A6
Paper #70
Disclaimer — This paper partially fulfills a writing requirement for first year (freshman) engineering students at the University
of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering. This paper is a student, not a professional, paper. This paper is based on
publicly available information and may not be provide complete analyses of all relevant data. If this paper is used for any
purpose other than these authors’ partial fulfillment of a writing requirement for first year (freshman) engineering students at
the University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering, the user does so at his or her own risk.
Optimizing Efficiency: An Analysis of Function Allocation and its Role in Relation
to Autonomous Vehicles
Jacob Richards, [email protected], Vidic 2:00, Sofia Vidic, [email protected], Mahboobin 10:00
Abstract– As automated cars and other technological
advancements begin to be integrated into society, it is of the
utmost importance that the allocation of specific functions be
decided as to maximize efficiency and productivity. Function
allocation, a subset of human factors engineering, allows for
a better understanding when determining which tasks get
assigned to human labor versus machine power to increase
the efficiency of the overall task. This paper will outline the
specific ways function allocation can be applied to improve
aspects of modern life as technology continues to become
more prevalent. It will then discuss the history of function
allocation as well as the techniques used to allocate functions,
such as the Fitts list. The paper later discusses the role of
function allocation in modern society and reflect on the need
for an update on the usage of said techniques. Afterward, the
paper will go into detail with a specific example of function
allocation - self-driving cars, a recent advancement in
modern society. It will discuss the history, technology, and
overall efficiency of the cars. Later, it will speculate on the
future of function allocation in a society where innovations
are constantly being integrated as a means to make daily
human life easier, specifically touching on the subject of selfparking technologies and sustainability. The paper will
conclude by analyzing all pre-noted information and
underscoring the importance of function allocation in human
life.
Key Words— Efficiency, Fitts list, Function allocation,
Maba-Maba list, Self-driving cars, Society
FUNCTION ALLOCATION: A CRUCIAL
ASPECT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
One of the most important things to consider in the midst
of a technological revolution is the role humans will play as
machines become more advanced. The division of tasks
between human labor and machine skill is crucial as society
strives for progress. A smart division of functions will result
in an optimized system, while illogical allocations will result
in an overall less efficient structure. Function allocation is a
classic human factors method for deciding whether a
particular function should be assigned to a person, a
technology or some mix of both person and technology. In
today’s society, there are many technological advancements
University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering 1
3.3.2017
that are bettering human life, but these advancements are
taking away the purpose of the human. A common example
of this is the self-checkout; a machine is performing a function
that was originally operated manually by human employees.
While this advancement impacts such a minor portion of daily
human life and may seem insignificant, the decision to
completely automate the function required much analysis on
productivity. Even though technology, in some cases, has
begun to surpass the ability of human function, function
allocation is still crucial to the advancement of society.
Human involvement must continue to take place lest humans
grow lazy and incapable of performing those tasks given to
machines. Dr. Joel Haight, a human factors engineer at the
University of Pittsburgh spoke on the threat of skill
degradation, saying “we need to keep humans at a state of
readiness” [1]. Function Allocation stems from human factors
engineering, which itself stems from industrial engineering.
A balance must be achieved between human and machine
involvement in systems in order to achieve efficiency,
keeping function allocation one of the most integral focus
areas of industrial engineering.
FUNCTION ALLOCATION AND
ENGINEERING
Industrial Engineering
Industrial Engineering is a branch of engineering which
deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or
organizations. It revolves around efficiency and strives to
improve upon previously instated systems. In this regard,
industrial engineering is a very broad discipline, allowing it
to be incorporated into a vast array of topics. Industrial
engineering covers many topics including; modeling,
manufacturing, distribution, finance and even medical fields.
Almost every major company has a team of industrial
engineers to improve upon the efficiency of that company’s
systems. After all, almost every kind of organization is
concerned with safety and productivity, while optimizing
efficiency with their time and money. Function allocation is a
top priority for industrial engineers as it deals entirely with
efficiency and productivity.
Vidic
Richards
Human Factors Engineering
Human factors engineering is a subset of industrial
engineering that takes into account human strengths and
limitations in the design of interactive systems that involve
people. In essence, human Factors Engineering marries
engineering and psychology, considering human interaction
into each system studied. As the main goal of function
allocation is to revise systems to make them more userfriendly and efficient in society, human factors engineers deal
heavily with function allocation.
—)
—)
HISTORY OF FUNCTION ALLOCATION
—)
In 1951, while researching how human engineering, a
close relative to human-factors engineering, could impact airtraffic-control, Paul Fitts introduced a system for allocating
functions. This system would be used for years to come [2].
At the time, the structure in place to protect against aircraft
collision during landing was insufficient. Air-trafficcontrollers could only communicate with single aircrafts at a
time and the resulting in-air congestion often resulted in hourlong delays. Fitts began researching the ways in which human
engineering could aid the current system of air-traffic-control.
He highlighted the importance of understanding the strengths
and weaknesses of both humans and machines, compiling all
into a single list, referred to as the Men Are Better At,
Machines Are Better At (MABA-MABA) list. The MABAMABA list, also known as the Fitts List, was split into two
subsections, each stating five functions either humans or
machines performed better (see Figure 1 below). The list
gives a succinct analysis of human and machine strengths,
allowing the user to more easily determine how to allocate
functions within a system [3].
—)
—)
—)
–) Can recall small bits of information from larger
quantities stored long ago in order to facilitate
understanding
REASONING
–) Humans have the ability to combine several true
clauses to create a single new conclusion
–) This makes them better in creating predictions
and theories
MACHINES ARE BETTER AT
SPEED/POWER
–) Machines have no delay caused by reaction time
–) They can compute answers with a much greater
speed and power
REPETITION
–) Machines can complete routine tasks repeatedly
without making errors humans almost inevitably
make
–) They do not become bored or restless
COMPUTATION
–) Machines can evaluate complex equations by
following every possible path to disprove each
inaccuracy and test all possible outcomes
SHORT-TERM STORAGE
–) Machines can be built with certain amounts of
memory needed to major short-term storage
–) Can also completely erase that memory to make
room for updated information
MULTITASKING
–) Machines are better at completing simultaneous
activities
–) For humans to multitask efficiently, there must be
multiple people working together
FIGURE 1 [3]
Summarization of Fitts’ MABA-MABA list.
MEN ARE BETTER AT
—) SENSORY FUNCTIONS
–) The human sensory system is extremely precise
and can detect extremely insignificant changes in
stimuli
—) PERCEPTION
–) Humans have the ability to recognize objects even
when viewed from different angles, at different
stages of degradation, etc.
–) Can use past memories to understand complex
scenarios
—) ADAPTABILITY
–) Humans can adapt and grow in the presence of
obstacles, whereas machines can do only as
programmed
—) JUDGEMENT/SELECTIVE RECALL
–) Humans can judge systems on a case-by-case
basis, changing the ways in which they think
about problems
FUNCTION ALLOCATION TODAY
Importance in Today’s Society
Function allocation impacts all intersections of life, though
it may not be easily apparent. Alphonse Chapanis, in his
article “On the Allocation of Functions between Men and
Machines” from the Occupational Psychology journal,
discusses the impact function allocation has on banking,
demonstrating the importance of function allocation in
society. The example provided talks specifically about
designing a system to better deal with checking accounts.
Without the aid of machines, complete manual operation is
the only method of ensuring the proper handling of checking
accounts. Introducing machines with various levels of ability
presents several different ways in which the manual system
could be revised to be more efficient. One revision may be
simple, introducing high powered calculators to aid in
complex calculations in order to eliminate computational
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errors inevitably present when depending on human power
alone. Another revision may be to allow machines to scan
checks stamped with identifying codes to automatically sort
them in a quicker and more precise way than if they were all
sorted manually. Yet another revision to that same banking
system could be a completely automated system, where
machines sort checks, calculate and print balances, and mail
the information out to each account holder. This last system
would all but eliminate the need for human involvement
entirely. In this way, Chapanis mapped out a progression from
a completely manual system to a completely automated
system. Each of these potential systems is entirely feasible
and reasonable, but the sheer number of possible systems
highlights the need for a process with which to determine the
allocation of each banking function [4].
A more concrete theory regarding the MABA-MABA list
is shown below in Figure 2. This is the idea that there are
measurable criteria that can aid in the decision to allocate
functions to manual or automatic labor. While it is generally
thought that machines can be taught to perform almost any
task, the level of complexity of said task plays heavily into the
efficiency of the system. If a task is incredibly simple, it
would take longer to completely reprogram the machine to
learn the new task than it would take for a human to acquire
the same skill. A similar outcome takes place as the task
becomes increasingly more complex. The time and cost it
would take to program a machine to complete an incredibly
complex task would be much greater than simply training a
group of employees. However, there is a range in which the
machine can be programmed more quickly and cheaper than
humans could learn. In the range between extremely simple
and extremely complex, the decision to allocate said function
to machine labor is more efficient [2].
As time progresses and technology becomes even more
engrained in society, function allocation becomes
increasingly important. However, the MABA-MABA list has
obvious limitations and may need to be updated, or even
rethought out in order to be more applicable to modern
society. The criteria of the MABA-MABA list is overly
general and cannot relate to specific, more complex situations
[2].
Relevance in Modern Society
Revolutionary in its time, the value the MABA-MABA list
has on society has changed as time has progressed. It is still
extremely relevant to society, but to a completely different
degree; it has greater value as a scientific theory than as
concrete guidelines. This is because, as a whole, the MABAMABA list is flawed. It makes a lot of assumptions and,
although it explores many different strengths of a
human/machine system, it ignores the notion that neither
humans nor machines may be apt to do a task or that both may
be equally capable. It also assumes that each function must be
entirely allocated to machines or humans, never touching on
the idea that the function could be shared between the two
units. It was written for a very specific time, without any
forethought for the ways technology could advance.
However, the MABA-MABA list did predict the relevance of
function allocation and the extent modern society would need
ways to determine how to distribute tasks. As such, it should,
at the very least, be regarded as a form of scientific theory, a
jumping off point for current and future function allocation
[5].
INNOVATION IN FUNCTION
ALLOCATION: SELF-DRIVING CARS
Basic Technology of Self-Driving Cars
The ideas behind function allocation are the building
blocks of technological advancements such as self-driving
cars. Over the past few years, equipment such as rear-view
cameras and turning signals that warn the driver of oncoming
traffic have been added to the traditional body of the
automobile. These advancements were one of the earliest
notions of a completely autonomous car. Self-driving cars
work by autonomously monitoring and navigating through its
environment. Each vehicle is equipped with a GPS unit, an
inertial navigation system, and a range of sensors including
laser rangefinders, radar, and video. A laser rangefinder scans
the environment using swaths of laser beams and calculates
the distance to nearby objects by measuring the time it takes
each laser beam to travel to the object and back. The vehicle
uses the positional information from the GPS and inertial
navigation system to localize itself and uses sensor data to
refine its position estimate as well as to build a threedimensional image of its environment (see figure 3 below).
Data from each sensor is filtered to remove noise and is often
merged with other data sources to enhance the original image.
The control system determines how the vehicle uses this data
to make navigation decisions. Self-driving cars are able to
create an image of their surroundings that will essentially be
used as a map. The majority of self-driving vehicle control
systems implement a deliberative architecture, meaning that
they are capable of making intelligent decisions by
FIGURE 2 [2]
Graph of completion time versus task complexity.
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maintaining an internal map of their world and using that map
to find an optimal path to their destination that avoids
obstacles (e.g. road structures, pedestrians and other vehicles)
from a set of possible paths. Once the vehicle determines the
best path to take, the decision is dissected into commands,
which are fed to the vehicle’s actuators. These actuators
control the vehicle’s steering, braking and throttle. This
process of localization, mapping, obstacle avoidance and path
planning is repeated multiple times each second on powerful
on-board processors until the vehicle reaches its destination
[6]. In this way, obstacle navigation, steering, and breaking
are all functions that, though once carried out manually, have
been allocated to machine performance.
of the crash [9]. However, it is much less likely for
autonomous cars to cause crashes as “there are no
opportunities for a computer to be distracted” [10] Humans
are also not efficient drivers. Apart from getting distracted
very easily and the likelihood for human error, humans do not
usually choose the most efficient routes. As opposed to an
automated system, humans cannot anticipate all of the
possible outcomes in a situation. A self-driving car would be
able to take into consideration all of the possible routes and
choose the best and most efficient one. Taking each of these
factors into consideration, it makes sense that the function of
driving be completely allocated to machines because selfdriving cars are overall much more efficient than humans.
FUTURE OF FUNCTION ALLOCATION
Parking of Self Driving Cars
Looking into the future of autonomous cars, all eyes seem
to be on the allocation of the parking function. Already, selfparking cars have been introduced to the market, allowing
engineers and theorists alike to speculate on the effects
autonomous parking could have on individuals, society, and
the globe. There are two theories that arise from the notion of
an automated allocation of the parking function— a
completely autonomous parking function and a complete
erasure of parking as a function [11].
If the function of parking was completely automated,
parking lots would become much more efficient as humans
require a considerable amount of space to be able to park
safely [12]. The average parking lot of a church is five times
the size of the church itself (see Figure 4 below). According
to “No Parking Here”, in New York City, “there are roughly
102,000 public parking spaces below 60th street…, a space
equal to about half of Central Park.” Over 31% of
metropolitan areas are reserved for parking [11]. As selfparking cars would be precise enough to only require four
inches on each side to park, parking garages could hold many
more cars than they currently are capable of holding [12].
There would be so much unutilized space available for
parking that up to 90% of current parking lots in New York
would be unnecessary and could be transformed into more
useful spaces [11].
However, if parking itself was to be done away with, no
parking garages would be necessary. Instead, autonomous
cars would drive around all day long, stopping only to pick up
passengers who electronically hailed rides or to fuel up. The
vacant space appearing where parking lots once were could
be used in countless ways, including more public spaces.
These public parks have already opened in some cities, such
as Seoul, South Korea and New York City, resulting in a large
increase in tourism.
Though the general consensus is that parking, as a
function, will gradually become automated, there are plenty
of opposing arguments as well stating why the side effects of
autonomous parking would be negative. If self-driving cars
FIGURE 3 [7]
Technologies within an Autonomous Vehicle.
Efficiency of Self-Driving Cars
When considering function allocation, the main goal is a
more optimized system. In self-driving cars, this has been
accomplished through technology such as the rear-view
camera and the turning signal mentioned in the earlier section.
However, these advancements have made the driver more
lazy and unreliable as they begin to rely solely on those
functions when driving. This brings the effectiveness of
autonomous cars into question. Would it be more efficient to
allocate the entire function of driving to the car or let the
human control the functions? Statistics support self-driving
cars as the better option. Nearly 37,000 people die in road
crashes each year in the United States and “eighty-one percent
of car crashes are result of human error” [8]. Humans can be
very careless and they tend to have trouble responding to
situations quickly. Drivers need to have very fast reflexes to
respond to certain situations and need to be very observant
and aware of their surroundings. Humans tend to get easily
distracted while driving; about ten percent of all teenagers
involved in car crashes were reported as distracted at the time
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were privately used, it is likely that streets would begin to be
jammed with traffic of driverless cars trying to find vacant
parking spaces. In this way, automating parking may actually
make travel less efficient. Also, as it is much less likely that a
single consumer would request an electric car, self-driving
cars would allow people to take long road trips without the
stress of operating the vehicle for hours without rest and thus
increase the carbon footprint [11]. However, it looks as if
society will be moving toward widespread use of autonomous
cars in some capacity. Over the next few decades, there will
be a suspected 5.7 billion square meters decrease in parking
demand [12]. Though methods of function allocation are sure
to be updated as technological skill surpasses that of humans,
the many trains of thought around automating the parking
function shows how important function allocation will always
be to society.
fuel efficiency increases [13]. If applied on large scales, this
could reduce vehicular energy consumption by as much as
25% [7]. Furthermore, the ability of autonomous cars to
interact with one another through location sharing leads to
lower traffic congestion and lower emissions due to idling
[13]. Again, if these technologies were present in all cars, the
decrease of fuel consumption could be as great as 4% [7]. This
interaction between other vehicles could also result in a
platooning effect, where vehicles all reaching similar
locations travel in a group much closer than they could with
manual driving. This could cause a reduction in vehicular
energy consumption anywhere between 3%–25%. This
overall higher fuel efficiency means each vehicle would get
more miles out of a single gallon of gas. In this way,
autonomous cars would be cheaper and certainly
economically sustainable [13].
The automation of parking would also result in an
incredibly sustainable system both economically and
environmentally. Although parking is an important and
normal part of society, it is important to understand the effect
it has on all communities. For example, parking is
increasingly expensive. From paid parking meters on busy
streets to hidden parking fees folded into apartment prices,
people often pay more than they think for the ability to park.
Even “free” residential parking has its drawbacks through
somewhat hidden fees. When people aren’t paying for parking
outright through paid meters, the cost is handled through tax
increases so that, in essence, everyone is paying for free
parking. In this way, only those wealthy enough to own cars
can reap the benefits of those taxes covering free parking
while those unable to drive are still paying for it. As stated
before, automation could result in the elimination of parking,
thus eliminating parking meters as well as hidden costs in
taxes. In this way, autonomous parking would be extremely
economically sustainable, reducing costs for everyone
regardless of their ability to drive [11].
Current systems of parking also pose major environmental
concerns. Anywhere from 30%–60% of cars driving in a
downtown area are just circling blocks, trying to find parking
spaces in congested spaces where vacant parking spaces are
incredibly unlikely. As such, an incredible amount of carbon
dioxide is released into the atmosphere from theses circling
cars, contributing both to high levels of air pollution within
metropolis areas, as well as the general accumulation of
greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Automated
parking could completely eliminate the need for cars to circle
blocks in search of parking spaces, significantly reducing the
amount of carbon dioxide projected into the air. Even if
parking wasn’t completely eliminated by automation, the
vehicles in question could use mapping to determine the most
efficient route to nearby vacant spaces. Furthermore, while
electric vehicles still aren’t widely utilized due to the lack of
available charging stations, it is extremely likely that these
cars would run on electricity rather than gasoline, as they
would be continually monitoring their proximity to charging
stations as well as their current power level. This switch
FIGURE 4 [11]
A comparison between the size of a church and its
parking lot.
Economic and Environmental Sustainability
Just as optimization and efficiency are keystones of
Industrial Engineering, sustainability is also incredibly
important as the optimized systems created must be able to
maintain their effectiveness over time. Said systems must be
relatively cost effective and have little to no negative side
effects on the environment and societies around them in order
to achieve a necessary level of sustainability.
When examining vehicular systems, autonomous cars
have been shown to be more sustainable and efficient than
their manual counterparts by reducing carbon footprints and
increasing fuel efficiency. When basic functions such as
braking and accelerating, which are far overused by
exceedingly cautious human drivers, are automated, the
vehicle experiences far fewer unnecessary lurches and the
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would further reduce their carbon footprint, making
autonomous vehicles even more environmentally friendly
[11].
In general, autonomous cars are more sustainable than
manual vehicles. Their implementation results in virtually no
negative impacts on society. In fact, some of the unforeseen
impacts of automating parking may somewhat counter the
effects of global warming. In Seoul, South Korea, the addition
of a public park in the space where a parking garage once
stood resulted in a cooling effect of nine degrees Fahrenheit
during the summer [11]. Economically and environmentally,
the impacts of self-driving cars in society are positive and
could help people save money and drastically decrease their
carbon footprint.
Ultimately, the impacts of function allocation must be
carefully considered; systemic changes made through
automation must be sustainable within the societies they
effect. As its inattention could have increasingly negative
societal, economic, and environmental effects, sustainability
should be held to the same degree of importance as efficiency
and optimization.
physical control of the train unless they become unresponsive
to the warnings the train presents. Another version of adaptive
automation implements biometric monitoring, a way for
machines measure the biological factors of the user in order
to determine the level of involvement said machine should
have at any given time. Using the previous example of the
New York City subway train, biometric monitoring could be
implemented to measure brainwaves and reaction time to
ensure the operator is alert enough to keep their passengers
safe. Autopilot would only take over once the operator was
deemed unsafe to control the train. In order to keep human
presence relevant and necessary within a technological
revolution, function allocation must be revised to align more
with adaptive automation [1].
THE NECESSITY OF FUNCTION
ALLOCATION IN TODAY’S SOCIETY
Even as society becomes increasingly more
technologically advanced and revisions to more traditional
view of function allocation become necessary, it is important
to know the origin and history of function allocation. When
considering new technology, function allocation must
continue to be questioned as to keep human presence
necessary within society. In this way, the Fitts list and
guidelines like it cannot be forgotten and must continue to be
referenced when allocating functions such those in modern
vehicles. As a product of function allocation, autonomous
cars, have the potential to create more optimized and
sustainable societies. With the rapid evolution of technology
to create a more efficient world, function allocation will have
a large impact on daily human life, from the grocery store to
the streets.
Systems in a Technological Revolution
In a discussion with Dr. Joel Haight, a professor at the
University of Pittsburgh, about the importance of function
allocation in modern society, he provided a lot of insight on
the future of function allocation. As the world becomes
increasingly more automated, humans must determine the
roles they play in it. Older methods of function allocation,
such as the MABA-MABA list, rely on the old-fashioned idea
that there are specific tasks humans can do better than
machines and vice versa. However, recent technological
breakthroughs have made systems much more complex; it is
no longer effective to base function allocation on
human/machine comparison. Technology has become so
advanced that, were the MABA-MABA list be used to
allocate functions, humans would be much less necessary.
This presents ethical concerns such as a severe decrease in job
opportunities as well as having devastating effects on human
progress. For example, as pilots begin to rely on autopilot to
land airplanes, they will inevitably begin to lose the skill to
manually land the vessel. Thus, were the autopilot to ever fail,
the passengers would be in danger if the pilot had grown
incapable of landing the plane of his own accord. It is in this
way that traditional methods of function allocation may not
be effective in an age of such extreme technological
advancements. Instead of partitioning the tasks of a system
between humans and machines, a more effective solution may
be adaptive automation [1].
Adaptive automation is similar to function allocation as it
ultimately works towards creating efficient systems, but it
focuses on function sharing as opposed to function division.
An example of a system with adaptive automation is a subway
train in New York City that monitors and warns its operator
when it is exceeding the speed limit. The operator keeps
SOURCES
[1] J. Haight. Interview regarding the future of function
allocation. University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of
Engineering. 2.28.2017
[2] F. Liu, M. Zuo, P. Zhang. “Human-Machine Function
Allocation in Information Systems: A Comprehensive
Approach.” Proceedings of the 15th Pacific Asia Conference
on Information Systems. 7.2011. Accessed 1.08.2017.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/dd21/66aea68c1c95ba5913e
f38a754be87f7cd26.pdf
[3] P. M. Fitts. “Human engineering for an effective airnavigation and traffic-control system.” Ohio State University
Research Foundation. 3.1951. pp. 3–12
[4] A. Chapanis. “On the Allocation of Functions between
Men and Machines.” Occupational Psychology. Vol 39. Issue
1. 1.1965. pp. 1–11
[5] J.C.F. de Winter, D. Dodou. “Why the Fitts list has
persisted throughout the history of function allocation.”
Cognition, Technology & Work. 8.25.2011. Accessed
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1.09.2017. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10111011-0188-1
[6] S. Rayej. “How Do Self-driving cars Work?” Robohub.
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[7] “Autonomous Vehicles Factsheet.” University of
Michigan Center for Sustainable Systems. 2016. Accessed
3.27.2017.
http://www.css.snre.umich.edu/factsheets/autonomousvehicles-factsheet
[8] “Annual Global Road Crash Statistics.” Association for
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2.23.2017.
http://asirt.org/initiatives/informing-roadusers/road-safety-facts/road-crash-statistics
[9] “Facts and Statistics.” Distraction.gov. Accessed
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[10] “Top 20 Pros and Cons Associated with Self-Driving
Cars.” AutoInsurance Center. Accessed 2.27.2017.
http://www.autoinsurancecenter.com/top-20-pros-and-consassociated-with-self-driving-cars.htm
[11] C. Thompson. “No Parking Here.” Mother Jones.
1.01.2016.
Accessed
1.23.2017.
http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=12&sid=
60899001-365b-4364-96860e221d0e647c%40sessionmgr120&hid=125&bdata=JnNpd
GU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=aph&AN=111065998
[12] S. Salomon. “How the Self-Driving Car Could Eliminate
the Parking Garage in Boston.” The Boston Globe. 2.23.2016.
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https://www.boston.com/cars/news-andreviews/2016/02/23/how-the-self-driving-car-couldeliminate-the-parking-garage-in-boston
[13] J. Phillips. “How Green are Self-Driving Cars?”
Greenbiz.
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3.27.2017.
https://www.greenbiz.com/article/how-green-are-selfdriving-cars
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank our Co-Chair, Madeline Spiegel
for helping us with revisions, and helping us stay ahead of
schedule with all of our assignments. We would also like to
thank our advisors because they have helped us realize that
industrial engineering is the field for us, and that helped us
think of this topic which we are truly interested in. We would
like to thank Dr. Joel Haight for his time and knowledge on
function allocation. Lastly, we would like to thank our writing
instructor, Janine Carlock, for taking the time to read,
annotate our work, and meet with us to help us better the
overall flow of our paper.
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