Gender Mainstreaming
in Research
“ Engendering
Borderlands Research”
Hirut Terefe (PhD)
Associate Prof. of Anthropology
Department of Social Anthropology
Addis Ababa University
Gender and Research

One political dimension of research involves
gender - the relative social standing of females
and males.

Sociologists/anthropologists or development
thinkers are becoming increasingly aware that
gender related issues can play a major part in
their work.

The objective of this training is to encourage the
sharing of gender experiences in research and to
see the extent to which the approach can
contribute to the transformation of the society in
terms of equity.
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Margrit Eichler (1988) identified five dangers to sound
research that are related to gender:
1. Androcentricity: Androcentricity (andro is the
Greek word for "male"; centricity means "being
centered on") refers to approaching an issue from
a male perspective.
 Sometimes researchers approach a setting as if only
the activities of men are important while ignoring
what women do. For years, research in the area of
occupations focused on the paid work of men while
overlooking the housework traditionally performed by
women. Similarly, until recently studies of status
attainment were based on fathers and sons.
 Clearly, research that seeks to understand human
behavior cannot ignore half of humanity.
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
she also notes that the parallel situation of -seeing the
world from a female perspective (gynocentricity) is
equally limiting to social sciences investigation. However,
in male-dominated countries, this problem arises much
less frequently“.
2. Overgenera1izing: occurs when research that
focuses on members of one sex is used to support
conclusions about both sexes.
 Historically, social researchers have studied
men and then made" sweeping claims about
"society."
 This approach ignores the experiences of half
the population.
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 Gathering information about a community
from public officials or other prominent
persons (who are likely to be men), and then
drawing conclusions about the community as
a whole, would constitute overgeneralizing.
 Here, again, the problem can occur in
reverse. For example, in an investigation of
childrearing practices, collecting data only
from women would allow researchers to
draw conclusions about "motherhood" but
not about the more general issue of
"parenthood."
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3. Gender Insensitivity: refers to the failure of a
researchers to consider the variable of gender at all. As is
evident throughout many writings, social forces often
affect men and women quite differently.
4. Double Standards: researchers must be careful not to
distort what they study by evaluating women and men
using different standards.

This might happen as a researcher investigating families
describes a couple as "man and wife“.

This inconsistency involves more than words if the
researcher defines the man as the "head of household"
and treats him accordingly, while assuming that the
woman simply engages in family "support work“.
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5. Interference: Beyond affecting researchers, gender often
shapes the attitudes of subjects, which can also distort a
study.

The problem of "interference" occurs if a subject
reacts to the sex of the researcher rather than to the
research itself.

For instance, while studying a small community in
Sicily, Maureen Giovanni (1992) reported that many
men responded to her as a woman to the point that she
was unable to work effectively as a researcher.

Gender dynamics prevented activities like private
conversations with men that were deemed
inappropriate for single women. In addition, local
residents denied Giovanni access to places considered
"off-limits" to members of her sex.
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Background to Gender and Research in Africa
Research methods in African countries concerned mainly those
which had been introduced by Europeans within the context of
colonization and were characterized by:



A fragmented life of the social reality that encourages
disciplinary speculations to the neglect of an exhaustive
analysis of a problem in all its dimensions;
An Euro-centrist orientation developed within the
context of the expansionist system;
An ideology which excluded women in society as a
central subject of study and isolates intellectual women.
These research activities did not make it possible to deepen
sufficiently the knowledge on the political, economic, social
and cultural realities of African countries in order to remedy
the dependency situation of these countries.
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This is why African female intellectuals have examined
a new orientation which shows that:
 Social relationships based on differences between the
sexes, age, class, etc is neither the act of nature nor of
God. They are produced by a system - patriarchy which
institutionalizes the power of men over women through
the family, the state, economic and social policies.
 Men and women do not constitute homogenous social
groups. Women as a group are subordinates of men;
they can have and indeed (they do have) some divergent
interests depending on their age, class, ethnic group or
cast. In turn, they can oppress other women.
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 This difference in interest generates differences in
their appreciation of the position of women, in the
knowledge of their oppression and the strategies
to be implemented with a view to ending it.
 Women and men are seen as actors: they build
gender, but can also transform it by changing the
power relationships between the sexes, classes or
generations.
 In this regard, it is understandable that this
theoretical and practical approach which
challenges the most ancient and strongest
structures of the society encounters one profound
resistance (See Sachs , C. Gendered Fields 1996)
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 But, since it involved behaviors, visions at the
political, economic and social level, the changes
will take place probably over the long term for a
social equity to be established.
 In line with this objective of change, several
subjects of research have already been studied
by scholars in many research institutes including
OSSREA and can modify the socio-political
environment which would be more open to the
integration
of
gender
in
development
programmes, projects and plans.
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 Data which takes account of the existence of
both sexes in a dynamic relationship within the
social significance of their presence and
situation in the research in question.
 These data should also be detailed and more
comparative for a more exhaustive analysis of
relationship between the sexes and classes.
 It is in this perspective coupled with the sharing
of experiences in “gender sensitive” research
that the scientific reflection on gender is
embodied, as an analytical research tool likely
to engender social equity.
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 As an analytical concept, gender is still poorly
understood by researchers, policymakers and other
development actors especially in African countries.
 The concept was used right from 1970s to
describe the characteristics of men and women
deriving from a “social construction” and
highlighting the differences with those which are
biologically determined.
 This is why it is interesting to specify that this
concept does not designate either women or men,
but defines a social construction of masculinity
and femininity.
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
In all societies, the role of men and women, their
task and responsibilities, the power wielded, the
qualities, attitudes and behaviors expected of both
parties are differentiated.
Gender refers to these differences which are established,

constructed by society in terms of sexual membership.

The roles, systems of representation and conducts
are learned within the frame work of the socialization of
individuals, in women (femininity) and men (masculinity).

Gender can therefore be defined as a social
construction of masculinity and femininity. It is a
socio-cultural notion which refers to social groups.
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 Since societies differ in time and space, the role and
attitudes prescribed for men and women change depending
on historical periods.
 Gender derives from ideology and as such, it serves to
legitimize the oppression of women that it seeks to render
acceptable by naturalizing and/or ensuring that it is derived
form a divine will.
 For the theory on which research is based to offer a
framework of abstraction from the reality and not from
another reality that would be thought of being neutral
or universal, it is essential to formulate research activities
as critical reflection on reality.
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 Given the socio-historical and contemporary roles of
African women, their potentialities and rights as
citizens, it is fundamental that the research habits that
have remained biased for long be changed.
 Almost everywhere in the world, the issue of gender is
raised and continues to gain importance.
 Regardless of this international drive, it is important that
research in Africa be conceived and conducted on the basis
of an ethical in epistemological rights which take
account of African realities reflecting the
inequalities and the actual presence of both sexes in
the social system at different moments of history and
irrespective of the regional or ethnic specificities.
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
African realities require that researchers take account of
the “man-woman” interrelationship in social dynamics in
order to obtain an improved conceptualization of gender.
They should also demonstrate vigilance against any form
of sexism.

Since the approach to gender constitutes an analytical tool
in research activities of universities (research institutes
within them), it has become necessary to explore its use,
however little, by the members and share their experiences
in this fields.
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Research on Women and Development

Since the 1980s, when several countries recognized the
(Women and Development) approach as a
legitimate professional domain dealing with issues
concerning women, as development agents and
beneficiaries, new methodologies emerged for
development research and practices. In many countries,
development agencies and organizations endorsed
different policies, while universities were exploring new
theories and approaches on women’s integration in the
development process.

On the Forward Looking Strategy 1985 (Nairobi,
Kenya) hosted the second UN Conference bringing
together thousands of women from around the world to
assess the national realizations of the UN International
Decade for Women, but also to put new issues on the
agenda.
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 After the Nairobi conference, several landmark
tendencies affecting gender research approaches
developed around the world.
 Structural adjustment plans and policies coupled with the
decreasing interest in poverty, the development
community’s concern for children’s survival, the
ignorance of women’s productive roles, wars, the
emergence of movements defending basic rights, as well
as global recession contributed to the creation of a very
hostile environment calling for the improvement of girls
and women’s living conditions.
 Laying special emphasis on gender means that
development should first tackle the social causes of
women’s subordination and the relations of power
existing between men and women.
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
In the execution of different activates of development
research, one question always comes up.
“How to
conduct research on gender with out involving both
sexes?”

For many people, both men and women, or gender
appears as conspiracy of women against men, or even a
concept borrowed from the west and hardly adaptable to
the African context!

Actually, many people ignore that the difference of
status between men and women is not natural. It is a
sheer fact of society and can therefore be
improved/changed.
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
Various reactions gathered on the ground make us
believe that the notion of gender has been poorly
introduced in Africa, particularly in Development
Research .

To remedy the situation and give the gender approach its
true meaning, men and women have to be significantly
involved in different research activities..

In fact, women should not appear like a feminist
association, but rather an association of researchers
working for a harmonious and lasting equilibrium
between men and women in society.
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
The other gender aspect that deserves to be highlighted
is the proliferation of religion, which has compounded
inequalities between men and women in the religious
milieu.

The Biblical verses hinting women’s submission have
become the motive of certain men in quest for
domination. Thus, women shall play a secondary role
behind men and submit to their husbands, no matter
their fickle behaviors, not to mention the household
chores devolved on them.

In fact, in a context of generalized crisis like the one
raging in African countries (a situation worsened by
wars) and marked by a scarcity of job opportunities,
women are the ones bringing home the bacon through
their informal activities.
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
Besides, girls’ lot is not enviable either. They are often
blamed for the spread of HIV/AIDS and accused of
seeking to lure profit easily.

Therefore social research is expected to an ravel what is
going on in the society studied.

In light of our experience, any research on gender
should involve boys and men in the search for perennial
solutions to gender problems.

In a nutshell, the gender approach, in spite of all the
advantages attributed to it, is rather perceived by men
as a conspiracy against them. It is therefore essential
that it includes a “sacrament” aspect assuring men to
hold on to their prerogatives.
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
.
Concerning high education’s contribution to development
in general, and rural development in particular, the
following question has always been raised: “How to link
research and action in the training of
researchers/cadres of change so that each item
enriches the others?” All research must therefore
be socially relevant

In addition, research “brings to life” the fabrics of life
upon which the life supporting processes in society are
founded.

To this end, Social Science researchers find themselves
bound by “rules of integrity”, which are defined by the
sciences they exercise and, where this occurs, their
energies extend beyond the focus point of their research.
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
Scientific knowledge is provable by both research and
experience.

In the past, attempts have been made on outlining some of
the main philosophical positions of the protagonists with
regard to methodology in the Social Sciences and
Operational Research.

The question is:

To answer the question, we must first understand what
Social Science research stands for.
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“What directions will Social
Science research take and what shape will society
take in the future?”
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 The linkages in social theory and social research
are considered with the ultimate goal of
establishing the bases for social research.
 The use and role of quantitative and qualitative
techniques in the Social Sciences is given with an
emphasis on the fact that the social scientist’s
interest in them is due to their utility as aids in the
study of a given subject matter.
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Historical Evolution of Social Sciences

The first phase in the evolution of the Social Sciences
ended in the mid-nineteenth century.

Many of the Social Science accounts during this period
largely consisted of logical description and location of
phenomena in time and space (physical and human
space).

Prestigious organizations were formed during this period
whose main activity was the organization of Social
Science explorations, such as anthropological and
geographical expeditions.
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

The descriptive phase of the Social Sciences considered
above, was replaced by the search for explanations about
social phenomena.
In the second phase that ensured (beginning after the
Second World War up to the mid 1960s), the
systematization of the social sciences resulted in the
fragmentation of some disciplines into specialized
branches such as social anthropology, sociology,
psychology,
medical
anthropology,
medical
geography, human ecology, cultural studies,
economics, etc.

All these trends in the social sciences were however
largely descriptive, with crude attempt at the
explanation of phenomena.
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 The scientific method was anchored onto the
achievements gained from the quantitative
revolution, which marked this third phase of
development in Social Science research.
 In the quest to incorporate the scientific method
in special problems, it became apparent that
quantitative techniques could be employed in
the description, explanation and prediction of
social science phenomena.
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 This phase was especially influenced by the
development of theories in the Social Sciences,
which borrowed heavily form the hard sciences.
 This phase has become increasingly useful in
the development of strategies to bridge
quantitative
and
qualitative
research
approaches. The future success and efficacy of
social science research will perhaps depend on
these new development referred to as building
bridges.
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 Thus short evolutionary account that has been
given here is to demonstrate the changes which
have occurred so far in a wide range of Social
Science disciplines, especially with regard to
methods and approaches utilized in socio-cultural
studies, like gender, as well as environmental
research. Schools of thought in Social Science are
reviewed in a format that explores these
emerging thinking.
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Social Science Research Methodology

All disciplines consist of two interrelated components,
namely; the subject matter studied, and the method or
approach adopted together with the associated
techniques.

Before the developments which have occurred in Social
Science methodology can be appreciated, there is a need to
be conversant with the subject matter of Social Sciences as
a distinct discipline

The subject matter of the social sciences, and the associated
methods/approaches applied, have undergone considerable
transition over the last two millennia of the discipline’s
existence.
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
Despite divergent views on the definition of Social Science,
a simple description of its varied subject matter can be
gleaned from what social scientists have been doing over
the past 160 years.

Moreover, in most cases, contemporary problems facing
human societies (for which social scientists seek solutions),
are multifaceted, thus requiring a concerted effort from
multiple disciplines.

Consequently, multidisciplinary approaches to the solution
of world problems marks contemporary research trends,
and this requires that no fast boundaries be drawn
between subjects.

Social Scientists are concerned with wide range of issues,
such as the study of human behavior, gender, health,
environment, poverty
, etc.
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 In retrospect, social scientists emphasize the
spatial
component
of
man-environment
relationships (in the broader sense) as their main
area of interest, although the time dimension can
also be included at secondary level.
 These relationships may culminate into specific
human-environment relationships, which could
be culture specific.
 While this may be the practice, it should be noted
that the time dimension is very crucial in social
science research, especially when analyzing
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Research Methodology
34
changes over a Gender
given
period.
 Thus, any phenomenon which has a spatial
dimension
is
amenable
to
Social
Science
investigation.
 In this regard, most activities in the Social Sciences
involve the description, explanation and prediction
of temporal and spatial phenomena, taking in to
consideration human components.
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Social Theory and Social Science Research

Theory constitutes the ability to interpret and understand
the findings of research within a conceptual frame work
that makes’ sense’ of the information being analyzed on
given phenomena.

For social scientists, these phenomena include the dynamics
contents and contexts of social relations. Thus, social
theory cannot be separated form the process of social
research.

In essence, theory informs our thinking upon which we
make the research decisions required for our
understanding of the real world.
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
From our experiences, we derive meanings which influence
our theorizing.

Hence, the dynamic relationship between social research
and social theory is central to the Social Science research
process.

Thus, according to Stanley and Wise (1990), social
researchers can be seen to be: “Always a medium through
which research occurs; there is no method or technique for
doing research other than through the medium of the
researcher”.
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 The above-depicted scenario entails a through
understanding of the issues involved in research
practice,
particularly
those
touching
on
the
dynamics of the interactions between values, ethics
and social research. The aspects discussed so far,
lead to the choice of the qualitative and quantitative
paradigms in social research.
 The most appropriate method of Social Science
research
was
incorporates
the
two
naturalistic
major
method,
procedures,
which
namely:
exploration and inspection.
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Qualitative and Quantitative Inquiries
1. Qualitative Inquiry
 Qualitative research is concerned with offering
specialized techniques for obtaining in depth
responses about what people think, do and feel.
 It covers the realms of observation (especially
ethnography, texts specially analyzing documents
using textual analysis, interviews, audio and video
discourse analysis, conversation analysis, and
analysis of face to face interactions for gender
research), validation and aesthetics of research.
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 The
qualitative
research
process
is
one
of
discovery, while the quantitative research process
tends to emphasize the pursuit of proof.
 In Social Science research, measuring is necessary
given that it helps establish patterns. trends
relationships,
etc.,
which
facilitate
the
understanding of the issue under study.
 Historically, qualitative research grew out of
several disciplines such as anthropology, literary
criticism and psychoanalytical theory.
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 The basic principles of qualitative research are: openness;
research as communication; the process-nature of the
research and the object; reflexivity of objects and
analysis; explication and flexibility.
 Thus, qualitative research is interpretative, naturalistic,
communicative and reflective.
 When applied properly, qualitative techniques are used
along with quantitative techniques in an interrelated and
complementary manner.
 By its very nature, qualitative research deals with the
emotional and contextual aspects of human responses. It
adds “feel”, texture and announce to quantitative findings.
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2. Quantitative Inquiry
 Facts should be kept apart form values, implying
that the social scientist should not make value
judgments (the thesis of value neutrality).
 In retrospect, the natural and Social Sciences share
common logical and methodological foundations.
 Therefore, social scientists ought to employ the
method of the physical sciences where applicable.
 Quantitative research takes natural sciences as a
model.
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 Despite the great influence of scientific approaches
to methodologies in the Social Sciences, an
alternative series of approaches have been used in
social research.
 The quantitative debate in Social Sciences became
important in the late 1950s, that is, during the third
phase of Social Science development.
 It entailed the increasing application of statistical
procedures to Social Science problems, as the
discipline moved form a largely descriptive one, to
one concerned with the search for explanations
about human setting and spatial phenomena.
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 With the ultimate aim of developing testable
theories. Various factors contributed to the rise
and acceptance of quantitative techniques in Social
Science inquiry.
 By the late 1960s, the quantitative revolution in the
Social Sciences was basically over and the use of
statistical techniques were accepted and an
intrinsic part of research methodology. In the
present decade, microcomputers are becoming
widely available in most colleges offering Social
Science disciplines.
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These included:
 The incorporation of the scientific method in
Social Science methodology, which prompted the
need for procedures, that could lead to precise
measurements and the development and accurate
testing of general statements about phenomena.
 The increasing availability of numerical data from
official
and
unofficial
censuses,
required
quantitative techniques of data analysis.
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 The
advent
and
proliferation
of
computer
technology and its increasing availability saved
social scientists from the tedious and error prone
mechanical analysis of quantitative data.
 This has given further impetus to the use of
statistical techniques as valuable tools in the
study of social phenomena.
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 Thus
such
software
packages
like
SPPSS,
MINITAB, and SAS are heavily utilized in
analyzing Social Science data.
 Quantitative
techniques
add
precision
in
measurements, facilitate economy of description,
validation
of
statements,
and
accuracy
in
prediction and objectivity in social research.
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 The statistical approach to social science studies,
is just one among many other approaches. The
techniques believe that statistical progress of
society.
 These techniques also provide the researcher with
a systematic and a powerful means of analyzing
drawn from complex societal situations in a broad
classification of quantitative techniques.
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 It is for this reason that social scientists must adopt
a multidisciplinary approach to social research, and
bring into their insights into the study of
phenomena like gender, thorough the application of
methods such as those mentioned.
 This strategy is designed to gain from the
articulation of futuristic methods of Social Science
research.
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Major Characteristics of Qualitative an Quantitative
Approaches in Social Research
Qualitative
Quantitative
Provides in-depth
understanding
Measures level of
occurrences
Asks ‘why’?
Asks ‘How many’? “How
often’?
Studies motivations
Studies actions
Enables discovery
Provides Proof
Is Personal
Is anonymous
Is exploratory
Is definitive
Allows insights into
Behavior trends, and so on
Measure levels of actions,
trends, and so on
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 Then use qualitative research, which, in most
cases
produces
more
insight
and-
constitutes
a
depth
information.
 Triangulation,
which
Social
Science
popular
development
in
research
methodology.
The structure and the extent of
social phenomena call for the application of both
of these parameters.
 However, depending on the problems under
consideration,
either
the
qualitative
or
quantitative aspects will play a larger role.
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Methodological Trends in
Social Science Research
 In recent times, a number of areas have emerged in
Social Science research methodology as “thinking
frontier”.
 Consequently, there have been numerous debates
all over the world, leading to the development of a
methodology for feminist /gender research.
 For example, a number of methodological positions
are discernible from the characterization of the
relationship between environmental issues and
various Social Science disciplines.
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 Among social scientists today, there is an
increasing awareness of methodological positions
and theories. The development of modeling and
adaptations
of
system
analysis
approaches
developed as part of this shift.

There are high-level problems and phenomena
necessarily comprehensible by the aggregation of
lower-level problems and phenomena, because of
the importance of this two emerging “thinking
frontiers” in the Social Science research process?
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Outline the four phases of evolution of Social Sciences.
Attempt and explanation of the likely future trends in Social
Science development in the context of the following:
 Why would you set out to conduct a social science
research project?
 As a social researcher, what issues might preoccupy your work as a result of the issues raised
in this chapter?
 To what extent is social theory necessary in
bringing about social change in society?
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
Clearly at some stage along the way to the wholesale
rejection of culture as man make, the question arises
whether women and men can communicate adequately,
let alone ‘equally’, at all.

Here, conventional methods of Social Science analysis are
of little use.

As Evans (1995) notes, there is a problem of terminology
in the equality difference debate. The dichotomy seems
incorrect.

Only when sameness is linked to equality does it begin to
make sense.
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 Consequently, the debates on differences appear
to be contributing to the pre-occupation with
rehetoricity, hybridization and re-invention of
identities, thereby ignoring the way gender
relations shape and are shaped by ongoing socio-
political transformations in Africa.
 According to Aseka (1999), ‘gender remains untheorized despite the frequent use and misuse of
the term as metaphorical fictioning is embraced
as a critical tool for unlocking adjectives
pretension’.
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 As we have already said gender analysis is not specific to
women only because the concept refers to both men and
women. That is why researchers focus should be on the
dynamic among the two groups. Philosophical thinking
would attest to the following needs:
 Going beyond the dialectical interpretation of the
relations between women and men, but with a
focus on women.
 Transform the research strategies and the
interpretive analytical processes.
 Challenge, demystify and re-think existing
paradigms.
 Stretch gender questions beyond feminist
critiques ( i.e. to penetrate deeper than feminism
would allow).
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 From the expositions above, feminism as highlighted the
inequality between the sexes there by explicating how it is
instituted in the core of social transformations.
 Consequently, this has raised the question of women’s
rights and how this has generated resistance in society
emanating from, for example, the politics of the male
domination of the state.
 In most African countries men are beneficiaries of the
inequality syndrome yet the very notion of equality in a
regime of liberal politics and capitalist social relation in
facile (Aseka, 1999).
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 Whereas the concerns of feminists have not been
exhausted, there is need to re-examine the
questions of rights and forms in which power is
constituted and legitimated.
 The concepts of the state and the civility of civil
society, the problems of culture and religion,
culture and politics, deserve specific attention,
particularly from a more gendered point of view
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 The challenging and re-thinking of existing
paradigms, is necessitated by the fact that the
concept of gender has been developed in Western
feminist theory and has been projected onto
African culture and politics.
 Hence, there is need to research into the various
dimensions
of
‘community
discriminative
what
Usman
culture’,
practices
in
(1997)
which
are
calls
gender
historically
embedded.

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The Basis of Gender/Feminist Research
The emerging thinking on the methodological
guidelines or postulates for feminist research are the
followings:
 Promote conscious partiality in research, as opposed to
value-free research
 Enhance the view from below, as opposed to the view
from above, in dealing with the vertical relationship
between ‘researcher’ and ‘research objects’.
 Ensure active participation in actions, movements and
struggles for women’s emancipation by setting aside the
contemplative, uninvolved ‘spectator knowledge’.
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 Promote ‘the changes of status quo’ as a starting point for
scientific quest.
 Collective concientisation of women, through a problemformulating methodology, must be accompanied by the
study of women’s individuals and social history.
 Begin to collectivize women experiences as to effectively
won history.
 It is notable that the application of the above
postulates in a real research environment, could
lead to a deep dialogue between the researcher
and the subjects.
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 The researcher must be prepared to handle this
dialogue productively.
 Researchers
should
promote
an
interactive
approach which allows the target women to
mobilize (e.g. through song, dance, role plays,
etc.), and organize.
 This approach allows mobilization and action,
and develops women’s emancipator potential.
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 Nevertheless, as already and so far discussed, the
emerging thinking in feminism is based on
complicated debates.
 From the methodological point of view, the
debates in the earlier are illuminating.
 Nevertheless, as far as Social Science research is
concerned, there are methodological changes to
be overcome.
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Thank you
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