Analysis of State Exposure Control to Prevent Cheating in
Online Games
Kang Li Shanshan Ding Doug McCreary
Department of Computer Science
University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602, USA
kangli, ding, mccreary @cs.uga.edu
ABSTRACT
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1.TINTRODUCTION
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Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for
personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are
not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies
bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, to
republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific
permission and/or a fee.
NOSSDAV’04, June 18–18, 2004, Cork, Ireland.
Copyright 2004 ACM 1-58113-801-6/04/0006 ... 5.00.
¥
Steve Webb
College of Computing
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
[email protected]
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5. REFERENCES
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