CORE THEORY - NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION - SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY
Social Learning Theory explanation of NonVerbal Communication
Social learning theory (SLT) starts with the
idea that we observe and imitate behaviours
from other people. If this behaviour is
rewarded and reinforced it is repeated and
the behaviour becomes habit. However, if this
behaviour is criticised (punished) it can stop
us repeating the behaviour.
SUPPORT FOR THE THEORY
• The SLT of non-verbal communication is
supported by cultural variations in body
language. Cultural variation can be observed
in how people greet each other. In France
friends greet each other by kissing each cheek.
In Brazil, the custom is to shake hands. If nonverbal communication was innate (natural),
then humans would all communicate in more
or less the same way.
LIMITATIONS OF THE THEORY
• One criticism is that the SLT of NVC suggests that
people can learn new ways of communicating nonverbally but this is not necessarily true. For example
efforts to teach offenders more appropriate body
language tend not to work that well. Another criticism
is that SLT cannot really explain why children brought
up in the same environment can have quite different
ways of communicating. For example, two brothers
raised by the same parents in the same community can
have very different ways of expressing themselves.
• Finally, the SLT ignores the effect of nature on NVC.
Facial expressions, for example, are similar around the
world, so are probably natural rather than learned.
CORE THEORY – MEMORY
• This is one of the better known theories about how the human memory
works
• Information is encoded and enters the Sensory store. The sensory store
has a small capacity and a duration of only 1 second. After this
information decays (fades away)
• If we pay attention to information in the SM it moves to the short term
memory. The STM has a capacity of 5-9 items (7±2), and a duration of 30
seconds. After this time the information decays. If more information
enters the STM, some information will be displaced (pushed out of the
memory). We can keep information in our STM by rehearsal (repetition).
Information that is rehearsed may also enter the long-term memory.
• The LTM is a permanent store with an unlimited capacity and a lifelong
duration.
• Forgetting can happen through decay (information fades over time if not
used), or displacement (information is pushed out to make room for new
information)
MULTI STORE MODEL
EXTERNAL
STIMULI
Decay
SUPPORT FOR THE THEORY
• Support for this theory comes from
experiments. The experiment by Terry
demonstrated the serial position effect which
supports the idea that we have a short-term
and a long-term memor
• Experiments by Peterson and Peterson
demonstrated that the duration of the shortterm memory was in fact 18-30 seconds.
LIMITATIONS
• The theory shows the STM and LTM as being
single, simple stores, however there is evidence
that there are different stores within the LTM for
different types of memory (skills, experiences),
and that the STM is also more complex than
shown here
• The theory says that info only enters the LTM if
we rehearse it, however some information enters
the LTM without rehearsal, and some info that
we rehearse a lot still fails to enter the LTM.
• The theory does not explain why some people
have much better memories than other people.
CORE THEORY OBEDIENCE –
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
• This theory suggests that obedience is more (or less) likely to take place in
certain situations
• Setting – the place where the events take place can affect levels of
obedience. When Milgram moved his obedience study from a university to
a run-down office, obedience levels fell
• Culture – some cultures are more obedient than others due to the way
people in those cultures are brought up. For example Australians tend to
be less obedient to authority, Japanese highly obedient to authority.
• Authority – if the person giving the orders has a higher status in some way
such as their age, position at work, title (Dr, Sir, Lord) then they are more
likely to be obeyed
• Punishment – if you risk being punished in some way then you are more
likely to obey
• Consensus – if the majority of people are obeying then you will obey too.
The opposite is also true!
SUPPORT FOR THE THEORY
• Support for this theory comes from
experiments conducted by Milgram who
demonstrated that setting and perceived
authority did have an influence on obedience.
• The research by Hoffling ( nurses ) and
Bickman also demonstrates support for the
situational factor theory.
LIMITATIONS
• The theory ignores that some people might be
naturally more obedient than others (see
dispositional factors)
• Some of the key research was unethical such as
Milgram’s study where people thought they were
giving someone dangerous electric shocks. This
caused them great distress, and they were not
allowed to easily withdraw
• Some of the research lacks ecological validity and
may not reflect obedience in the real world
CORE THEORY SEX AND GENDER –
BIOLOGICAL THEORY
• Depending on which sperm fertilises the egg, we will have either XX or XY
chromosomes. XX makes us female, XY makes us male.
• Our chromosomes cause testosterone to be released in males, oestrogen
in females. These are hormones, which are chemical messengers in our
blood.
• These hormones cause our sex organs to develop. For females these are
ovaries, for males these are testes.
• Our hormones also affect our behaviour, causing masculine and feminine
behaviours to develop.
• Limitations
• The theory does not explain why some people do not have appropriate
gender behaviour, such as some women who behave in a masculine way
• The theory ignores the learned aspects of gender behaviour
• The theory cannot explain why gender behaviour is different in different
cultures, and has changed over time
SUPPORT FOR THE THEORY
• Support for this theory comes from the case
study by Diamond and Sigmundson. Bruce
was raised as a girl however once puberty
began he reported ‘feeling’ as if he was a boy
and reverted back to his biological gender.
• Thus demonstrating that nurture cannot
override nature.
LIMITATIONS
• The theory does not explain why some people
do not have appropriate gender behaviour,
such as some women who behave in a
masculine way
• The theory ignores the learned aspects of
gender behaviour
• The theory cannot explain why gender
behaviour is different in different cultures, and
has changed over time
CORE THEORY ATYPICAL BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOURIST THEORY
• Classical and Operant conditioning and Phobias
Phobias can develop by association, through classical
conditioning. When something unpleasant happens
(unconditioned stimulus) that naturally makes us
scared (unconditioned response), we might associate
this with something else (neutral stimulus). The NS
becomes a conditioned stimulus that brings on a
conditioned response of fear. The phobia can be
maintained by operant conditioning through
reinforcement. When a person avoids the thing they
fear, they feel better, which reinforces avoidance and
makes the phobia worse.
• Exam Tip – If you are using an example, make
sure it relates to Atypical Behaviour –
something that is not ‘normal’
SUPPORT FOR THIS THEORY
• Support for the Behaviourist theory comes from
the research by Watson and Rayner who
demonstrated how ‘Little Albert’ could be
conditioned to fear white rats by using classical
conditioning.
• Also the therapies such as Systematic
Desensitisation and Flooding use the principles of
classical conditioning and are very effective in
treating phobias by creating an alternative more
positive association with the feared object.
LIMITATIONS
• We have our own mind: people have different
approaches towards different stimuli, e.g. one person
may think rationally about a dark place, where as
another may be irrational and make a different
decision.
• Behaviourists assume that you need direct experience
with the feared object or situation, but some people
seem to develop phobias through observing and
imitating their role models, such as parents.
• Behaviourists cannot explain the fact that some people
have phobias of objects and situations that they have
no direct experience of.
CORE THEORY ATTACHMENT :
BOWLBY’S THEORY
• Bowlby thought that attachments were instinctive, and were evolved to
increase our chances of survival. A baby will naturally attach to its mother
who will nurture and protect the baby.
• Monotropy – the name Bowlby gave for the single, special attachment
that he thought children have for their mother
• Critical Period – the first three years of a child’s life during which it was
very important to make an attachment
• Privation – when a child does not make an attachment, maybe because it
is moved around different foster carers, or because the parents are so
unloving and neglectful that the child is unable to form a bond with them.
This can lead to the child developing poor motor skills, poor language
skills, and poor social skills. These effects are permanent,
• Deprivation – when a child makes an attachment but this attachment is
disrupted or broken, possibly because the parent/s die, or because the
main caregiver goes into hospital or prison for an extended time.
Deprivation can lead to a child being demanding or clingy. As adults, they
may become ‘affectionless psychopaths’ who lack guilt or remorse
SUPPORT FOR THIS THEORY
• Support for Bowlby’s theory comes from his
own research into 44 juvenile thieves, many of
these had suffered deprivation in early
childhood.
• Also studies by Harlow demonstrated that
care and comfort were more important than
food when forming an attachment , this fits
with Bowlby’s ideas.
LIMITATIONS
• Monotropy –actually many children make
multiple attachments to fathers, grandparents
and other carers
• Critical period – actually children adopted
after the age of three can still form
attachments to their new parents
• Irreversible damage –there are cases of
children who have recovered from the effects
of deprivation and privation