW Occasional Paper No. 4
Presented to the Water Issues Study Group,
School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)
On January 18, 1999
A.R. Turton
[email protected] & [email protected]
INTRODUCTION:
A cursory glance at developmental trends of states within arid regions indicates what
appears to be a pattern. Typically such states start off their developmental trajectory by
mobilizing water in some form or another. This sets the foundation for the future pattern
of development. As the economy grows, so more water needs to be mobilized, leading to
ever more complex engineering solutions. The arid regions of the world offer many
examples of this pattern: the Great Man Made River in Libya; the Eastern National Water
Carrier in Namibia; the Lesotho Highlands Water Project in South Africa; the NorthSouth Carrier in Botswana; the proposed Matabele-Zambezi-Water-Project in Zimbabwe;
the Karakum Canal in Turkmenistan and the National Water Carrier in Israel. Each of
these represents a major engineering solution in their own rights. Each seemed to have
worked for a period of time. Yet in each case, all that has happened is that the inevitable
has been staved off for just a little longer. In short, supply-sided solutions have been tried
in many places, and by and large, have failed for a number of reasons, other than the
specific engineering achievements which in their own right have been formidable. This
paper will examine the need to manage demand for water against the background that at
best, supply-sided solutions on their own can only buy time.
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS:
Before proceeding with a case study in demand management, it is necessary to fall back
onto some of the theoretical elements that may offer deeper insight. One of the useful
scientific contributions comes from Micklin (1994), who did a study of the Aral Sea. This
study shows that major economic and ecological results emanate due to the long-term
abstractions of water from a river basin in an arid region. In this case, the Aral Sea has
shrunk from a surface area of 66 900 square kilometers in 1960, to a projected area of 23
149 square kilometers by the year 2000. The primary reason for this is that after 1960,
irrigation expansion required ever more water per hectare as long unlined canals were
extended into the desert, reducing the overall efficiency of the system (Micklin,
1994:115). The results of this have been labeled the second largest ecological disaster in
the former Soviet Union after Chernobyl (Micklin, 1994:114). One of the important
lessons to be learned from this, is that Òspecial attention needs to be paid to identification
of ÔthresholdsÕ Ð sensitivity points in the operation of a system which, if transgressed by
an external disturbing force, cause the system to undergo unexpectedly rapid changeÓ
(Micklin, 1994:121). In other words, aquatic systems tend to be ecologically sensitive in
arid regions, and they can suffer abuse up to a point beyond which failure becomes both
rapid and catastrophic. Long-term ecological, social and economic problems result. The
Aral Sea thus offers a classic case of unsustainable development policies at work.
Prof. Tony Allan offers some useful insight. He notes that Òas economies develop, they
tend to strengthen and diversify, which in turn makes it possible to pursue ever more
efficient water allocating options, including the adoption of demand management policies
and practicesÓ (Allan, 1996a: 108). To this end, the over exploitation of water as a result
of the mismanagement of Òenvironmental capitalÓ can lead to two forms of disasters
(Allan, 1996a:110) for communities. These are:
•
•
Ecological disasters arise from the progressive over-use of natural resources
that results in the ultimate crossing of the threshold of sustainability.
An economic disaster arises through the decline of a community into
terminal poverty as the direct consequence of inadequacy of resources in the
face of increasing demands over time.
The case of Israel is informative in this regard. The period of the National Water Carrier
offered the chance to mobilize additional water in response to the increase in demand
from 1957 to 1967. Figure 1 illustrates this graphically.
2
Agriculture
Appropriated
by 1967
bcm/yr
1.5
Appropriated by
1957
Period of Water Carrier Ð additional 0.4 bcm / yr
Droughts
1
Industrial
Additional 1 bcm / yr usage
.5
Domestic
Appropriated by 1947
1947
1952
1957
1962
1972
1967
1977
1982
1987
1992
Figure 1: Israeli water consumption from 1947-1993 showing the effect of the
National Water Carrier (after Allan, 1996b:85).
2
What Figure 1 shows is that the overall demand for water rose steadily, driven mainly by
the agricultural sector. The period of the National Water Carrier succeeded in mobilizing
an additional 0,4 billion cubic meters per year, yet all that this did was to seemingly
stimulate the demand for water further. This became unsustainable, as the droughts of
1986-7 and 1991-2 illustrate. These periods of drought forced a radical re-think in policy
on behalf of the government. The first drought (1986) provided an opportunity to place
the issue on the political agenda, which until then had been fiercely opposed by the
farming community, whose interests were strongly represented in the national political
system. The second drought (1991) made it possible to make additional Ôenvironmentally
rationalÕ policies become more politically acceptable. This led Allan (1996a:112) to
conclude that Israel could make these ecologically and environmentally rational, but
politically stressful water management decisions because it had developed by 1986 a
political economy with the economic diversity and strength which enabled a reevaluation of water in the economy to take place. Specifically, water-pricing instruments
became an acceptable method of managing water demand, thereby matching demand to
the overall supply as indicated by the change in the consumption trajectory after 1969.
800
700
Consumption bcm/yr
600
Effect of demographic
transition on water demand
500
Regional water
deficit supplied by
Ôvirtual waterÕ in
staple food imports
400
Demand managed
transition
300
200
100
Sustainable use
1900
1950
2000
2050
2080
Supply management era
Demand management era
Figure 2: Phases in water management in the Middle East showing the transition
from supply management to demand management (after Allan, 1996b:78).
3
Figure 2 is useful to the current discussion as it shows graphically how the supply
management era slowly gives way to the demand management period. This graph also
illustrates two other important aspects that are relevant to a discussion on demand
management. These are:
•
The effect of demographic factors on the overall water demand. In fact it is
primarily from population mobility and growth patterns that the increased
demand is derived. To this end, Allan (1994:92) notes that Òthe most
important context for future water demand is the growth of population and the
predicted demographic transitionÓ.
•
The quantification of what can be called Òsustainable supplyÓ is also shown.
This shows the importance of balancing the water budget in a local context if
ecological and/or economic disasters are to be avoided.
What also becomes relevant is the changing nature of the political agenda. During the
initial phases of economic growth, there is a tendency to over-exploit and even degrade
renewable natural resources such as water. At a later stage of development, possibly
influenced by an increasingly vociferous environmentally based agenda, a more diverse
and stronger political economy can begin to contemplate the reconstruction of resources
that were previously degraded (Allan, 1996c). Related to the political side of the water
demand management (WDM) equation, is the need for effective political institutions. To
this end Allan (1992:380) says that the Òfirst goal is a political one, recognizing the
primacy of the political context for the development and implementation of economically
and ecologically sustainable policies. É Only through effective political institutions will
leaders have the confidence to direct the implementation of measures affecting water
resource allocation and managementÉÓ
Another aspect, which fundamentally impacts on WDM efforts, is that of human
perceptions. There are at least three aspects relating to perceptions that are important
within the context of an analysis of WDM practices. These are:
•
Perceptions are linked to religious belief-systems as well as the secular
tradition created through a long history of water resource sufficiency (Allan,
1997:6.13). In other words culture plays a major role in this regard.
•
There is a dangerous fallacy underlying many of the policies (of arid states)
that water is free (Allan, 1992:378).
•
There is a dangerous perception within various communities in South Africa
that the government must provide abundant water cheaply (or for free).
Other aspects that are important from a theoretical consideration of WDM, which can be
linked to perceptions, relate more specifically to the economics of water. To this end,
water is characterized by a uniquely large gap between the average price and the marginal
price (Brooks, 1997:1). The average price can be understood to be what a consumer will
4
pay for water in general, which is normally quite high. The marginal price can be
understood to be what a consumer will be willing to pay for just a little more water
beyond their basic needs, which is usually fairly low. Therefore in practical terms, a
hypothetical consumer would be willing to pay a relatively high price for a glass of
potable water to quench his/her thirst, but would be prepared to pay practically nothing
for an additional cubic meter of water to irrigate the garden. The implications of this
specific characteristic mean that although pricing is currently widely touted by analysts as
an element of WDM, it is a necessary but insufficient incentive for achieving the three
goals of economic efficiency, social equity and ecological sustainability. In other words,
most analysts would argue that subsidies should be explicitly justified; that water tariffs
should be designed to encourage conservation and not simply to recover costs which
implies that pricing should be high enough to move into the elastic portion of the demand
curve; and that some form of lifeline pricing should be adopted to provide water for the
basic needs of even the poorest household (Brooks, 1997:3). This means that a
sophisticated water metering system must exist if success is to be attained.
The theoretical considerations that are relevant to WDM can therefore be summarized as
follows:
•
Arid regions tend to have sensitive aquatic ecosystems. This implies that
sustainable management of these fragile resources needs to be based on a firm
understanding (and quantification) of the notion of a ÒthresholdÓ.
•
Mobilization of any water beyond this threshold will have long-term
debilitating effects in terms of the environment, the economy and sociopolitical spheres of life. Sustainability therefore becomes an important
element of the overall policy objective.
•
As countries in arid regions develop, they need to mobilize increasingly more
water resources. This is what is known as supply-sided management.
•
Supply-sided projects become ever more complex. They work to the point
where a threshold is crossed after which they fail to meet the growing
demand. Typically this is experienced during periods of drought.
•
National crises in the forms of droughts allow for the hydropolitical agenda to
be re-negotiated. This is usually in the form of an introduction of notions of
sustainability, which are linked to a strategy of demand-management.
•
The initial stages of demand-management are politically stressful as they
involve the re-allocation of resources away from political constituencies that
were previously privileged.
•
For this reason, the successful transition to the demand-management era needs
strong political institutions, supported by the political will and legitimacy to
make the necessary policy changes while still surviving as a political entity.
5
•
Policies need to be aimed at attaining a clear objective. The attempts to launch
policies that are beyond the scope of a regime are therefore not good policy,
reinforcing the need to have a strong political institutional base for the
implementation of demand-management.
•
One aspect that makes demand-management complex is the fact that it is
based on the need to change human perceptions about water.
•
Human perceptions are derived from socio-cultural aspects, which makes
them difficult to change.
•
One of the perceptions that exist implies that at the economic level, water has
a unique characteristic in the form of a high differential between the average
price and the marginal price.
•
Tariff structures alone are a necessary but insufficient instrument to achieve
effective WDM.
Against this theoretical background, it now becomes possible to discuss and evaluate one
example of demand-management that has been introduced in South Africa.
HERMANUS Ð A SOUTH AFRICAN CASE STUDY:
When the political transformation took place in South Africa during 1994, one of the
issues that was placed high on the political agenda was water. This was due to the fact
that major structural deficiencies existed, largely as a legacy of the apartheid policy of the
previous government, which saw the bulk of the water available at a national level being
distributed and consumed by the minority of the population (Turton, 1998a). In
hydropolitical terminology, this is known as Òresource captureÓ. The Minster of Water
Affairs and Forestry, Prof. Kader Asmal, has embraced this challenge with enthusiasm
and is providing inspiring leadership in the field of WDM in the opinion of the author.
The town of Hermanus in South Africa provides an interesting example of WDM that
falls within the theoretical considerations noted above. Greater Hermanus consists of 11
500 demarcated erven spread along a 25 kilometer stretch of coastline between the Bot
River lagoon and the Klein River estuary (DWAF, 1997). The main feature of the town is
the fact that it is essentially a popular seaside resort, world famous for whale watching.
The estimated permanent population of about 20 000 increases threefold during peak
holiday seasons. Water consumption levels during these peaks are unnecessarily high,
suggesting an element of pure wastage. In essence, the problem derives from the fact that
a sharp summer peak demand is experienced in what is actually a winter rainfall area.
Water supply for Hermanus is derived from the De Bos Dam, with an annual allocation to
the local authority of 2,8 million kiloliters (DWAF, 1997). At the time of construction in
1976, it was estimated that this allocation would be sufficient until the year 2010. The
6
economic conditions that prevailed during the 1990Õs saw a local property boom, which
meant that during 1994/5 the water allocation was exceeded at a time when only 70% of
the demarcated erven had been developed. This resulted in the need to re-estimate the
water management strategies. A new analysis of the problem indicated that demand in a
dry year could be as high as 4,9 million kiloliters. A hydrological analysis showed that
the yield from the De Bos Dam could not be increased significantly by raising the dam
wall, thereby eliminating a supply-sided solution to the problem. Groundwater was
investigated as an alternative source of supply with promising results, but the cost of
purification and distribution made it prohibitive. Desalination was also investigated as an
option, but was discarded due to the high energy costs involved.
It was against this background that the need for a new WDM strategy was born. After a
series of intensive consultations between the local authority and the Department of Water
Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), a 12-point plan was developed. This was named the
Greater Hermanus Water Conservation Programme, which embraces the following:
Point 1: Assurance of Supply Tariff
The logical point of departure for the overall strategy is focussed on water tariffs. The
water tariffs in Greater Hermanus under the previous dispensation did not encourage
water conservation. This is linked to aspects previously noted during the discussion of
theoretical elements of WDM. In effect the old tariff structure actually subsidized bigger
users (DWAF, 1997). Due to the unique nature of the problem, which was based on the
massive influx of holiday-makers resulting in peak periods of high demand, it was felt
that what became known as an Òassurance of supplyÓ charge was appropriate. This was
designed to deliver the message that there is a tariff for the privilege of having a supply
of water on tap. A three-tiered tariff rate was calculated because South Africa is
characterized by a great disparity between rich and poor. The rate of R40.00 per month
(approximately 4 Pounds sterling) was levied for the period 1996/7 for the typical
consumer (called Òeconomic tariffÓ). The charge of R2.00 per month (approximately 20
pence) was levied for those in dire financial situations (called the Òindigent tariffÓ), whilst
an intermediate rate of R10.00 per month (approximately 1 Pound sterling) was charged
for sub-economic households. These lower tariffs had to be applied for whilst being
supported by a proven statement of income.
Point 2: Block-Rate Tariff
An eleven-point escalating block-rate tariff was also developed as an important
component of the overall strategy. This was based on the principle whereby the more you
use, the more you pay per unit. In other words, those who tend to drive the marginal cost
of water upwards should be charged at the marginal rate. This is linked directly to the
theoretical aspects of WDM previously discussed. However, in keeping with the overall
political desire to make an investment in Òsocial stabilityÓ via the water sector, the lower
end of the tariff scale was called the Òlife-line tariffÓ. This was set to be affordable to all
consumers, and provided for a strong mechanism for the local authority to deal with those
consumers who chose specifically not to pay for water. This was needed as the non-
7
payment of services was a widely spread practice in South Africa at the time that the
post-apartheid government came to power in 1994. This block rate tariff was also divided
into three categories of consumer Ð Indigent, Sub-economic and Economic. This structure
is presented in Table 1, which is derived from DWAF (1997).
New Block
Rate Tariff
per
Kiloliter
per
unit
5
0,30
10
0,70
15
1,20
20
1,80
25
2,40
30
3,00
40
4,00
60
5,00
80
6,00
100
7,50
101+ 10,00
Table 1. Breakdown of New Water Tariff
(including assurance of supply).
Excluding
Indigent Rate Sub-economic
Economic
Assurance of
Consumers
Rate
Rate
Supply
Consumers
Consumers
0,00
2,00
10,00
40,00
1,50
3,50
11,50
41,50
5,00
7,00
15,00
45,00
11,00
13,00
21,00
51,00
20,00
22,00
30,00
60,00
32,00
34,00
42,00
72,00
47,00
49,00
57,00
87,00
87,00
89,00
97,00
127,00
187,00
189,00
197,00
227,00
307,00
309,00
317,00
347,00
457,00
459,00
467,00
497,00
Point 3: Hermanus Working for Water Project
One of the ecological issues that confront South African catchment areas is the heavy
invasion by alien vegetation. This includes species of trees such as wattles, gums and
pines, all of which are known to be heavy water consumers. This threat has been assessed
as being the greatest single risk to the rich biodiversity that exists in the Hermanus area
(DWAF, 1997). This aspect was linked via the ÒWorking for Water ProjectÓ (that Prof.
Asmal had launched over the entire country), whereby unemployed persons were given
jobs for the purpose of winning back the land from these invader species. This project
won the Green Trust / WWF Environment Award for Best Conservation Project during
1996.
By clearing these plants from the De Bos Dam catchment area, a greater runoff will
substantially improve the yield of the dam, while stabilizing the overall ecological
functioning of the Onrus Lagoon and other aquatic ecosystems. Another aspect of this
project is that it created jobs for 120 previously unemployed residents of the Greater
Hermanus area. This is linked to the overall approach previously alluded to of investing
in Òsocial stabilityÓ by economically empowering the previously disempowered. Analysis
of the ÒWorking for Water ProjectÓ has shown that the benefits improve the quality of
life for the workers, their families and communities. Other results of this project at a
national level have been the improvement in the overall status of women; an
improvement in the security of the workersÕ children; a reduction in crime levels and an
improvement in the payment for services (DWAF, 1997). In fact, this project plays a
significant nation-building role, the importance of which is not to be scoffed at in the
8
post-apartheid era, by bringing together people through a sense of common purpose. In
other words, this aspect of the overall WDM scheme is linked to the achievement of
broader socio-economic objectives at a national level. This links up directly with the
theoretical elements of WDM relating to human perceptions that were initially discussed.
Point 4: School Water Audits
As noted previously (under the discussion of the theoretical aspects of WDM), an
important issue is that related to perceptions held by people. In this regards the Greater
Hermanus Water Conservation Programme offers a uniquely innovative element. It is
assumed that Òold dogs donÕt easily learn new tricksÓ, so education must be aimed at the
children rather than adults if a long-term change in human attitude is to occur. For this
reason, every school child in the Greater Hermanus area is undertaking a water audit at
their respective schools. This strategy is based on two distinct phases.
•
The first phase focuses on the school environment. The children are
encouraged to monitor the schoolsÕ water meter over time. Once they have
obtained a reasonable data sequence, the children are encouraged to
investigate ways in which the overall consumption levels can be reduced. This
is also linked to energy and waste disposal.
•
The second phase then involves the children applying this newly learned skill
to their own home environments. This cascades the level of awareness away
from the schools into virtually every home in the area.
Clearly this element of the overall project is based on a long-term strategy that is
specifically designed to alter human perceptions regarding water. It is no quick-fix
approach. Education is regarded as being a sound investment in the future of the children.
This is significant if one notes that almost 50% of the total consumption of water in the
Greater Hermanus area comes from the in-house use of domestic consumers, whereas an
additional 26% comes from gardening in the domestic sector.
Point 5: Water Loss Management
If domestic use (both in-house and garden) accounts for almost 75% of total water
consumption in Hermanus, then the second largest source of demand is attributed to
unaccounted for losses (18% of the total) (DWAF, 1997). These are attributed to the
following broad categories:
•
•
•
Unmetered or illegal connections.
Under-registering or inaccurate meters.
Leaks in the overall reticulation system.
Every effort is thus being made to locate these problems and to rectify them.
9
Point 6: Retrofit Programme
As previously indicated almost 50% of the total demand for water comes from within the
home environment. Another unique aspect of the Hermanus WDM approach is related to
retrofitting all homes and other buildings with modern, water-efficient devices (DWAF,
1997). This is done at no direct cost to the consumer, should the owner so wish. Previous
experiences in retrofitting the Kruger National Park yielded overall savings of 37% for
water and 22% for electricity. The retrofitting policy includes the following:
•
Assisting residents to check their meter for accuracy.
•
Assisting residents to monitor and repair water leaks.
•
Assisting consumers to perform water-audits from which conservation
strategies can be derived.
•
Encouraging consumers to have the safety and efficiency of their hot-water
geysers checked.
•
Retrofitting water-saving devices where possible and desirable by the
owners.
Retrofitting hardware includes the installation of dual-flush toilet mechanisms, low-flow
showerheads and tap aerators. One new invention consists of a wash basin built into the
toilet cistern lid. This allows for the water used during the act of washing hands to be
recycled directly to the toilet cistern. This is an optional extra in the retrofitting
programme.
Point 7: Water-Wise Gardening
As previously noted, almost 25% of the total water consumption is derived from
gardening. For this reason, the ÒWater-Wise GardeningÓ project was developed in
conjunction with the local nursery industry. This project is focussed on the planting of
indigenous vegetation, which tends to be more water-efficient, coupled with the overall
improvement of irrigation techniques. There are four main aspects to this portion of the
overall project. These are:
•
Two demonstration gardens have been established to show the residents what
can be achieved with indigenous vegetation.
•
Business buy-in has been encouraged. Local nurseries, architects and
landscape architects have undertaken to promote water-wise gardening
practices.
•
Regular communication is used to encourage consumers to consider this
option.
10
•
Mulching material is made available for use as a byproduct of the ÒWorking
for Water ProjectÓ.
In other words, this aspect of the overall project is specifically designed to target a source
of demand by changing the attitudes of people over time. Improving knowledge,
providing alternatives and stressing the low maintenance aspects of using indigenous
vegetation for garden purposes achieves this objective.
Point 8: Water-Wise Food Production
Many of the local residents have limited financial means. For this reason the potential use
of Ògrey-waterÓ (water that has already been used in the home such as in showers and
baths) was integrated into the overall WDM strategy. This obviously involves some
simple hardware modifications, which are made possible through the retrofit programme
previously discussed.
Point 9: Security Meter
A highly innovative device that was introduced is a pre-payment water and electricity
meter. Development of this sort of device has been stimulated by the need to change the
prevailing attitude of non-payment for services that characterized the anti-apartheid
struggle, so South Africa can be regarded as being a leader in this field. Three
parastatals/departments have co-operated in an evaluation of this project. These are the
Department of Water Affairs, ESCOM (Electricity Supply Commission) and the
Department of Communications. The meter allows for a high level of control by the
consumer. It also empowers the consumer by providing crucial information. The device is
linked up to a central console, which provides data on how much water and electricity the
consumer has used, how much credit they have left and how their level of consumption
compares to the overall pattern in their area. It can also warn of a leak and disseminate
other information as needed. The new technology even provides for a Òpanic buttonÓ
which is linked to a volunteer community group (ambulance, fire or police) who provide
support as determined by the community themselves. In terms of the theoretical aspects
of WDM, accurate metering is required if success is to be achieved.
Point 10: National Water Regulations
The democratization of South Africa in the post-apartheid period has ushered in a
plethora of new legislation based on a strong constitution and bill of rights. Hermanus has
chosen to adopt the National Water Regulations as a by-law, thereby ensuring that the
rights and responsibilities of the local authority and residents are given the full force of
law (DWAF, 1997). Some of the significant new dimensions of this are:
•
The local authority is now obliged to undertake an audit of its own
performance in water management.
11
•
There is a ban on watering gardens between 11h00 and 15h00 when around
60% of the water is lost to evaporation.
•
There is a ban on washing down paved surfaces with water.
•
There is a strict guideline on the energy and water-use design parameters for
new houses and developments.
This is in keeping with the need for strong political institutions that was discussed during
the theoretical aspects of WDM.
Point 11: Communication
Underlying the overall WDM strategy is a strong commitment to communication
between the local authority and the consumer. This covers a wide spectrum of issues
related to WDM and uses instruments such as press releases, talks with residents,
displays, signs, newsletters, a hotline facility and passing on information to other local
authorities.
Point 12: Informative Billing
One of the most successful aspects of the overall WDM strategy has been the
introduction of an informative billing approach. Users are provided a series of data on
which they can make their own decisions. The monthly statement shows the level of
consumption over the past year. It also shows how their individual consumption pattern
compares with the average for their area each month. An interesting element of this
information base is the inclusion of data that allows for a quantification of the influence
of rainfall on consumption patterns. In other words, the underlying assumption is that an
informed consumer is essentially a happy one. People are willing to co-operate if they get
regular feedback as to the impact of their own actions. This in turn influences their
willingness to pay for water and other services.
Evaluation of the WDM Strategy
One outstanding feature of the WDM approach is the fact that it is designed to achieve
sustainability. This involves changing peopleÕs attitudes to water and water consumption
over time. In this regard the Hermanus case offers some unique and insightful aspects. In
the short-term, attitude changes are ensured through the provision of information that
simply empowers consumers to make decisions that impact on their own pockets. Over
the long-term, children are being targeted as the basis for the needed fundamental attitude
shift. The ÒWorking for Water ProgrammeÓ has spawned a wide range of related
economic activities such as charcoal making. The money that the government has made
available for this project has been injected into the communities and is now circulating in
the local economies, creating additional economic opportunities. Importantly, the dignity
of human beings is being restored by transforming people into gainfully employed
individuals, capable of making a meaningful contribution to the economy. It even
12
embraces elements of nation-building, which is so necessary as the post-apartheid South
Africa comes to terms with its own awkward history.
Since the inception of the programme, there has been a substantial saving in water. This
is revealed in Table 2, which shows a significant drop in consumption starting in
November 1996.
Table 2. Increase / Decrease in Water Consumption Using 1995/6 as Base Year
Period
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
January
16.36%
18.86%
0.00%
-10.26% -2.85%
February
1.12%
1.55%
0.00%
-23.15% -16.66%
March
-4.00%
5.12%
0.00%
-15.35% -15.14%
April
0.18%
-20.01%
0.00%
-18.48% -19.55%
May
-22.36%
-18.98%
0.00%
-27.17% -23.98%
June
-32.76%
-15.53%
0.00%
-15.97% -15.18%
July
-3.98%
4.50%
0.00%
-11.09% -7.03%
August
-23.91%
15.89%
0.00%
-7.10%
-1.31%
September
1.55%
17.03%
0.00%
2.45%
7.55%
October
31.72%
2.51%
0.00%
23.60%
18.52%
November
17.43%
-1.48%
0.00%
-35.79%
-23.56%
December
5.49%
21.56%
0.00%
-14.82%
-16.55%
Source: Hermanus Town Clerk
Significantly, the improved income that resulted from the informative billing programme
resulted in a budget surplus. This was redirected to fund the retrofit scheme. As a result
this aspect of the strategy could be completed sooner than anticipated.
DISCUSSION:
From the analysis of this WDM strategy, it becomes evident that South Africa is
following a similar pattern to Israel. The farming sector was initially very powerful in
both countries, fiercely resisting attempts by the government to introduce WDM
measures. Interestingly in both cases droughts played an important role in allowing the
issue to be placed on the national hydropolitical agenda. It would appear that this aspect
is significant only when it coincides with the mobilization of almost all of the available
resources, making change not only desirable but also necessary if sustainability is to be
achieved. In the case of South Africa, these droughts happened just prior to the
democratization process that culminated in 1994. The effect of this was essentially
threefold:
•
Firstly, it opened up the debate on the need to adopt sustainable policies.
•
Secondly, it occurred at the same time that a legitimate government that had
both the political will and institutional capacity was elected.
13
•
Thirdly, water had been so grossly misallocated under the previous regime,
meaning that it had become politically necessary to redress this aspect as
one of the visible changes that democracy had ushered in.
In other words, it is safe to assume that WDM of the Hermanus variety can succeed in
South Africa because of the existence of strong political institutions. These institutions,
besides providing political leadership, can also develop a better understanding based on
empirical evidence of the Òthreshold of sustainabilityÓ. At least part of this concept is
linked to changing perceptions at the level of the policy-maker, service provider and
consumer.
Having said this, there are three main problems that need to be highlighted and
understood, if the Hermanus programme is to be a long-term success. These emerged
from a field trip that the author conducted during November 1998. These are:
•
•
•
Attitudes
Persistence
Suspicion
Problem 1: Attitudes
In discussions that the author had with a number of role-players, it became abundantly
clear that attitudes had not really changed significantly. The types of responses can be
divided into two broad categories.
•
A perception exists amongst certain social sectors that the crisis has been
averted. Their argument is based on the understanding that the drought has
passed along with the need to conserve water. Therefore, they believe that the
tariff structure is punitive and should be relaxed. Evidence cited by
respondents was the fact that the dam was overflowing, which to them was
clear evidence that there was no longer a crisis. Certain respondents who
owned businesses articulated an extension of this perception. In general they
felt that the high tariffs were restricting business growth opportunities and
were even causing certain people to decide not to settle in Hermanus.
Ironically this perception was not supported by empirical facts. Evidence
collected by the author suggested that Hermanus is in fact in a boom phase of
economic development. This is reflected in the changing shopping patterns of
the local population for example, who used to shop in other neighboring
towns but who now shop in Hermanus instead. This has caused a major chain
store to open in Hermanus. Tentative evidence collected even suggested that
Hermanus is now economically supporting a significant hinterland which until
recently had not been the case. Part of this economic renewal is linked to the
whale watching that Hermanus has become internationally famous for, which
attracts a major foreign tourist population who inject hard currency.
14
•
A perception that was articulated from the disadvantaged sectors of society
was different. Various respondents noted that little had changed in their daily
lives since democracy had arrived. Linked with this broad perception was the
belief that the local authority is obliged to provide water for free. The attitude
that prevailed in the Tamboville informal settlement was one of suspicion.
This will be dealt with later in more detail.
Clearly, attitudes need to be worked on constantly if they are to be changed. In the
opinion of the author, communication plays a vital role in this process. It is heartening to
note that a communications consultant has been appointed to the overall management
team. This will provide the necessary transfer of information needed to educate the public
that the crisis is not over, and that the long-term significance of this is that they will have
to get used to coping with scarcity as a daily fact of life. Possibly the communications
can be targeted more specifically to address the issues raised.
Problem 2: Persistence
Due to the fact that there has been a stunning short-term success rate as a result of the
Hermanus WDM strategy, there may be a tendency on behalf of the authorities to backoff and say this is a success, so let us leave it. Where this may become evident for
example can be found in two probable areas. These are:
•
Catchment clearing is clearly a long-term process. In this regard specific
mention must be made of the ÒWorking for Water ProjectÓ. This is of major
significance when it comes to natural resource reconstruction. It is also a very
complex issue to manage. Experience that the author has with attempts to
clear riparian forests of invader plants dating back to the 1970Õs suggests that
a concerted effort is needed over time. Plant species such as gums, wattles and
poplars tend to coppice once cut down. Wattle seeds also have a long retention
time in the soil. Sites that have been initially cleared therefore need to be
visited on a regular basis with maintenance staff. The investment in the
project thus needs to be of a long-term nature if it is to succeed. Currently
funding for this is coming from the national Government. It is hoped that this
will be sustained or else the hard won early success could be reversed in
future.
•
There is in general a critical shortage of funding all over South Africa. This is
likely to result in pressures to cut portions of the budget. If this happens to the
communications budget for example, then the long-term message will not get
out. This could also lead to a gradual loss in momentum, which could be the
undoing of the overall WDM project.
The solution to this is to provide empirically based evidence that can be used in
motivating for budgets. In addition to strengthening the budget requests, this evidence
can be used to streamline the overall communications effort, targeting the relevant
15
audience with the appropriate type of information. This will also increase the overall
efficiency of the communications, reducing unnecessary waste.
Problem 3: Suspicion
While the overall Hermanus WDM project can be regarded as a huge success, it is
lamentable that one distinct problem area still remains. This was manifest from the
overwhelming number of respondents that were interviewed in Tamboville. The
suspicion was manifest most strongly around the installation of a pre-paid metering
system on certain standpipes. The town council certainly seemed to have the best
interests of the consumers in mind when the system was installed. The pre-paid meters
would have provided water at indigent rates to the residents, at a location that was close
to their shacks. Ironically, the whole project failed, due largely to suspicion. The local
population was angered that they had not been consulted about the installation of the
meters. The town council did in fact discuss the matter with the residents, but the latter
felt that they had been spoken to, rather than having been spoken with. Respondents
noted that they had not been given a choice in the process, and that the meter was thrust
upon them as a fait accompli. This highlights the crucial role of communications in the
overall process.
The tragic outcome of this interaction is the fact that the meters were smashed shortly
after being installed. This meant that the women were now forced to walk great distances
to collect water in buckets. Because Tamboville is not a rural setting, the only other water
sources available are metered, resulting in a vibrant but abusive water market. The
women are being charged much higher rates for their bucketed water than they would
have had access to from the pre-paid meters. Significantly, it was mainly the men who
had articulated the anti-council political sentiment and smashed the meters, yet the
women were left to suffer as a result.
Such is the tragic heritage of Apartheid. Deep-seated suspicions prevail as a result. Some
male respondents noted that they viewed the meters as a surreptitious attempt by the local
authority to force people to pay. The culture of non-payment is deeply rooted in South
Africa, in all sectors of society. This is a complex issue in its own right, linked in part to a
culture of non-billing. It cannot be linked only to the disadvantaged sectors of society as
commercial farmers had been allowed to grow accustomed to having access to copious
quantities of water for which they largely refused to pay as well.
The only solution to this problem is for the town council to open up a series of
negotiations with the local population of Tamboville. Ideally, this process should be
open-ended. The council should listen to the concerns raised by the local consumers, and
should not enter the talks with a pre-conceived solution. If the relative advantages of a
pre-paid meter system are clearly spelled out, then it is likely that the residents will even
voluntarily choose this option. Significantly, by choosing themselves, they will then take
ownership of the units, protecting them from vandalism. This ideal situation will only
happen after a period of time however, as the suspicions are deeply rooted, so courage,
16
creativity and persistence are called for Ð qualities that the Town Clerk seems to display
in abundance. The long-term prognosis is thus probably good.
Issue of population growth
An important aspect that is possibly not being included enough in the programme is the
need to manage population growth as discussed under the theoretical considerations. In
this regard it has been shown that effective water policy needs to be expanded if the
policy is to be effective (Turton, 1998b). In terms of this thinking, water scarcity is not
seen as the problem, but merely the manifestation of a problem with root causes being
environmental change, population growth and sectoral water allocation. This cannot be
expressly included in the overall Hermanus programme, but should rather be included at
a national level.
CONCLUSION:
The Greater Hermanus Water Conservation Programme is an ambitious project indeed.
Yet every indication exists that it will succeed in the long-run. This is because the entire
project was tailor made to suit the specific management needs of that community.
Interestingly enough, virtually every element of the programme complies with the
theoretical considerations that were originally noted and discussed. Basic theory
therefore exists, but needs to be expanded upon. More research is thus needed. The three
goals of WDM (economic efficiency, social equity and ecological sustainability) are thus
likely to be met in Hermanus if the project is continued. South Africa is also clearly in a
transition phase from a society that was dominated by purely supply-sided management
to one that is increasingly focussing on the need to implement demand-sided solutions.
This makes South Africa (and possibly Botswana) a leader in this field within a Southern
African context, and it also provides evidence that Ònatural resource reconstructionÓ is
indeed starting to take place in certain cases (Turton, 1997). This is encouraging as it
shows that the overall threshold of sustainability is not being crossed.
Finally, it is noted that human perceptions need time to be altered. The process of
alteration is extremely complex as perceptions are culturally derived. An interesting new
development globally is the re-emergence of indigenous knowledge systems for the
management of natural resources. This element has a lot of potential for WDM as it
impacts on the cultural aspects of perceptions. This could become increasingly important
in the overall management of sensitive aquatic systems such as the Okavango Delta for
example. More research on aspects related to willingness to pay is also clearly needed.
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19