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2014
Does the number of toys in the environment
influence play in toddlers?
Michelle L. Phlipot
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Phlipot, Michelle L., "Does the number of toys in the environment influence play in toddlers?" (2014). Master’s and Doctoral Projects.
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Running Head: TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
Does the Number of Toys in the Environment Influence Play in Toddlers?
Michelle L. Phlipot
Research Advisor: Alexia E. Metz, Ph.D., OTR/L
Occupational Therapy Doctoral Program
Department of Rehabilitation Sciences
The University of Toledo
May 2014
This scholarly project reflects individualized, original research conducted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the Occupational Therapy Doctorate Program, The University of Toledo.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
2
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether the number of toys in a toddler’s environment
affects the quality of their play.
METHODS: Ten typically developing toddlers between the ages of 18 and 30 months
participated in this study. This study used an experimental counterbalanced design. Each
participant experienced two conditions of toy play, four toys and sixteen toys. Conditions of toy
play were presented in random order, and the toys presented for play during each condition were
randomly selected. The quality of play during each condition of toy play was rated and
compared. Measurements regarding the quality of play included the number of incidences of toy
play, the duration of each toy play incidence, and the number of manners of play with each toy.
RESULTS: When presented with fewer toys in their environment, participants had fewer
incidences of toy play, longer durations of toy play, and more manners of play with each toy.
Only the latter was statistically significant.
CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study suggest that the number of toys present in the
environment can affect a toddler’s quality of play. This study shows that by providing fewer
toys in the environment, toddlers are able to engage in longer periods of toy play with a single
toy, which allows them to focus on the toy at hand to explore and play more creatively with the
toy. Occupational therapists can offer recommendations regarding toy selection to help support a
child’s development and promote healthy play.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
3
Does the Number of Toys in the Environment Influence Play in Toddlers?
Engagement in play begins in infancy and has beneficial effects on the development of a
child. Play is a child’s occupation through which an interaction with the environment occurs.
During play, a child is able to manipulate the environment which allows him or her to explore
and discover challenges. This results in the enhancement of the child’s development, health, and
well-being (Knox & Mailloux, 1997). Through play, children learn to interpret the world around
them which in return enhances their cognitive, emotional, social, and physical skills (BrasicRoyeen, 1997). On behalf of The American Occupational Therapy association, Primeau (2008)
recognizes the importance of play and the role an occupational therapist has as an advocator for
children and their ability to be able to play. It is essential that all children possess the skills
needed to participate in play as well as the support of an environment that promotes safe play
with proper play materials. The following reviews the topics of the developmental status of
toddlers, toddler play, and the elements that influence play in this age group. This study
explores the effects of the number of toys in the immediate environment on toddler engagement
in play.
As children develop, new achievements and milestones are obtained. Within his
cognitive-developmental theory, Jean Piaget posited that children acquire knowledge as they
explore, manipulate, and imitate the environment around them (as cited by Berk, 2006). During
toddlerhood, cognitive development flourishes through sensory and motor exploration.
Likewise, in his psychosocial theory, Erik Erikson described toddlerhood as the period in which
children become autonomous individuals as they use newly acquired cognitive and motor skills
in order to make decisions (as cited by Berk, 2006). Language skills also improve as a child
develops and interacts with the world. During toddlerhood, vocabulary changes rapidly and
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
4
grows at a rate of 1 to 2 new words a day. Toddlers are able to combine words together which
results in the beginning stages of sentence formation (Berk, 2006). As a child’s body changes in
size and proportion, balance improves and muscles continue to grow stronger. This allows new
gross motor skills to emerge (Berk, 2006). Toddlers develop a gait that is more rhythmic which
results in smoother, quicker walking that eventually turns into running. Fine motor skills also
develop during this stage (Berk, 2006). Toddlers are proficient at reaching and grasping and are
able to problem solve and anticipate the actions of objects. As cognitive, language, and motor
skills improve, toddlers are able to engage in specific, age-appropriate play.
During the toddler phase, play is very distinctive. Knox (2008) devised the Revised
Knox Preschool Play Scale (RKPPS) as a way to assess children’s play at different
developmental levels. As described by this instrument, young toddlers use their mobility to
engage in independent play that allows them to move freely in their environment. Play can
involve climbing on furniture, throwing and kicking balls, and walking and running.
Manipulation of objects is another aspect of play that can be seen. Toddlers enjoy using their
hands and fingers to stack, build, and draw. Toddlers use pretend play and start to imitate others.
They know what common objects are used for and tend to use those objects in play. They may
engage in pretend use of the objects with themselves, others, or play objects such as dolls and
teddy bears. In later stages of toddlerhood, the same skills are utilized but in a more advanced
and developed way. With advanced motor skills, toddlers will start to jump and dance. Toddlers
become more social and interested in what their peers are doing which results in play alongside
other children. Some toddlers may engage in small group play where the skill of turn taking
starts to evolve. Toddlers continue to take part in pretend play but are now able to link several
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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steps together to create a storyline. During play, they use costumes to dress up and can imitate
the roles of adults and other characters they are interested in.
One of the most important aspects of play is the concept of playfulness. Playfulness can
be described as the way in which a child approaches play (Skard & Bundy, 2008). Bundy (1991)
has described three important elements that a child needs to develop in order to have a playful
behavior, including intrinsic motivation, internal control, and suspension of reality. Children
engage in play because they want to. Play is an activity that is controlled by the child and allows
the child to pretend, imagine, and express who he/she is as a person. Having a playful approach
allows children to be flexible which in return allows them to invent creative solutions for the
situations encountered in the environment (Bundy, 1993).
The play materials are another important feature in the play experience, specifically the
toys. The developmental level of the child, the interest the child has in the toy, the availability of
the toy, and the impact of cultural beliefs are key factors that aid in the selection of toys (Dubois,
1997). Incorporating the right toys at an early age may help promote development and,
therefore, decrease the chances of developmental delays. Characteristics of the toy can
encourage development in several domains, such as cognition, social skills, and fine and gross
motor skills. According to Wiskind (2007), “Parents need to give their children toys that provide
less structure. Simpler toys allow creation of imagination and development of fine-motor skills,
hand strength and dexterity, and motor learning” (p. 20). Toys should also enhance reach, grasp,
and manipulation to help enhance fine-motor skills. Because mobility allows toddlers to explore
the environment, play items should allow them to push and pull on the object to promote gross
motor skills.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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Parents carefully consider what toys they provide their children, but to a toddler, a toy
could simply be any object that captures their attention. These objects could range from
commercially bought toys to household items (Dubois, 1997). A study conducted by Pierce
(1999) examined the types of items infants and toddlers played with inside their home. The
study found that as a child became more mobile, play involved objects found around the home
rather than commercial toys. These items included “furniture, family clothing, steps and stairs,
cookware and plasticware, telephones and televisions, doors and windows, and many other
everyday objects of family life” (p. 292). Pierce noted that mothers provided their toddlers with
play items that they considered to be educational. Such items included “shape-sorters, picture
and talking books, and puzzles” (p. 294). The researcher also described the way in which play
objects came into the home. The main way was by the mother purchasing the toy at a toy store.
Play items also came into the home by family friends and relatives during gift giving events such
as the child’s birthday or during holidays.
Along with the toys that toddlers interact with, the environment can also be a factor that
can influence play. Occupational therapists recognize the importance of the interaction between
person, occupation, and the environment. Interaction between these creates occupational
performance (Law et al., 1996). When the environment is supportive by matching a child’s
abilities and skills, the child’s occupational performance of playing is enhanced. A supportive
play environment should provide the appropriate challenge in regards to the child’s abilities.
Features of the environment that need to be taken into consideration include the influence of
other individuals, sensory stimulation, other objects, and the flexibility and safety of the space
(Skard & Bundy, 2008). The environment should allow a child to explore and to have fun within
appropriate limits. Children need to be able to control the space so they can encounter a variety
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
7
of experiences and choices. This can be done by having objects and people in the environment
move and change to stimulate all of the senses (Chandler, 1997). While observing the play
environment toddlers were placed in, Pierce (1999) found that mothers promoted independent
play of their toddler by enclosing them in a safe area with a toy box or table. The toddler’s toys
were placed at eye level so the available toys for play could be seen. Mothers also incorporated
novel objects into the environment and allowed their toddlers to explore novel spaces.
Beyond the supportive features of the play environment, elements that might detract from
engagement in play need to be considered. Toddlers have yet to develop the ability to maintain
selective attention (Akshoomoff, 2002); therefore, play may be disrupted in environments that
present distraction. This has been shown in studies that have studied the effects of background
television on play. A study conducted by Courage and colleagues (2009) examined attention of
6- and 18–month-old infants when presented with a variety of toys with and without a television
playing. Attention was measured by the number of times and the length of periods in which the
infants looked toward the toys. The researchers found that both groups of infants directed most
of their attention to the toys when they were presented alone. However, when the television was
turned on, the infants’ visual attention was distracted from the toys to the television. A similar
study conducted by Schmidt and colleagues (2008) examined the attention to play in 12-, 24-,
and 36–month-old children. These children played with toys for 30 minutes while the television
game show Jeopardy! played in the background and for 30 minutes with the television off. In
the television condition, there was less play in general, shorter play episodes, and shorter
episodes of focused attention to the toys. Researchers found that background television
disrupted toy play even when children paid little attention to it.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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Due to technological advances over the last several decades, the toy industry has
blossomed, with infant and preschool toys being the top selling category (The Gale Group, Inc.,
2012). A study conducted by Bjorklund (1979) examined the effects the toy environment has on
the satisfaction level of toddlers. Within a counterbalanced research design, toddlers, aged 16 to
20 months, engaged in free play for 10 minutes under three conditions: with three, 12, or 21 toys
present. The toddlers engaged in longer periods of play in the three-toy condition, with no
differences between the 12- and 21-toy conditions (61.3, 39.6, and 36.7 seconds, respectively,
F(2) = 4.7572, p<0.05). If the growth in the toy industry has resulted in an increase in the
number of toys in the average home, this could present persistent distraction, influencing the
quality of toddler play. Bjorklund (1979) included toys in three categories of toys, responsive
toys (those that emitted sounds and/or visual stimuli upon manipulation), organizational toys
(those that were made of several components with specific spatial relationships to one another),
and symbolic toys (those used for pretend play). Recently, however, educational toys sell as
well, or better than, traditional toys (Little & King, 2010).
The purpose of the current study was to build upon the findings of Bjorklund (1979) to
further examine the effect of number of toys on play in toddlers. This study used a sample of
toddlers, aged 18 to 30 months. Participants engaged in two different conditions of toy play:
four toys and sixteen toys. Play was examined over a period of 15 minutes. Contemporary toys
were included such as those with overt educational purposes and those which are battery
operated. We tested the hypothesis that providing fewer toys in the toddler’s environment
increases the quality of play.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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Method
Study Design
This study used an experimental counterbalanced design. Each participant experienced
two conditions of toy play that were presented in random order. Data collection spanned January
2013 to July 2013 and occurred in one of two locations: a small, quite playroom at The
University of Toledo or a small, quite spare room in a private home located in New Bremen,
Ohio. Each session was videotaped to maintain fidelity to the procedure and for offline data
analysis.
Participants
This study was approved by the University of Toledo Biomedical Institutional Review
Board of the Health Science Campus. The population for this study included a convenience
sample of ambulatory toddlers between the ages of 18 and 30 months. To be eligible for
participation in this study, toddlers had to be typically developing per caregiver report, and the
caregivers of the toddlers had to be of adult age. Toddlers were recruited through word of
mouth, by flyers postings at the University of Toledo, and at community child care facilities.
Parents/caregivers were asked to complete questionnaires to provide information about
the child’s age, gender, and race and the family’s socioeconomic status. The questionnaire also
included questions about the number and ages of siblings in the home, whether there were
dedicated play space(s) for the toddler in the home, the estimated number of toys accessible to
the toddler, with whom the toddler played with, and the toddler’s favorite toys. See Appendix A
for the questionnaire. Socioeconomic status (SES) of each family was determined by using the
Hollingshead Four Factor Index of Social Status (Hollingshead, 1975) which ranges from a low
score of 8 to a high score of 66.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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Battelle Developmental Inventory. Each toddler was assessed using the Battelle
Developmental Inventory (Newborg, Stock, & Wnek, 1988) to determine developmental status.
The Battelle Developmental Inventory (BDI) is a standardized assessment that tests for
developmental strengths and weaknesses in children from birth to eight years of age in five
domains: personal-social, adaptive, motor, communication, and cognitive. Each domain consists
of test items that can be further categorized into a variety of skill areas to facilitate specific skill
testing. Along with the specific test items in each area, information can also be gathered via
interviews with individuals familiar with the child and observations of the child in his/hers most
natural environment. For the purposes of this study, participants were assessed on only three of
the five domains, including: personal-social, motor, and cognitive.
The BDI was assessed on the psychometric principles of reliability and validity. For
reliability, the standard error of measurement (SEM) and test-retest reliability principles were
reviewed. SEM values and test-retest reliability coefficients were calculated for the domain total
scores and the BDI total scores for each age group the assessment covers. The SEM was found
to be small when compared to the corresponding mean scores for domain total scores and the
BDI total scores for each age group. This shows a strong strength in the BDI scores. Test-retest
coefficients were high which shows that the BDI is an accurate, reliable measure from one test
session to the next. For validity, the psychometric principles of content validity, construct
validity, and criterion-referenced validity were reviewed. Content validity was ensured through
the development process of the BDI by identifying test items, skill areas to be assessed, and the
validation of the results. Construct validity was established in the BDI based its discrimination
between performance that is considered normal and one that shows clinical problems. Construct
validity was also established in the BDI because the subdomains test items fit well in each of
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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their corresponding domains. To measure criterion-referenced validity, the coefficients of the 10
major BDI component scores were correlated with coefficients of other reliable and valid
measures. The strongest correlations were seen with the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (Doll,
1965), the Developmental Activities Screening Inventory (DASI; Dubose & Langley, 1977), and
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (S-B; Terman & Merrill, 1960).
Toys
Thirty-two different sit-and-play toys were used in this study (see Appendix B for the list
of toys that will be included in the study). A checklist written on behalf of The American
Occupational Therapy Association (2011) to aid parents in toy selection was used to vet each toy
for its appropriateness. In summary, the toy features taken into consideration when evaluating
each toy were as follows:
1. The toy is safe and durable;
2. The toy is age appropriate as determined by the labeling on the box;
3. The toy does not reflect a gender bias;
4. The toy is appealing to the senses;
5. The toy can be played with in more than one way;
6. A toddler can play with the toy while in different positions;
7. The toy involves bilateral hand use;
8. The toy allows fine motor manipulation;
9. The toy allows problem solving; and
10. The toy does not feature commercial characters.
Additionally, toys were categorized into four categories: educational (toys that may teach a
concept such as shapes, colors, or counting), pretend (toys that suggest themed play scenarios for
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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‘as if’ play), action (toys that can be activated through manipulation or toys that encourage
exploration/activity on the part of the toddler i.e. building, stacking, opening, twisting), and
vehicles (toys that have wheels that promote play through the toddlers ability to push the toy).
Eight toys were assigned to each of the above categories. Finally, toys were designated as
battery operated or not. In Appendix B, the category and designation for each toy is indicated
Conditions
Playroom. The data collection sessions took place in one of two locations. The first
location was a playroom in the Department of Rehabilitation Sciences on the campus of The
University of Toledo. The playroom and a small waiting area are within a suite of offices and
classrooms. Windows into the waiting area have blinds for privacy. From the waiting area, the
playroom can be seen through a mirrored observation window with blinds that can be closed
from the waiting room and heard through an overhead speaker with a volume dial in the waiting
room. The playroom was 11’ x 14’ and well lit by overhead florescent lighting. There was a
large west-facing window with a pull down shade and a 5’ x 8’ rug in the middle of the
completely carpeted room. The second location was a spare room in a private home in the small,
rural town of New Bremen, Ohio. This spare room followed similar dimensions as the playroom
in Toledo, had a north-facing window with a pull down shade, and was completely carpeted.
Regardless of the data collection session, several features of the playroom and spare room
remained the same throughout the study. In both rooms, there was a toddler-sized table that was
18.5” in height, one toddler sized chair that was 16” inches in height, one chair for the researcher
that was 26.5” in height, and a shelf that was 27” in height. The table was located in the middle
of the room with the chairs placed around it. The shelf was located in the southwest corner of
the room.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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Conditions. There were two conditions for toy play: four toys and sixteen toys. In the
four-toys condition, one toy from each category was randomly selected. No more than one toy
was designated as battery operated. In the sixteen-toys condition, four toys from each category
were randomly selected. No more than four toys were designated as battery operated. No toys
were repeated for both conditions. Toys that were indicated as being a participant’s favorite
were excluded for that participant and replaced with a random selection from the same category.
Procedures
Research personnel for this study included the principle investigator, a graduate student
researcher, and two undergraduate research assistants. Any personnel were able to recruit
participants, obtain informed consent, administer caregiver questionnaires, and conduct data
collection sessions. The graduate student researcher administered and scored the Battelle
Developmental Inventory and completed measurement and data entry of the dependent variables.
The principle investigator and the graduate student researcher performed data analysis.
Each participant and his/her caregiver attended three individual sessions. The initial visit
lasted approximately an hour. During the initial session, informed consent was obtained from
the caregiver and the caregiver completed the questionnaire. The caregiver was oriented to the
study protocol, including the scheduling of data collection sessions at a time of day that their
toddler was well rested, fed, and toileted or freshly diapered, as appropriate to the child.
Further, researchers requested caregiver assistance in helping the toddler feel comfortable with
the procedures. Finally, the toddler was assessed using the Battelle Developmental Inventory.
Two individual data collection sessions followed, which were scheduled at the same time
of day and within two weeks of one another. The first session involved random presentation of
one of the conditions for toy play, which resulted in the presentation of the other condition
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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during the second session. The caregiver was asked to remain on site during data collection and
was able to view the session. Each toddler was asked for verbal assent with the statement
“would you like to play today?”. Assent was documented by the researcher.
Upon arrival for data collection sessions, the caregiver was asked to assist in helping the
toddler feel comfortable in the playroom before separation for the session occurred. During each
of the data collection sessions, a researcher was present in the playroom in order to provide
supervision for the toddler. Once the caregiver departed the room, a two minute adjustment
period followed in which the researcher interacted with the toddler in a friendly manner. In the
event of separation distress, the caregiver was asked to join the toddler in the room during the
session and to abide by research protocol. Once comfortable, the toddler was informed that
he/she had 30 minutes to play in the playroom however he/she would like to.
If the toddler
approached the researcher to engage in play, the researcher participated in the reciprocal
interaction, following the toddler’s lead. However, the researcher did not approach the toddler to
engage in any play behavior. The researcher redirected the toddler to a different activity if
he/she was destructive with any of the toys or engaged in any behavior that put him/her at risk
for injury. A five minute and two minute warning were given as time diminished. Once time
expired, the toddler was escorted from the playroom by the researcher or by the caregiver. Upon
preference, the caregiver would direct the toddler to assist in clean up of the playroom. As an
acknowledgment of appreciation for participation in the study, a coloring book and package of
crayons were offered at the end of the last session.
Measurements
Each session was video recorded from multiple angles to allow the researcher to rate the
quality of play for each toddler (see Appendix C for the data collection sheets that were used).
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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The quality of play was quantified in the 15 minutes after the 2-minute acclimation period. The
first dependent variable was the number of incidences of toy play.
Acts of destructive play
were not included, but each incidence was separately noted. The second dependent variable was
the duration of each toy play incident. The beginning of an incident occurred when a toddler
purposefully touched a toy. For an incident to end, a toddler’s attention must be distracted away
from the toy and refocused to another element in the room. The average duration of toy play
incidences was recorded for each session. The third dependent variable was the number of
manners of play with each toy. Unique verbs were used to describe the manners of play
(Bjorklund, 1979), and the average number of verbs were recorded for each session. A graduate
occupational therapy student was trained in measurement of the dependent variables. She rated a
randomly selected 20% of sessions. Agreement was calculated using a linearly weighted kappa
statistic. Agreement was excellent for all dependent variables (number of incidences, .95;
duration, .99; number of manners of play, .89).
Data Analysis
To test the hypothesis that providing fewer toys in the toddler’s environment increases
the quality of play, we compared the scores for each dependent variable in the four-toys and
sixteen-toys condition with tests that account for the counterbalanced design. Data was tested
for normalcy. Data were not normally distributed, so a Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to
assess for significant differences in play behaviors between the two conditions. To determine
significance, alpha was .05 and adjusted to .017 to account for multiple variables. Play was
further described through descriptive statistics with no attempt to determine significance.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
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Results
Participants
A total of 11 healthy toddlers were enrolled in the study. Ten completed participation.
For the 10 toddlers included in data analysis, the average age was 25± 4 months. The sample
was comprised of eight female participants and two male participants. All participants were
classified as white with one participant having Hispanic/Latino/Spanish origin. Seven of the
participants had at least one sibling. According to standard deviation scores obtained from the
Battelle Developmental Inventory (Newborg, Stock, & Wnek, 1988), all participants were
functioning at an age-appropriate level in regards to personal-social, motor, and cognitive skills.
The average standard deviations for all participants were .169, .269, and .718 for personal-social
skills, motor skills, and cognitive skills, respectively. All caregivers identified themselves as
either the mother or the father of the participant. Socioeconomic status of the families in this
study, measured by the Hollingshead’s four factor index (1979), ranged 23 to 53, with an
average score of 38.9±10.0.
To describe the participants’ play experiences, a brief questionnaire was completed by
each caregiver. Based on the results from the questionnaire, 70% of participants had a dedicated
play space and all caregivers reported that there were many toys present within the home.
Caregivers were found to be the most common play mates with siblings following at a close
second. Other play mates included babysitters, extended family, and pets. Favorite toys that
were indicated on the questionnaires included dolls (for 6 participants), kitchen and kitchen
related toys (for 5 participants), cars/tractors (for 3 participants), and tools, gross motor toys,
electronic devices, art, and books (for 2 participants each). Other toys that were mentioned in
the questionnaire included balls, character toys, and parents’ belongings.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
17
The quality of play was rated for a total of 10 toddlers while they engaged in 15 minutes
of toy play during two different toy play conditions; four toys and sixteen toys. The first
dependent variable measured was the number of toy play incidences. There was not a
statistically significant difference regarding the numbers of incidences of toy play between the
two play conditions after the value of alpha was adjusted for multiplicity. An average of
10.7±7.6 incidences of toy play occurred in the four-toy condition and an average of 19.5±8.7
toy play incidences occurred in the sixteen-toy condition (see Figure 1, Z = -2.194, p = 0.028,
r = -0.7, a large effect size). The second dependent variable measured was the duration of each
toy place incident. There was not a statistically significant difference regarding the duration of
each toy play incidence between the two play conditions. The average duration of toy play
incidences in the four-toy condition was 125.9±133.5 seconds and the average duration of a toy
play incidence in the sixteen-toy condition was 49.6±42.8 seconds (see Figure 2, Z = -1.274, p =
0.203, r = -0.4, a medium effect size). The third dependent variable measured was the number of
manners of play with each toy. There was a statistically significant difference regarding the
number of manners of play with each toy with more manners of play occurring in the four-toy
condition. The average number of manners of play in the four-toy condition was 10.4±3.9 and
the average number of manners of play in the sixteen-toy condition was 6.2±1.1 (see Figure 3, Z
= -2.556, p = 0.011, r = -0.8, a large effect size).
Additional analysis was completed to further describe the participants’ play. In the fourtoy condition, 40% of participants played with all toys that were present in the room. During the
sixteen-toy condition, no participants played with all toys that were present, with thirteen being
the greatest number of toys that were played with (see Figure 4). Regardless of condition, the
top three toys that were utilized for the longest durations of play, highest play incidences, and
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
18
most manners of play were recorded. The toys that elicited the most play incidences were the
Nesting Cups with 11±8 incidences, the Tool Box with 7±0 incidences, and the Counting Train
and the Circus with5+4 incidences each (see Figure 5). The longest durations of play occurred
with the Number Bank with an average of 172±236 seconds, the Ball and Chutes with an average
of 133±222 seconds, and the Round Shape Sorter with an average of 101±173 seconds (see
Figure 6). The toys that allowed for the most manners of play included the Number Bank with
16±0 manners of play, the Ball and Chutes with 13±4 manners of play, and the Snake, the Tool
Box, and the Nesting Cups with 11±4, 11±0, and 11±4 manners of play, respectively (see Figure
7).
Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine how the number of toys in toddlers’ environments
affects the quality of their play. The results of this study suggest that the number of toys in a
toddler’s environment can affect the quality of play and that providing a toddler with fewer toys
increases the quality of play. Although the results regarding the number of toy play incidences
and the duration of each toy play incidence were not statistically significant, the results produced
a large and medium effect size, respectively. This suggests that if the sample size would have
been larger, even greater differences could have been detected between the toy play conditions,
leading to statistically significant results.
Participants in this study engaged in more incidences of toy play when presented with the
sixteen-toy condition. This suggests that when presented with more toys in their environment,
participants were more easily distracted, which led them to move more frequently from toy to
toy. In the four-toy condition, participants did not switch the toy they were playing with as
frequently, resulting in fewer toy play incidences. Because of this, participants were able to
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
19
engage in longer durations of toy play. These findings correlate with the results from a study
conducted by Bjorklund (1979) who also found that toddlers engaged in longer periods of play
when presented with fewer toys. The present study also assessed quality of play through the
number of manners in which toddlers played with toys. Participants played with toys in more
ways in the four-toy condition. By providing fewer toys in the environment, participants were
able to spend more time playing with each toy, which allowed them to explore and use the toy in
more creative ways.
Sustained attention to task develops throughout childhood, with rapid growth occurring
after 5 years of age (Akshoomoff, 2002). Toddlers have not fully developed the ability to
maintain selective attention to a task; therefore, certain elements in the environment can pose as
distractions when engaging in play. Studies conducted by Courage (2009) and Schmidt (2008)
and colleagues found that background television serves as a distraction in a young child’s
environment and disrupts a child’s ability to engage in toy play. Results from this study support
that increasing the number of toys in a toddler’s environment can also pose as a distraction when
engaging in play. This showcases the importance that the environment can have on a desired
occupational performance. According to Law and colleagues (1996) the interaction between
people, their environments, and the occupations they engage in are dynamically related and
affect successful occupational performance. The element of the environment can either facilitate
or inhibit occupational performance. By effectively changing the environment, occupational
performance can be enhanced. Although toddlers have not fully developed the ability to
maintain selective attention, reducing the number of toys in the environment may have supported
the toddlers’ attention to and engagement in play. By manipulating the number of toys present in
the environment, we were able to enhance occupational performance.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
20
Thirty-two toddler appropriate sit-and-play toys were used in this study. Descriptive
statistics from participants’ play provided information regarding the toys that elicited play in the
participants. These toys spanned all categories of educational, pretend, action, and vehicles.
The toys that were played with the longest were from the educational and action toy categories.
None of these toys were battery operated. The toys that elicited the most play were from the
action toy category, the pretend toy category, and the educational toy category. One was battery
operated. The toys that evoked for the most manners of play were from the educational toy
category, the action toy category, and the pretend toy category. None of these toys were battery
operated.
Over the last several decades, technology has flourished with the creation of toys that
provide more auditory and visual stimulation. More toys are being purchased, with infant and
preschool toys as the top selling category (The Gale Group, Inc., 2012). According to Wiskind
(2007), this abundance of technologically advanced toys within the homes can hinder a child’s
development and creativity. Today’s toys provide children with immediate feedback and
gratification and therefore, require less manipulation, interactive thought, and imagination. The
results of this study support these findings from the literature. The top three toys that elicited the
most manners of play were not battery operated toys but instead, simpler toys that promoted
exploration and creativity on the participants’ part. According to Knox (2008) toddlers want to
use their new found mobility to engage in play that allows them to freely explore and manipulate
the items in their environment. This was portrayed in this study as participants explored their
environment by engaging in play with many of the toys in the room and toys in all of the toy
categories. Providing young children with toys that encompass advanced visual and auditory
effects could potentially hinder this opportunity as the toy already does all the work for the child.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
21
Exposing them to a variety of simpler toys gives them more opportunity to move around and
better explore what is provided in their environment. This idea of advanced technology on
quality of play poses an area for future research.
Limitations
Several limitations need to be taken into consideration when generalizing the results of
this study. This study utilized a small sample size, which increased the risk for a Type II error.
Future research should employ a larger sample size so more significant relationships can be
found from the collected data. In addition, data was gathered in two different locations. Because
of this, the risk for additional confounding variables was increased. Furthermore, the use of a
convenience sample of participants resulted in limited geographic and ethnic representation.
This study was also comprised of mostly female (8:2 ratio) participants. Future research should
attempt to include a greater representation of geographic location, socioeconomic status, and
gender to decrease potential sampling problems. Lastly, results of this study can only be
generalized to healthy toddlers. Future studies could focus on at risk populations in a variety of
age groups to determine if the number of toys in the environment can pose as a distraction in
these populations.
Future Research
Further research needs to be conducted as there is limited information present in the
literature regarding this topic. As previously stated, future research should include a larger
sample size with a more diverse representation of age, gender, socioeconomic status, and
geographic location. In addition, populations that have developmental disabilities or high risk
factors should be utilized in order to further generalize the effects of toys in the environment on
the quality of play and to guide best practices with these populations.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
22
In the present study, toys were randomly assigned and no two participants played with
the same set of toys. Future research could include providing the same toys to participants when
engaged in the two toy play conditions. This would better gauge if quality of play is affected by
the number of toys in the environment or on a specific type of toy a participant is presented with.
Future studies could also explore the effects of technology on play skills. This could involve the
comparison of the quality of play between children who play with simple toys and those that play
with toys with advanced visual and auditory stimulation.
Implications for Occupational Therapy
The American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA) recognizes play as an area of
occupation and as a domain of occupational therapy practice (AOTA, 2002). Occupational
therapists understand that it is a child’s job to play and that playing is an influential tool that
enhances overall development. It is the role of the occupational therapist to be able to support
and promote a child’s participation in play. Toys are the tools of play and occupational
therapists can make recommendations to shape the environment in the most appropriate manner
to enhance toy play. This will enhance opportunities for the development of creativity,
imagination, and particular skill development (e.g. fine motor skills, strength, dexterity).
Occupational therapists can adapt toys and the environment to support children in engaging in
play. Occupational therapists can collaborate with a variety of individuals, including parents and
educators, to enhance play across settings.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our appreciation to the 10 families that willingly gave up their
time to participate in this study to help contribute to evidence-based practice within the
profession of occupational therapy. We would also like to acknowledge the following
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
individuals for their assistance in this study: Sarah Boerst, for contributing some of the toys
involved in this study; Johanna Black, for acting as an undergraduate research assistant; and
Daniella Boling, for acting as an interrater.
23
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
24
References
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Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47, 217-222.
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Chandler, B. (1997). Where do you want to play? Play environments; an occupational
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Hingman, M.A: Teaching Resources Corporation.
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Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four Factor Index of Social Status. New Haven, CT: Department of
Sociology, Yale University.
Humes, K.R., Jones, N.A., & Ramirez, R.R. (2011). Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin:
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Knox, S. (2008). Development and current use of the Revised Knox Preschool Play
Scale. In L.D. Parham & L.S. Fazio (Eds.), Play in occupational therapy for children,
(2nded.) (pp. 56-71). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Publishers.
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Knox, S., & Mailloux, Z. (1997). Play as treatment and treatment through play. In B.
Chandler (Ed.), The essence of play (pp. 175-206). Bethesda, MD: American
Occupational Therapy Association.
Law, M., Cooper, B., Stewart, D., Rigby, P., & Letts, L. (1996). The person-environmentoccupational model: A transactive approach to occupational performance. Canadian
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The effects of background television on the toy play behavior of very young children.
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TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
Wiskind, J. (2007). Do today’s toys allow children to be creative? ADVANCE for
occupational therapy practitioners, November 12, 16-20.
27
Number of Incidences of Play
25
20
15
10
5
0
Four Toys
Sixteen Toys
Condition
Figure 1. The mean number of incidences of toy play in the two toy conditions (differences in
means tested with Wilcoxon signed rank test, n=10, p = 0.028, r = -0.7).
Average Duration of Play Incidences
(Seconds)
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
29
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Four Toys
Sixteen Toys
Condition
Figure 2. The mean duration of toy play incidences in the two toy conditions (differences in
means tested with Wilcoxon signed rank test, n=10, p = 0.203, r = -0.4).
Average Manners of Play per Toy
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
30
14
12
10
8
*
6
4
2
0
Four Toys
Sixteen Toys
Condition
Figure 3. The mean number of manners of play per toy in the two toy conditions (differences in
means tested with Wilcoxon signed rank test, n=10, p = 0.011, r = -0.8). Results were
statistically significant.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
31
5
Number of Sessions
4
3
Four Toys
2
Sixteen Toys
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Number of Toys Played With
Figure 4. This histogram depicts how many of the available toys participants engaged with
during their sessions.
Number of incidents of play
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
32
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Toy #
Figure 5. This histogram depicts the average number of incidences of play for each toy across
conditions.
Average Duration of Play
(seconds)
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
33
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Toy #
Figure 6. This histogram depicts the average duration of toy play incidences for each toy across
conditions.
Number of mannersof play
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
34
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Toy #
Figure 7. This histogram depicts the average number of manners of toy play per toy across
conditions.
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
35
Appendix A
The following information is being asked in order for us to accurately describe the group of
people who participated in our study. This information will be kept strictly confidential.
Indicate the race of the child participant.
Please mark any of the following which apply:
[¯ ] White
Please indicate whether the child participant is:
[¯ ] Not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin
[¯ ] Of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin
[¯ ] Black or African American
[¯ ] American Indian or Alaska Native
[¯ ] Asian
[¯ ] Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
[¯ ] Some Other Race
Please provide responses about yourself in this
column
Please provide responses about any other adult
living in the home, such as your spouse or
committed partner in this column
Level of school completed, select one:
Level of school completed, select one
[¯ ] N/A (i.e. you are single, widowed, divorced)
[¯ ] Less than seventh grade
[¯ ] Less than seventh grade
[¯ ] Junior high school (9th grade)
th
th
[¯ ] Junior high school (9th grade)
[¯ ] Partial high school (10 or 11 grade)
[¯ ] Partial high school (10th or 11th grade)
[¯ ] High school (private, parochial, trade, or public)
[¯ ] High school (private, parochial, trade, or
[¯ ] Partial college or specialized training
public)
[¯ ] Standard college or university
[¯ ] Partial college or specialized training
[¯ ] Graduate professional training
[¯ ] Standard college or university
[¯ ] Graduate professional training
If employed, please list current job title
If employed, please list current job title:
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
Date:_________________
36
Participant number:__________
Child’s Date of Birth: Month _______________ Day__________ Year _________
How many siblings does your child have living at home with him/her?
_____________________________________________________________________
What are the ages of those siblings?
______________________________________________________________________
Is there a dedicated play space(s) for your child in your home?
______________________________________________________________________
How many toys does your child have available to him/her while at home?
______________________________________________________________________
With whom does your child play with at home?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
What are your child’s favorite toys to play with? Please be specific
_______________________________________________________________________
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
37
Appendix B
Toy Categories:
•
Educational (toys that may teach a concept such as shapes, colors, or counting)
Each toy to be assigned to a single category based on its primary functionality.
•
Pretend (toys that suggest themed play scenarios for ‘as if’ play)
•
Action (toys that can be activated through manipulation or toys that encourage
exploration/activity on the part of the toddler i.e. building, stacking, opening,
twisting)
•
Vehicles (toys that have wheels that promote play through the toddlers ability to
push the toy)
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
38
Category
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Toy
Counting train
Leap Frog learning drum
Shape sorter
Round shape sorter
Number bank
Milk carton
Snake
Lacing animals
Fire truck
Bucket and shovel
Animal pull toy
Tool box
Circus
Farm #1
Farm #2
Mailbox
Drum
Hammer toy
Hammer and pegs
Balls and chutes
Nesting cups
Wee waffle blocks
Peg blocks
Wood blocks
School bus
Fire truck with wheels
Roll n’ pop
Tailgate trio
Utility truck
Dump truck
Bug car
Small dump truck
Educational
Pretend
Action
Vehicles
Battery
Operated
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
The toy does not feature commercial characters
Lacing animals
The toy allows problem solving
Snake
The toy allows fine motor manipulation
Milk carton
The toy involves bilateral hand use
Number bank
A toddler can play with the toy while in different positions
Round shape sorter
The toy can be played with in more than one way
Shape sorter
The toy is appealing to the senses
Leap Frog learning drum
The toy does not reflect a gender bias
Counting train
The toy is age appropriate as determined by the labeling on the box
TOY
The toy is safe and durable
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
39
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
The toy does not feature commercial characters
Mailbox
The toy allows problem solving
Farm #2
The toy allows fine motor manipulation
Farm #1
The toy involves bilateral hand use
Circus
A toddler can play with the toy while in different positions
Tool box
The toy can be played with in more than one way
Animal pull toy
The toy is appealing to the senses
Bucket and shovel
The toy does not reflect a gender bias
Fire truck
The toy is age appropriate as determined by the labeling on the box
TOY
The toy is safe and durable
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
40
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
The toy does not feature commercial characters
Wood blocks
The toy allows problem solving
Peg blocks
The toy allows fine motor manipulation
Wee waffle blocks
The toy involves bilateral hand use
Nesting cups
A toddler can play with the toy while in different positions
Balls and chutes
The toy can be played with in more than one way
Hammer and pegs
The toy is appealing to the senses
Hammer toy
The toy does not reflect a gender bias
Drum
The toy is age appropriate as determined by the labeling on the box
TOY
The toy is safe and durable
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
41
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
The toy does not feature commercial characters
Small dump truck
The toy allows problem solving
Bug car
The toy allows fine motor manipulation
Dump truck
The toy involves bilateral hand use
Utility truck
A toddler can play with the toy while in different positions
Tailgate trio
The toy can be played with in more than one way
Roll n’ pop
The toy is appealing to the senses
Fire truck with wheels
The toy does not reflect a gender bias
School bus
The toy is age appropriate as determined by the labeling on the box
TOY
The toy is safe and durable
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
42
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
43
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
44
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#12
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
45
#13
#14
#15
#16
#17
#18
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
#19
46
#20
#21
#22
#23
#24
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
47
#25
#26
#27
#28
#29
#30
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
#31
48
#32
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
49
Appendix C
Data Collection Sheet
Four
Toy
Toy
Participant Number: _____
Toy Play Condition
Date:
Session Sixteen
Date:
Session
#:
Toy
#:
Manner of play (verbs) Count Toy
Manner of play
Count
(verbs)
Average
Average
TOY PLAY IN TODDLERS
50
Data Collection Sheet Date:_____________ Session:_____ Participant Number: ______
Incident
Start time
Stop time
Duration
Count:
Average: