Leading
Unit-7
OBJECTIVES
LEARNING
After studying this chapter,
you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Define Leading/leadership
Describe elements of leadership
Theories of Leadership
Leadership and Managerial Effectiveness
Motivation
The Hierarchy need theory
The Motivation-Hygiene Approach to
Motivation
What Is Leadership?
Leadership
The ability to influence a
group toward the
achievement of goals.
Leadership is the
relationship in which one
person (leader) influences
others to work together
willingly on related tasks
to attain organizational
goals.
The Elements of Leadership
• Leaders
– People who can influence the behaviors of others without having to
rely on force.
– People who are accepted
as leaders by others.
• Process: what leaders actually do.
– Use noncoercive influence to shape the group’s or organization’s goals.
– Motivate others’ behavior toward goals.
– Help to define organizational culture.
• Property: who leaders are.
– The set of characteristics attributed to
individuals perceived to be leaders.
Managers Vs Leaders
Manager Characteristics
• Administers
• A copy
• Maintains
• Focuses on systems and structures
• Relies on control
• Short range view
• Asks how and when
• Eye on bottom line
• Imitates
• Accepts the status quo
• Classic good soldiers
• Does things right
Leader Characteristics
• Innovates
• An original
• Develops
• Focuses on people
• Inspires trust
• Long range perspective
• Asks what and why
• Eye on horizon
• Originates
• Challenges the status quo
• Own person
• Does the right thing
Leadership and Managerial
Effectiveness
Theories of Leadership
1.Trait Theories
2.Behavioral Theories
- Michigan Studies
- Ohio Studies
- Managerial Grid
3. Situational/Contingency Theories
- Fiedler’s contingency model
- Path goal theory
Trait Theories
• What characteristics or traits make a person a leader?
• Great Man Theory: Individuals are born either with or without
the necessary traits for leadership
• Trait theories of leadership sought personality, social, physical
or intellectual traits that differentiate leaders from non
leaders
• Trait view has little analytical or predictive value
• Technical, conceptual and human skills (Katz 1974)
Trait Theories
Limitations:
• No universal traits found that predict leadership in
all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than
“strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of
relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance of leadership
than distinguishing effective and ineffective
leaders.
Behavioral Theories
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Theories proposing that specific behaviors
differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
• Trait theory:
Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:
Leadership traits can be taught.
Ohio State Studies
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader is
likely to define and structure his
or her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal
attainment.
Consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job
relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect
for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.
University of Michigan Studies
Employee-Oriented Leader
Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a
personal interest in the needs of employees and
accepting individual differences among members.
Production-Oriented Leader
One who emphasizes technical
or task aspects of the job.
Managerial Grid
Developed in 1964 by Robert R. Blake and Jane S.
Mouton.
They used two dimensions (concerns for people and
concern for production) as used by Ohio and
Michigan studies
The task centered dimension reflects concern for
production or output and the people centered
dimension reflects concern for people.
The Managerial Grid
High
9
8
9,9
Democratic Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people, interdependence
through a “common stake” in organization
purpose leads to relationship
of trust and respect
1,9
Country club management
Thoughtful attention needs of people
for satisfying relationships leads to
A comfortable, friendly organization
Concern for people
atmosphere and work tempo
7
6
5
4
3
2
Low
5,5
Middle of the road
Adequate organization performance
possible through balancing the necessity to
get out work with maintaining
morale of the people at a satisfactory level
9,1
Authoritarian/Task management
Efficiency in operations results
from arranging conditions of
work in such a way that human
elements interfere to a minimal degree
1,1
Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get
required work done is appropriate
to sustain organization membership
1
1
2
Low
3
4
5
6
Concern for production
7
8
9
High
Scandinavian Studies
Development-Oriented Leader
One who values experimentation,
seeking new ideas, and generating
and implementing change.
Researchers in Finland and Sweden
question whether there are only two
dimensions (production-orientation and
employee-orientation) that capture the
essence of leadership behavior. Their
premise is that in a changing world,
effective leaders would exhibit
development-oriented behavior.
Contingency Theories
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
The theory that effective groups depend on a proper
match between a leader’s style of interacting with
subordinates and the degree to which the situation
gives control and influence to the leader.
Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC)
Questionnaire
An instrument that purports to
measure whether a person is taskor relationship-oriented.
Fiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation
Leader-Member Relations
The degree of confidence, trust, and respect
subordinates have in their leader.
Task Structure
The degree to which the job assignments are
procedurized.
Position Power
Influence derived from one’s formal structural
position in the organization; includes power to hire,
fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.
Findings from Fiedler Model
Path-Goal Theory
Path-Goal Theory
The theory that it is the leader’s
job to assist followers in attaining
their goals and to provide them the
necessary direction and/or support
to ensure that their goals are
compatible with the overall
objectives of the group or
organization.
The Path-Goal Theory
EXHIBIT
11–4
Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Theory
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
A contingency theory that focuses on followers’
readiness.
Unable and
Unwilling
Unable but
Willing
Able and
Unwilling
Able and
Willing
Follower readiness:
ability and willingness
Leader: decreasing need
for support and supervision
Directive
High Task and Relationship
Orientations
Supportive
Participative
Monitoring
Leadership Styles and Follower
Readiness
(Hersey
and
Blanchard)
Willing
Unwilling
Follower
Readiness
Able
Supportive
Participative
Monitoring
Leadership
Styles
Unable
Directive
High Task
and
Relationship
Orientations
The Nature of Motivation
• Motivation
– The set of forces that cause people to behave in
certain ways.
– The goal of managers is to maximize desired behaviors
and minimize undesirable behaviors.
• The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace
– Determinants of Individual Performance
• Motivation—the desire to do the job.
• Ability—the capability to do the job.
• Work environment—the resources needed to do the job.
Figure 10.1
The Motivation Framework
Content Perspectives on Motivation
• Content Perspectives
– Focus on needs and deficiencies of individuals
– Approaches to motivation that try to answer the
question, “What factors in the workplace motivate
people?”
• Content Perspectives of Motivation
– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
– McClelland’s Achievement,
Power, and Affiliation Needs
The Need Hierarchy Approach
(Maslow)
• People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five needs:
– Physiological needs for basic survival and biological function.
– Security needs for a safe physical and emotional environment.
– Belongingness needs for love and affection.
– Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and recognition and
respect from others.
– Self-actualization needs for realizing one’s potential for personal
growth and development.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Source: Adopted from Abraham H. Maslow,
“A Theory of Human Motivation,”
10–27
Psychology Review, 1943, Vol. 50, pp. 370-396.
The Need Hierarchy Approach
• Weaknesses of Maslow’s theory
– Five levels of need are not always present.
– Ordering or importance of needs is not always the
same.
– Cultural differences in categories and hierarchies.
The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
• People’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
influenced by two independent sets of factors—
motivation factors and hygiene factors.
• Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums:
– Motivational factors (work content) are on a
continuum that ranges from satisfaction to no
satisfaction.
– Hygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate
continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction.
The Two Factor Theory of Motivation
The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
(cont’d)
• Motivation is a two-stage process:
– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and
not blocking motivation.
– Providing employees the opportunity to experience
increase motivational factors through the use of job
enrichment and the redesign of jobs.
• Criticisms of the Two-Factor Theory
– Interview findings are subject to different
explanations.
– Sample population was not representative.
– Subsequent research has not upheld theory.
Individual Human Needs (McClelland)
• The need for achievement
– The desire to accomplish a goal or task
more effectively than in the past.
• The need for affiliation
– The desire for human
companionship and
acceptance.
• The need for power
– The desire to be influential
in a group and to be in control
of one’s environment.
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas
McGregor)
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.