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FOREST SERVICE HANDBOOK
EASTERN REGION (REGION 9)
MILWAUKEE, WI
FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 – REFORESTATION (RESERVED)
Supplement No.: R9 RO 2409.17_2-2008-3
Effective Date:
August 29, 2008
Duration: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
Approved: FORREST E. STARKEY
Deputy Regional Forester
Date Approved:
8/29/08
Posting Instructions: Supplements are numbered consecutively by Handbook number and
calendar year. Post by document; remove the entire document and replace it with this
supplement. Retain this transmittal as the first page(s) of this document. The last supplement to
this Handbook was R9 RO 2409.17-2008-2 to Chapter 8.
New Document
R9 RO 2409.17-2008-3 Chapter 2
Superseded Document(s)
None
Digest:
Entire Supplement – Provides direction for Region 9 reforestation
107 Pages
0 Pages
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DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK
CHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION
2.01 - AUTHORITY ......................................................................................................... 4
2.02 – OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................................... 4
2.03 - POLICY ................................................................................................................. 4
2.06 - REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 4
2.1 - GENERAL REFORESTATION ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ....................... 4
2.2 - REFORESTATION PRACTICES ............................................................................ 5
2.21 – Forest and District Reforestation Planning ...................................................................... 7
2.3 - REFORESTATION PRESCRIPTION...................................................................... 9
2.31 - Considerations for Reforestation Prescriptions .............................................................. 10
2.32 - Synopsis of Common Reforestation Problems in the Eastern Region ........................... 19
2.33 - Natural Regeneration ...................................................................................................... 20
2.34 – Artificial Reforestation .................................................................................................. 23
2.35 – Species Restoration ........................................................................................................ 23
2.4 - NURSERY COORDINATION................................................................................ 23
2.41 - Critical Nursery/Reforestation Program Coordination Dates ......................................... 24
2.42 - Ordering Planting Stock (Sowing Requests) .................................................................. 24
2.43 - Ordering Trees (Lift and Pack Requests) ....................................................................... 26
2.44 - Seed Inventories ............................................................................................................. 27
2.45 - Planting Stock Standards ................................................................................................ 27
2.46 - Predictors of Stock Quality ............................................................................................ 31
2.47 - Standard Grading Specifications .................................................................................... 32
2.48 - Surplus Tree Seedlings ................................................................................................... 33
2.5 - SITE PREPARATION ........................................................................................... 34
2.51 – Site Preparation Requirements for Reforestation .......................................................... 35
2.52 - Methods .......................................................................................................................... 36
2.53 - Additional Considerations .............................................................................................. 39
2.6 - DISTRICT SEEDLING CARE AND HANDLING................................................... 42
2.61 - Receipt of Tree Seedlings ............................................................................................... 43
2.62 - Tree Seedling Storage..................................................................................................... 50
2.63 - Tree Care from Storage to Planting ................................................................................ 53
2.64 - Testing for Spoiled or Damaged Trees ........................................................................... 58
2.65 – Storage Options.............................................................................................................. 59
2.7 - TREE PLANTING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES ................................................... 59
2.71 - Planting Spot Selection - Microsites .............................................................................. 59
2.72 - Planting Spot Site Preparation ........................................................................................ 60
2.73 - Planting Hole Design ...................................................................................................... 60
2.74 - Hand Tools for Planting ................................................................................................. 61
2.75 - Planting Machines .......................................................................................................... 71
2.76 - Planting the Bareroot Seedling ....................................................................................... 73
2.77 – Planting the Container (Plug) Seedling ......................................................................... 76
2.78 - Artificial Seeding Projects .............................................................................................. 76
2.79 - Coppice Projects ............................................................................................................. 79
2.8 - TREE PLANTING CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION ............................................ 80
2.81 - Contract Preparation ....................................................................................................... 81
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2.82 - Contract Inspection ......................................................................................................... 84
2.83 – Payment ......................................................................................................................... 94
2.9 - REFORESTATION SURVEYS AND MONITORING ............................................ 95
2.91 - Quality Control and Reports ........................................................................................... 95
2.92 – Project Status Classification .......................................................................................... 95
2.93 - Stocking Surveys ............................................................................................................ 97
2.94 - Staked Tree Survival Surveys ...................................................................................... 104
2.95 - Monitoring Reports ...................................................................................................... 106
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2.01 - AUTHORITY
The National Forest Management Act of 1976 (P.L. 94-588; 90 Stat. 2949; 16 U.S.C. 1600)
guides all management of National Forest System lands in conjunction with other laws.
1. Section 4 of the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) states that the policy of
Congress is that all forested lands in the National Forest System should be maintained in
appropriate forest cover. Appropriate forest cover is described as "species of trees, degree of
stocking, rate of growth, and conditions of stands designed to receive maximum benefits of
multiple use sustained yield management in accordance with land management plans."
2. Section 6 of the NFMA states that lands will not be planned for timber harvests unless
there is assurance that such lands can be adequately reforested within five years after
regeneration harvest. This has been interpreted to apply to both even-aged and uneven-aged
harvests.
2.02 – OBJECTIVE
Provides reforestation personnel with basic information for reforestation program in Region 9.
2.03 - POLICY
See FSM 2470 for silvicultural activities policy. Reforestation and nursery practices are covered
in FSM 2472 and 2473, respectively.
Regions shall meet Congressional direction through the implementation of the Forest Plan and
silvicultural prescriptions. Species composition and desired stocking needed to meet objectives
are stated in Forest Plans and individual National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) decisions.
Treatments undertaken to meet these objectives are specified in the silvicultural prescription.
2.06 - REFERENCES
Each district and forest should maintain a library of important local silvicultural references for
reforestation programs. As new literature becomes available, libraries should be updated. Much
current and past information is available through the Forest Service library at
http://fsweb.wo.fs.fed.us/library/
2.1 - GENERAL REFORESTATION ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
The organizational structure of the forest and district determines where the reforestation program
functions. It varies widely at each level. Typically, it is part of the Vegetation Management
Program and is coordinated closely with the Silviculture Program. It is one of the necessary
programs for achieving a wide array of forest objectives regardless of the organizational
structure.
Implement reforestation practices according to silviculture prescriptions that are written to meet
objectives in Forest Plans. All treatments require prescriptions that have been written or
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reviewed and signed by a certified silviculturist. (Reference FSH 2409.17 Chapter 8) The
Eastern Region has a Silviculturist certification program and has a cadre of trained reforestation
personnel. All reforestation personnel shall maintain current training and certification as
required for service contract administration. Forests are encouraged to develop and provide
training to their reforestation employees.
2.2 - REFORESTATION PRACTICES
Document all reforestation practices in a silvicultural prescription. The prescription must
address desired species, stocking levels, time frames, and other technical aspects. Also address
feasibility and cost efficiency of the reforestation treatment. Prescriptions are generally stand
specific but may also be written for large scale treatments. FSH 2409.17, Chapter 8 describes
silviculture prescriptions. Section 2.3 describes additional reforestation prescription
requirements in detail.
1. Reforestation Time Frames.
a. Reforestation Needs Resulting from Timber Harvest. Lands that are suited for
timber harvest are identified in the forest plan. In accordance with FSM 2470.3,
design regeneration harvests and reforestation practices to assure that lands are
satisfactorily restocked within 5 years of regeneration harvest. Examples are: 5 years
after clear cut, selection cut, shelterwood or seed tree removal cut. When final
removal is not planned, as two-aged cuts with reserves, the 5 year time frame
commences upon completion of the last cut, shall be described in the silvicultural
prescription, and shall be consistent with land management objectives.
b. Reforestation Needs Resulting from Fire and Other Natural Causes. Conduct a site
examination and diagnosis after fire or other disturbances to determine treatments
needed to meet long-term objectives of the land based on the forest plan objectives.
Developing site-specific reforestation requirements is part of the diagnosis. Where
reforestation is required, design treatments to achieve satisfactory stocking promptly.
Delays in treatment may result in long regeneration time frames or excessive costs.
The silvicultural prescription shall follow guidance in 2409.17 Chapter 8. Planned
treatments shall be entered into FACTS (Forest Activity Tracking System) so that
annual reforestation needs can be compiled for reporting to Congress.
2. Species and Stocking. Final species selection requires a site visit to review existing
and surrounding vegetation, and recognition of the target conditions considering both biological
and management requirements. FSM 2470 provides general guidance that stocking levels are to
be appropriate to meet management objectives. Stocking levels and species are based on the
objectives from the Forest Plan and should be used in conjunction with a site specific analysis.
Species and desired stocking levels must be documented in the silvicultural prescription taking
into account potential losses from factors such as competition, insects, or herbivory.
Species, stocking and other regeneration considerations are discussed in greater detail in Section
2.3.
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3. Reports. Use the FACTS database for planning, scheduling, and reporting activities.
Specific regional reforestation reports are described in Section 2.9, Reforestation Surveys and
Monitoring. National reports are covered in FSM 2490.
4. Natural Regeneration. Natural regeneration treatments should be utilized when
sufficient seed sources or reproductive materials are available to meet management objectives.
Natural regeneration offers tremendous cost savings compared to artificial regeneration methods.
Natural regeneration is covered in Section 2.33.
5. Artificial Regeneration Seed Sources. The seed cache for Region 9 forests is
maintained at J.W. Toumey Nursery, Ottawa N.F. All seed in this inventory is source identified.
The seed cache should be managed based on information in the 10-year Seed Needs Plans for
each Forest.
Utilize genetic guidelines and seed collection or tree breeding zones for identifying seed sources.
Separate collections for the same species may be desirable within zones for site variations such
as wet and dry. The Regional Geneticist is responsible for direction on seed collection and use.
Seed collection zones are described in 2409.17 Chapter 4 (Tree seed)
6. Priorities and Funding. Funding and reforestation priority policies are described in
FSM 2472. Knutson-Vandenberg (K-V) funds should be used as the primary source of
reforestation funding on timber sale areas. Follow K-V policies when scheduling work. (Refer to
FSH 2409.19, Renewable Resource Handbook.) Use appropriated and reforestation trust funds
for reforestation activities where K-V funds are not available. Allocate funding from the
appropriate source to accomplish the highest priority work based on the following reforestation
and stand improvement priorities:
1. All reforestation needs, whether natural or artificial, resulting from timber harvest which
have not been accomplished within 5 years of harvest as required by FSM 2470.
(Example: a regeneration harvest which is 5 or more years old which has not been
successfully regenerated.)
2. All reforestation needs caused by a partial failure of previously completed work where
delaying retreatment will cause increased costs or reduced success in meeting desired
stand conditions. (Example: an area reforested last year which has marginal stocking and
stocking projections indicate further divergence from desired stand conditions.)
3. All reforestation needs, whether natural or artificial, resulting from timber harvest which
must be accomplished within 5 years of harvest as required by FSM 2470. (Example: a
regeneration harvest area cut last year and not yet successfully regenerated.)
4. All reforestation needs resulting from natural or human caused events where delaying
treatment will increase costs or reduce success in meeting desired stand conditions.
(Example: a blow down where inadequate healthy residual trees remain and delaying
regeneration will cause the stand to convert to an undesirable species.
5. Stand improvement needed to ensure survival of desired species.)
6. All other reforestation needs including those on newly acquired land. (Example:
reforestation treatments intended to change forest composition to preferred species or
type.)
7. All other stand improvement activities.
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Districts are to maintain accurate schedules to facilitate Washington Office, Regional Office, and
Supervisors Office reviews of reforestation programs from both fiscal and program management
aspects. Districts can meet these requirements by scheduling reforestation project needs at least
two years in advance in the FACTS database. Districts shall review and adjust needs and
seeding or planting schedules prior to submitting out-year budget requests and annual sowing
requests. Review and update restoration needs, site preparation plans, seeding and planting
schedules at least annually.
2.21 – Forest and District Reforestation Planning
Planning the reforestation program at the Forest level needs to be long term, analyzing
treatments predicted by the Forest Plan. Long term decisions would include the need for tree
improvement or seed orchards in concert with the Regional Geneticist. Seed cache needs must
be planned as much as 10 years in advance since seed crops are periodic and must be available to
sow stock well in advance of stock needs.
Reforestation planning begins years in advance of the actual planting, site preparation for natural
regeneration or seeding date. Regeneration requirements as described in NEPA analysis will
dictate size and perhaps timing of reforestation treatments. This data must be used for mid range
planning for both out year budgets and stock ordering as appropriate. Seedlings usually need to
be ordered 3- 4 years in advance of planned planting date. Forests are to update seed and stock
requests for Toumey Nursery in the fall and again in late winter just prior to stratifying seed for
spring sowing.
Planning at the stand level often is associated with regeneration harvest prescriptions which must
also describe planned regeneration practices. (See R9 2409.17 Chapter 8) Understory species
information, seed sources or regeneration techniques may be critical and dictate protection or
special practices needed through the harvest process. (Example: Slash must be uniformly
scattered if regeneration is to come from seed-bearing slash.) Site preparation often needs to be
done the fall preceding the actual site planting or seeding. When reforestation units are ready for
treatments, the district should develop a logistical plan for the upcoming season. This plan may
be an integral part of the Work Planning System (WPS) and may include site preparation
practices that are being done for the following fiscal year.
The annual reforestation plan is a tool to ensure that all logistical aspects of the program have
been considered and to ensure that people know what is planned and understand their
responsibilities. The Ranger should review and approve the plan to display concurrence and
support of the program. Districts with smaller programs may not need this amount of detail, but
they should have a well thought-out and well-documented plan covering the key points of their
operation.
Key items to include in the reforestation plan for planting are identified below. Additional details
may be necessary depending on the size of the district reforestation program:
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1. Program Overview. List size of the program and expected start date. Identify special
programs associated with planting including Plant-A-Tree, Arbor Foundation funds or other
special funds.
2. Personnel. List responsible persons, including contracting officer, silviculturist,
project coordinator, Contracting Officer’s Representatives (COR), inspectors, and other logistics
persons. Include brief description of responsibilities and expected work schedule.
3. Stock Inventory. List seed lot and assigned units by the following sub items:
Acres
Species
Seed Lot
Estimated Quantity Needed
Actual Quantity
Notes (Is a staked row needed? See Section 2.94)
4. Stock Shipment. Identify when stock will be shipped, where it will be stored, and any
special consideration. Specify who will monitor stock once it is stored and who will coordinate
shipping with the nursery.
5. Equipment. Provide specifics on the type of equipment to be used.
6. Coolers. Identify what coolers will be used and equipment for maintaining and
checking temperatures. Specify how often coolers will be monitored and who is responsible. If
using frozen stock, identify where and how trees will be thawed.
7. Vehicles. Specify what vehicles will be used, and personnel assignments.
8. Field Administration. List equipment available for field monitoring, such as soil
thermometers, belt weather kits, planting weather guides, trowel, planting hoes, and hand
calculators. Identify who will have them or where they will be located.
9. Communication. Give radio assignments. Identify after office hours radio contacts.
Assure all employees have emergency contact at all times when they are in the field. Consider
using cell phones where coverage exists. List phone numbers of employees, Ranger Stations and
other key contacts.
10. Contract. Identify contractor and contract price. Add any additional known
information, such as, size of crew and expected work schedule. Most of this, however, is not
known until closer to plant-start date.
11. Training/Meeting. Identify training or meetings to prepare for planting. Identify
who is responsible for planning and who should attend.
12. Program Specifics. Use as much detail as needed to outline procedures. Consider
these aspects:
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a. Tree dispensing.
b. Transport and storage: Will trees be stored at planting sites or returned to the cooler
daily?
c. Field inspection: Basic Inspector’s Guide.
d. Government Inspection Process.
e. Documentation.
13. Staked Rows. Identify procedure; when trees will be staked, how reference points
will be marked, and who will do the installation. See Section 2.94.
14. Road Management. Identify any specific road management requirements or
permissions that are needed. Identify coordinator if plowing, opening or cutting of wind throw is
needed.
15. Personnel Safety. Identify specific safety concerns and emergency procedures.
2.3 - REFORESTATION PRESCRIPTION
This section repeats especially important information already found in other Forest Service
Manuals and Handbooks and is not intended to undermine any of that direction or authority, but
to place emphasis on items of particular interest for reforestation prescriptions. The silvicultural
prescription follows and implements the NEPA decision. The objective of a silvicultural
prescription is “to prescribe, implement, and monitor silvicultural practices that develop forest
stand conditions which meet land management objectives designated in Regional guides and
forest plans.”(FSM 2470.2) The silviculture prescription is “a document written or approved by
a certified silviculturist that describes management activities needed to implement silvicultural
treatment or treatment sequence. The prescription documents the results of an analysis of
present and anticipated site conditions and management direction. It also describes the desired
future vegetation conditions in measurable terms (FSM 2478.03). It documents a planned series
of treatments designed to change current stand structure and composition to one that meets
management goals. The prescription normally considers ecological, economic, and societal
objectives and constraints.” (FSM 2470.5). “The role of the silvicultural prescription is to ensure
the implementation of silviculturally sound treatments that will meet management objectives.
Silvicultural prescriptions shall be prepared for treatments that affect or will result in forested
stands.” (R9 FSM 2409.17 Chapter 8) It is the policy of the Forest Service to “base reforestation
treatments, including site preparation, on silvicultural prescriptions written to meet site-specific
resource requirements.”(FSM 2472.3)
Identify objectives and vegetation treatments as a part of the environmental analysis for the area
in question. Prescriptions will generally meet multiple objectives and must consider all
vegetation. Any harvest which precedes the regeneration process must take into consideration
specific site requirements needed to establish regeneration, and these items must also be covered
in the NEPA documentation for the area. The identification and integration of limiting factors
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and their impacts on tree seedling establishment and growth throughout the rotation is key to
developing a biologically feasible prescription. Timing of treatments is often critical to success.
Reforestation objectives must be achievable. When management decisions or environmental
constraints make reforestation success questionable, the necessity of the constraints must be
carefully reanalyzed. In all cases reforestation prescriptions must be designed to ensure adequate
stocking with desired species that achieve multiple resource objectives for the site.
Chapter 8 of 2409.17, specifically Exhibit 3, shows a check list of items to be considered in
prescription development. Several items from that list are discussed in relation to their
importance to reforestation success.
2.31 - Considerations for Reforestation Prescriptions
Consider all critical factors listed in R9 FSH 2409.17 Chapter 8 Exhibit 3 as all prescriptions are
developed. Several items from that list are discussed below in greater detail to highlight
important considerations for reforestation success. Failure to consider these factors may result in
regeneration failure and waste of funds.
1. Site Description.
a. Soils. Soil depth and texture can have significant effects on species suitability on
the site and the ability to reforest the site by either natural or artificial methods.
Trying to regenerate the wrong species on the site is simply ecologically unsound. It
is also important to match site preparation techniques (chemical, mechanical, fire,
etc.) to the site. For example, fire on the wrong site or under the wrong conditions
can set soil fertility back decades if not centuries. Mechanical site preparation
likewise can cause lasting impacts to the site if not done properly. Design site
preparation practices to accomplish needed scarification for the species being
managed while staying within Regional soil protection standards keeping in mind that
organic matter incorporated into the soil is not lost. Keep roads, trails, and landings
to a minimum in logging units. Treatments may be necessary to reduce effects of
compaction. Keep disturbance of the soil profile to the minimum necessary to assure
seedling survival and growth. Use appropriate equipment on fragile ground. Avoid
using heavy equipment where soil damage is likely to occur. Maintain large woody
debris to enhance nutrient cycling.
Site degradation can result from:
(1) Displacement and movement of topsoil or loess caps into slash piles.
(2) Soil compaction from use of heavy equipment, especially when soils are wet
and easily damaged.
(3) Alteration of soil structure.
(4) Alteration of soil surface by extremely hot burns.
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(5) Excessive removal of organic matter.
b. Land Type Association / Ecological Land Type (LTA/ELT). The ecological
classification system presents information which should help guide species selection
for a site. Many classification systems describe natural vegetation which likely
occurred on a particular site. Attempting to create stand conditions with wide
deviations from the capability of the land type is not advisable and could result in
reforestation failure. Evaluation of ecological classification which includes soil and
topography considerations will identify other important considerations. Depth to
water table and/or depressions of only a few feet can affect species composition
significantly, especially in the Lake States. Topographic features such as depressions
which trap cold air can create frost pockets which must be considered in reforestation
efforts. Frost pocket effects can be reduced by using shelterwood or selection
systems to regenerate the stand. Topographical features also have an impact on wind
patterns, seed dispersal, potential windthrow and susceptibility to some diseases like
white pine blister rust, all of which may affect regeneration success.
c. Aspect. Aspect or direction of exposure of slopes is not normally a major factor
affecting reforestation success in this Region provided that species are properly
selected for the site. However, it can have a substantial effect on species composition
and stocking levels especially on the more hilly forests.
d. Climate. Other than developing favorable microsites, there is little we can do to
favorably affect the climate and weather patterns. However, several things should be
considered in reforestation efforts. It is important to watch precipitation patterns
during the spring planting season. If available soil moisture is low and no rain is
expected, continuing to plant is likely to result in dead trees.
Frost heaving especially on heavier soils can occur if adequate root growing season
does not exist between planting and additional frost cycles. Fall planted containerized
stock is particularly vulnerable to frost heaving because it has inadequate time to
develop a root system outside of the plug and into the soil.
There is much discussion now about climate change. Expected climate change
should be considered in our reforestation efforts especially on range edges. Planting a
northern species on or beyond the southern edge of a range may be creating a future
failure. On the other hand pushing species further north than their natural range may
be a desirable thing to do. There are also implications to the appropriate seed source
for our reforestation efforts. Use seed appropriate to the current conditions or
conservatively projected future conditions of the site being managed. Seed collection
zones are described in R9 FSH 2409.17 Chapter 4, Seed Handbook, and must be
consulted along with the Regional Geneticist for seed source information.
2. Stand Description.
a. Location. An accurate map and location including Township, Range and Section
number (or other land description such as Meets and Bounds, GPS coordinates,
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FACTS ID, etc) are essential to reforestation prescriptions because others must find
the location sometimes years later while doing surveys or checking the success of
your prescription.
b. Species Composition: The current stand description needs to include a detailed
table or description of what species (and perhaps size classes) are present and make
up the vegetation of the stand.
c. Stand Condition: The health, vigor, age, structure, and susceptibility to wind or
insect/disease attack needs to be disclosed as part of the stand description.
Treatments may need to be adjusted accordingly.
3. Stand Objectives
a. Desired Stand Condition. Establishing and communicating a desired stand
condition (DSC) is perhaps the most important part of the silvicultural prescription
process. The DSC has both a long and a short-term aspect, and these are often not the
same. (For example: a long-term DSC may be to have a pocket of saw timber sized
white pine along an important wildlife corridor, whereas the short-term objective may
be to reestablish white pine on the site by creating shelterwood conditions and
planting that pocket densely enough, say 500 trees per acre, so that the stand
trajectory will meet that long-term DSC.) If the long-term DSC is agreed upon by the
interdisciplinary team and the line officer, the short-term DSC and the work and
expense involved must also be agreed to. In other words, management constraints
and mitigation measures must be held in bounds so that the short-term DSC can
create the long-term DSC.
Desired stand conditions must be realistic, achievable, and take into consideration
legal requirements, potential funding sources, and priorities of work. Reference
reforestation priorities in Section 2.2 Item 6 for more information.
b. Species Composition: The silvicultural prescription must describe the species or
species mix which will meet the DSC. Apply these general rules when selecting
species for regeneration:
(1) Insects / Diseases. Select tree species that are not likely to be significantly
impacted by projected epidemics of non-native insects/diseases.
(2) Species Preference. Select species that fit natural ecological succession
patterns specific to ELT/plant associations. Utilize cutting systems and site
preparation techniques to emphasize the preferred species.
(3) Multiple species. Where ecologically appropriate, utilize practices that favor
a diversity of species rather than those that favor single species. However, there
may be situations where single species management is desired based on
management area direction within the Forest Plan.
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(4) Advanced Regeneration. In some forest types like the central and Allegheny
hardwoods, utilize or develop an adequate number of established seedlings of
desired species before final harvests are completed.
c. Stocking Levels. The silvicultural prescription must specify the desired stocking
levels to meet DSC both short and long term based on resource objectives as
described in 3a above. Consider the trajectory of the stand stocking through the
rotation. Initial regeneration densities must consider anticipated mortality as well as
potential natural regeneration. During the regeneration phase of the stand, it is
common to have desired stocking as low as 100 or as high as 1600 trees per acre.
Regenerating savannahs may have stocking objectives even lower than 100 trees per
acre; jack pine may require 1600 trees per acre for Kirtland’s Warbler habitat, and
natural aspen regeneration objectives may be as high as 40,000 stems per acre
initially. These numbers will vary considerably across the full spectrum of specific
sites due to varying objectives. The reforestation prescription must also specify the
minimally acceptable stocking level and what to do if reforestation efforts fall short
of that number. The minimum levels should also be based upon stand trajectory and
meeting long term DSC.
4. Natural Versus Artificial Regeneration
In the Eastern Region most sites are regenerated naturally. After considering species,
genetic quality, and ecological succession patterns, select silvicultural systems that
favor natural regeneration if acceptable seed source, suckering or sprouting is
available. Plan artificial regeneration only after fully considering natural regeneration
opportunities.
See Sections 2.33 and 2.34 for discussion on natural and artificial regeneration.
5. Implementation and Treatments
a. Timber Harvest: Proper design and implementation of the timber sale can make
the regeneration process go very smoothly. Improper design and performance can
make it difficult to achieve the natural or artificial regeneration required to meet the
DSC. Sale design must first take into consideration DSC and which harvest system
would most readily achieve objectives. These types of decisions are site specific and
local experienced silviculturists are the true experts in understanding the
consequences of decisions. For example, a clear cut of northern hardwoods in the
Lake States will usually regenerate to raspberries rather than hardwoods; whereas a
clear cut in the same forest type in the Northeast will usually regenerate to a mixture
of hardwoods. Natural regeneration is described in Section 2.33 and is preferred in
most situations, provided the proper harvest system and site preparation activities are
used. Artificial regeneration should be used when natural regeneration will not fully
meet the DSC.
b. Seed Source: Both natural and artificial regeneration require seed sources from
parents of good phenotype. We can only assume that if we select parent trees with
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good phenotype that we are selecting for good genotypes. Obviously, under natural
regeneration systems, the seed must come from the site in the form of soil-stored
seed, slash-stored seed, or from overhead and adjoining trees left for seed dispersal.
Occasionally we know that the seed on the site is not well adapted to that site based
on planting records or poor performance of the past stand. In such cases, artificial
regeneration may be the preferred method to reach DSC. Seed used for direct seeding
or establishment of nursery stock should come from the same seed collection zone or
seed/seedling movements be approved by the Regional Geneticist. Tree seed
collection zones are described in R9 FSH 2409.17 Chapter 4, Seed. Forests which get
their planting stock from Toumey Nursery order, stock by seed zone, and stock orders
are filled to meet those objectives. Southern tier forests need to obtain stock with the
same degree of care concerning seed collection zones. Those forests should either
collect their own seed to have state nurseries grow it for them, or be assured by the
state nursery that seed sources are reasonably close to the forest’s seed collection
zone. (For example, planting programs in southern Indiana or Illinois should not be
getting their stock from mid state nurseries which are collecting seed statewide)
Contact the Regional Geneticist for additional information.
c. Site Preparation: Preparation of a site for reforestation efforts is especially
important to success and meeting DSC. Site preparation may be in many forms using
many types of equipment or treatments. Simply creating the proper crown densities
will allow some species, like sugar maple to establish, grow and develop. Other
species like paper birch require very drastic soil scarification, using either mechanical
equipment or fire. Local conditions vary widely, and local experts should be
consulted on the most effective methods.
Stand prescriptions must clearly describe the objectives of site preparation in specific
terms so that implementers can accomplish the DSC. Site preparation has two
important functions: 1) prepare microsites for seedling establishment and growth, and
2) control unwanted competing vegetation. This second function is too often
overlooked creating a release problem only a few years after stand regeneration.
Herbicides should be used where appropriate and effective as part of the site
preparation process to control unwanted vegetation. Site preparation expenses are
part of the essential reforestation costs. Reforestation funding is generally more
readily available than stand improvement funds. Accomplishing needed site
preparation up front is preferable to planning a release after regeneration has been
established. Site preparation is discussed further in Section 2.5.
d. Stand Protection: It is important to protect the regenerating stands from potential
damaging agents. Microsite development and selection can protect from wind and
heat. Animal protection may include population control, shelters, screens, retardants
or fencing. Insects and diseases are present in varying levels throughout the life of a
stand. Resistance is increased and susceptibility decreased by keeping the stand in a
healthy and vigorous condition via stocking control, release and other stand tending
practices. It is increasingly important to consider the potential for significant damage
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or decline from non-native insects or diseases during the rotation, such as beech bark
disease complex, emerald ash borer, or hemlock woolly adelgid.
Consider selecting for resistance in cases like the following:
(1) On sites known to be infected with specific pathogens, genetic resistant
strains or species manipulation may be necessary to achieve gains in stocking,
growth and species diversity. Species chosen must fit the ecological requirements
of the site; otherwise, the situation will persist.
(2) On sites being managed for a mixture of age or size classes, some insects and
diseases can be more of an impact than in single-storied stands. Older trees have
the potential to harbor insects and disease that may affect smaller trees.
Sirococcus shoot blight, Sphaeropsis canker, in red pine and jack pine budworm
are examples of disease and insect problems that can be worse in a multi-storied
stand.
(3) In specific areas within the Eastern Region, eastern white pine must be
managed differently from other species due to high levels of white pine blister
rust. When available, use rust-resistant planting stock. Seedlings have varying
levels of resistance. Consider resistance levels (if known) of planting stock and
hazards of the site when determining planting densities needed to meet
management objectives.
(4) It seems inevitable that we will continue to have increasing numbers of non
native insect and diseases affecting our forests. These must be considered
carefully especially when it appears that species extirpation is possible as a result
of the insect or pathogen. Examples include chestnut blight, butternut canker and
the emerald ash borer. In such cases it is imperative to consider management
options that may prolong the existence of the species.
e. Stock Type: Different stock types (bareroot or container) differ in tree size (caliper
and height), root length, and other physiological characteristics. The stock size and
type can affect regeneration success.
Assuming the stock is in good physiological condition, stem caliper is more important
than height. For example, bare root pine stock with 4 to 6 mm caliper and root
systems 8 to 10 inches long, will out-perform tall, spindly stock. Caliper is directly
related to the amount of bark insulating cambial tissue and water conducting tissue
within the stem. Caliper also is generally related to the amount of reserve
carbohydrate in container grown seedlings. Growing seedlings in larger containers
should result in better root-to-shoot ratios; however, there is little or no secondary
tissue. Excessive height in container stock may result in seedlings that droop and are
unable to support themselves.
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Tree age also is important. Older seedlings typically can withstand harsher
conditions. Larger bare root stock may be more successful on sites with high levels
of herbivory or competition from other vegetation.
(1) Bareroot Stock. Lake States forests are required to obtain their planting stock
from Toumey Nursery unless approval is obtained from the Regional
Silviculturist. Refer to Section 2.45 - Exhibit 01 for stock specifications or the
Toumey Nursery, Ottawa N.F. website:
Http://fsweb.ottawa.r9.fs.fed.us/teams/toumey/index.shtml Information on
bareroot stock types is described below:
SPRING BAREROOT AND TRANSPLANT STOCK
1-0 Bareroot 1-0 stock is a year-old seedling grown for one season in the seedbed
prior to shipping. It is a 1-year-old seedling physiologically. 1-0
does not have characteristics such as thicker bark, secondary
needles, and thicker roots that 2-year-old seedlings have.
2-0 Bareroot 2-0 stock is grown for two growing seasons in a seed bed and no
years in a transplant bed. In general, 2-0 bareroot will perform
adequately on almost all planting sites assuming tree handling and
planting quality standards are met. This stock has the sturdiness and
reserve power to withstand animal damage, heat damage at ground
line, drought, frost, and other factors better than 1-0 stock or
container stock. Bareroot stock should be planted in the spring.
Container stock may be better on shallow soils.
3-0 Bareroot Bareroot 3-0 is grown for 3 years in a seedbed and is needed when
large enough stock cannot be grown in 2 years or when additional
ability to withstand herbivory or competition is needed.
Transplants
Transplant stock is bareroot stock that was grown in the seedbed or
container and then moved to transplant beds for an additional
growing year prior to shipment. Stock that was grown 2 years in the
seedbed and 1 year in the transplant bed is 2-1 stock. Stock grown 1
year in the seed bed and 1 year in the transplant bed is 1-1 stock. A
transplanted container is plug-1. The general result is sturdier stock
with more fibrous roots and better initial growth than a 2-0 or
standard container grown tree.
Transplant stock is recommended for good sites where intense
vegetative competition is expected. Roots will be more massive
with a proliferation of fibrous roots, and the trees will be larger.
Soils must be deep and have little rock. Shovel planting is often
preferred over augers, mattocks or bars. Initial growth response is
usually better than other stock. Transplants are not recommended
for drought-prone or rocky sites.
Container stock grown in the greenhouse and then extracted from the
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SPRING BAREROOT AND TRANSPLANT STOCK
container and grown in outside transplant beds for an additional
growing year is also considered transplant stock and is termed
“plug+1” transplants. Small containers are commonly used when
transplanting is planned. The plug+1 generally develop into larger
seedlings with more root development than it would as either
container or 2-0 bareroot seedlings.
Problems unique to transplanting include root sweep and root rot.
Transplants are expensive in relation to other stock types. Holding
stock scheduled for planting the current year is not the same thing as
scheduled transplant stock and is generally not desirable. This stock
is not cultured for transplanting and should be called transplanted
holdover stock.
(2) Container Stock. Containerized trees are grown under varying combinations
of enclosed greenhouses, shelter houses, and open outside conditions. In general,
the longer trees are grown out of the greenhouse the less tender the seedlings are.
These seedlings respond to environmental extremes after planting, much better
than greenhouse seedlings. Theoretically, tree size can be more precisely
controlled in containers in the greenhouse and trees can be grown to specific size
standards. However, all container stock is much like 1-0 stock. Growing the
seedlings in larger containers increases root mass and stem caliper but does not
increase the secondary tissue.
The primary advantage of container stock is that it expands planting windows
beyond the traditional spring planting season. In the Lake States and
Northeastern forests, container-grown seedlings can be planted in early summer
(late June through early July) and in late summer-fall (mid-August through
September) as well as in the spring. Container stock is useful in rocky soils where
it is difficult to open holes large enough for bareroot seedlings. Tree plugs can be
removed from containers with only slight damage to roots. They can be used to
take advantage of unforeseen, or unplanned regeneration needs due to the shorter
time required to produce a seedling. Trees can be grown in one year instead of
two, and ordered in November for the next summer or fall planting season.
Container stock is more susceptible to damage from environmental factors such as
solar, wind and browsing damage. It is just like 1-0 stock in that it does not have
adequate secondary tissue to protect it from high soil temperatures. Harsh sites
may require seedling protection by planting along logs, stumps or other
protection. A very dry site may require the use of 2-0 or 3-0 stock. Container
stock is also more subject to damage by competition. Container stock is generally
more expensive than bareroot stock. Toumey Nursery can produce only limited
amounts of containerized stock due to space limitations, thus making it important
to use it only on sites where it is the only stock which will be successful.
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There are a variety of container stock sizes that can be used to meet specific site
conditions. Forests will work with the Regional Silviculturist and nursery
personnel to select appropriate containers and to grow seedlings of varying
specifications to accommodate specific site conditions. Refer to Section 2.45 for
information about planting stock standards.
Characteristics of container grown stock are described below: (reference 2.45 Exhibit 02 Container Standard Size Specifications)
CONTAINER STOCK
Spring
Container
Stock grown for spring planting is sown the year prior to delivery. The
exact sowing date will vary but is usually around mid-spring. The trees
complete a full growing season at the nursery. They set terminal buds and
are hardened off for winter. The trees are normally stored from November
or December until they are planted the next spring. These trees will
initiate new top and root growth after planting. Initial root growth and
overall performance have been better than fall-planted containers, but they
may not be quite as good as summer plants because of the root growth and
shoot growth patterns.
Summer
Container
Stock grown for summer planting is sown in February (occasionally
January). The early sowing date requires more heating and lighting at
early stages. Trees undergo a part of their growing season at the nursery,
but complete their growth after planting. When trees leave the nursery,
they have completed height growth, set a terminal bud and have undergone
some stem toughening. They are not frost hardy which is important to
consider when timing the planting activity.
These summer-planted trees will complete diameter and root growth in the
field. Growth and tree hardening proceeds normally during summer and
fall. This scenario very closely mimics the growth and hardening process of
natural seedlings. This stock will produce some very vigorous root growth
in the field in the first growing season. Larger container sizes may require
an early sow or special growing conditions to assure the roots fill the plug.
Fall
Container
Fall stock is sown later and grown later into the season. Fall-planted trees
have undergone most of their diameter growth and root growth at the
nursery. Trees planted early in the fall season still have some capacity for
root growth, but there will be a large variance in the root growth capacity,
depending on how trees are grown, the nursery at which trees are grown,
when they are shipped, and when they are planted. Fall-planted trees have
often been stressed quite hard in the nursery in late summer and early fall in
an attempt to increase hardiness. This stress often has a negative effect, not
only on fall root growth, but also on the next spring's growth and has
resulted in poor survival.
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f. Timing of regeneration treatments: Regeneration treatments often need to be timed
to take advantage of one or more factors which vary by season or some other cyclic
pattern. Animal impacts will vary with population levels which may fluctuate over
time. Shelters or fencing may be needed to achieve stocking levels needed to reach
DSC. Seed crops are often cyclic in nature and treatments may need to be timed to
coincide with a good seed year. Regeneration treatments may be timed throughout
the year to favor preferred species and select against competition. For example, site
preparation done during the active growing season will be most effective at retarding
the growth of competition. Spring vs. fall planting can affect survival. Fall planting
tends to be more risky in terms of moisture availability and ensuring adequate root
growth before cessation of root growth with cold temperatures. Seasonally available
labor force, either contracted or force account, may impact the timing of reforestation
treatments.
2.32 - Synopsis of Common Reforestation Problems in the Eastern Region
Reforestation can be successful on the majority of the productive forested types with proper
reforestation practices and when silvicultural requirements of trees are met. Problems in
reforestation generally occur when constraints or mitigation measures are incompatible with
requirements of the tree or where prescriptions are not carried out promptly and correctly. On
some National Forests in the Eastern Region, the regeneration requirements (type, timing, or
sequence of reforestation and shelterwood harvest activity) for several important and productive
forest types are not yet well understood. Forest personnel and researchers continue to work to
resolve these problems. Appropriate silvicultural approaches reduce or avoid most problems. In
some cases, options for resolving problems are either very costly or administratively not
available.
Some of the types of regeneration problems are:
1. Failure to obtain consistent, adequate regeneration of oak or upland hardwoods,
especially across the central hardwood region. Site preparation and competition control
must take place during the regeneration establishment phase in order to achieve
established advanced regeneration which must be present before the removal harvest
takes place. Once established, control of herbivory may require fencing.
2. Northern white cedar is slow to regenerate even under the best of conditions. Failures
usually result from inadequate site preparation, hardwood brush competition, and/or
browsing from adjacent deer yards.
3. Insects and diseases cause or contribute to numerous reforestation failures.
Silviculturists must be intimately familiar with silvicultural characteristics of species
being reforested and the implication of the various insects and diseases associated with
them. Any stressor to desired regeneration, such as poor planting quality, inadequate site
preparation or drought, will contribute to the ability of an insect or disease to weaken or
kill desired regeneration. An exhaustive list of potential problems is not possible in this
context; however, a few major ones are listed below.
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a. White pine tip weevil can be discouraged by leaving a 40% crown cover over
regenerating white pine.
b. White pine blister rust impacts can be reduced by not reforesting white pine in
very susceptible sites with high alternate host presence, avoiding lower slopes where
spores accumulate, and judicious use of pathologic pruning.
c. Red pine shoot blight (Sirococcus and Sphaeropsis) impacts can be reduced by
avoiding regeneration under or near overstory red pine or by removing the overstory
as soon as regeneration is established.
d. Spittlebug problems are common on sites with an abundance of sweet fern. Either
control the sweet fern or plant a nonsusceptible species.
e. Root rots are potentially significant problems on both artificially and naturally
regenerated sites especially in combination with any other stressor. The best solution
to root rots is to keep regeneration growing vigorously.
4. Several general items often contribute to regeneration failures. This list is not
exhaustive but includes:
a. Prescriptions that do not meet silvicultural requirements of the tree species.
b. Delay in regeneration (particularly after a catastrophic event and the difficulties
associated with timely salvage) resulting in heavy shrub or other vegetative
competition.
c. Site preparation that is inappropriate for the site or inadequate.
d. Failure to adequately control interfering plants or animal damage which
ultimately prevent desired species from dominating the site.
e. Poor quality planting
2.33 - Natural Regeneration
In the Eastern Region far more acres are reforested with natural regeneration than with artificial
regeneration, and many plantations are partially stocked with natural regeneration. Some natural
regeneration areas are partially planted, usually to maintain or restore a species to ensure it
remains a component within the stand.
The advantage of natural regeneration is that newly established stands are adapted to the site,
assuming seed (or roots or stumps for suckering in the case of Coppice cuts) from appropriate
species is available. It is also the most economical reforestation method, and it often is the
easiest and most reliable regeneration method. The main obstacles to successful natural
regeneration are lack of advance regeneration, lack of available seed of desired species, limited
time constraints (such as Kirtland’s Warbler habitat requirements), or poor genetic quality of the
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seed source. When desired seed of sufficient quantity is not available, sites will regenerate with
fewer desired trees, with insufficient numbers, may not regenerate at all, or a worst case scenario
would be that they are invaded by weed species like Ailanthus or buckthorn. Planting may be
necessary in these situations to achieve management objectives and desired species.
Consider artificial regeneration when genetically resistant stock is necessary. For example,
white pine blister rust resistant stock should be planted instead of relying on natural white pine
regeneration in areas susceptible to high levels of blister rust infection.
In some areas of the Eastern Region, a carefully executed sequence of reforestation activities and
shelterwood seed cutting are essential in order to establish natural regeneration. Forests should
rely on local expertise or research silviculturists to increase the probability of success.
Reforestation activities are also required in order to establish natural regeneration for unevenaged management. Treatments should be designed to give desired species a competitive
advantage over undesirable species. Even after these activities are complete, it may require 3 to
15 years for adequate tree seedlings to develop, become established, and free to grow.
For natural regeneration to be successful, trees must produce adequate seed, seed must be
distributed to favorable seedbeds, and microsites for seed germination must be present. The
seedlings must then encounter conditions that protect them from fungi, rodents, birds, cold, heat,
and drought. In order for all of these things to happen, the silviculturist needs to understand the
silvicultural characteristics of the species involved. Natural regeneration success requires
prescriptions and treatments that ensure that tree seedling needs are met in harvest and site
preparation treatments on the specific sites being treated. Desired tree seedlings must also remain
competitive with nearby less desirable vegetation.
Consider the following when developing prescriptions:
1. Initiate Appropriate Actions for Successful Natural Regeneration.
a. Design harvest and regeneration units so that the size and degree of disturbance
and overhead stocking is appropriate for the desired outcome.
b. Ensure that the species to be regenerated fits the site.
c. Make sure seed is available (or vegetative material for coppice regeneration) for
desired species. Treatments may have to be delayed in years of poor seed production.
d. Maintain genetic quality of potential parent trees.
e. Seedbed conditions including number and condition of microsites must be right
for seed germination, establishment, and growth.
f. Develop conditions which induce sprouting if coppice method is planned.
g. Consider presence of plants (e.g. vines, ferns, striped maple) that would inhibit
regeneration of desirable species.
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h. Consider current and future threats from animal browse, insects, and diseases.
2. Avoid Potential Problems. For the Eastern Region successful reforestation with
natural regeneration following even-aged regeneration harvest is consistently greater than 90%.
Some causes of failure are listed below:
a. Failure to adequately consider tree species/site regeneration needs and timing of
the harvest when designing and implementing harvest of the unit.
b. Expecting natural regeneration of a species not suited for the site or in the
absence of adequate and appropriate species seed or sprout sources. In these cases,
sites may be adequately stocked, but the DSC is not attained.
c. Site preparation that is either inadequate or excessive for the target species. Early
successional species (generally shade intolerant) need fairly drastic site disturbance,
whereas later successional species (generally shade tolerant) require less and
sometimes more precise microsite development. Excessive disruption of the soil
profile on any site could affect long-term productivity and regeneration success by
removing topsoil, causing compaction, or destroying needed microsites for seedling
development.
d. Retention of overstory densities (leave trees or reserves) that limit or preclude the
establishment of desired tree species.
e. Expectation of natural regeneration for species that historically have been difficult
to regenerate. An example is white cedar.
f. Inadequate advance regeneration (species, size, or numbers) present before initiating
regeneration harvests and failing to wait long enough for advanced regeneration to
become established before completion of the final harvest.
g. Failure to control dominance of the site by plants that interfere with tree seedling
establishment, growth, and survival.
h. Failure to limit regeneration losses from browsing, insect or disease.
3. Take Advantage of Advanced Regeneration. Advanced regeneration present before
the time of disturbance may be suitable for restocking the site. To be successful, seedlings and
saplings must not be destroyed or damaged during harvest and site preparation activities.
Balsam fir, eastern hemlock and many hardwood species are prime examples of advanced
regeneration that can be utilized. Most forest types have some potential to utilize advanced
regeneration. In some areas of the Eastern Region, especially the central and Allegheny
hardwoods, adequate advanced regeneration is required before initiating regeneration harvests.
In the oak-hickory type, cutting oak saplings and small poles can induce coppice regeneration.
The health and potential for these young trees to develop as desired must be carefully evaluated
prior to depending on them as selected trees for the new forest. Terminal leader or previous
growth is often the best indicator of potential development. Coppice, cutting or burning of
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established small diameter understory species such as oak can produce vigorous sprouts.
Prescriptions should describe the species and condition of the trees to be favored for
regeneration.
4. Evaluation of Natural Regeneration Success. Monitoring natural regeneration is
presented in the monitoring schedules in Section 2.9, Reforestation Surveys and Monitoring.
However, these schedules allow only the determination of success or failure. Evaluation of the
cause of success or failure requires more frequent visits. For example, when germinants appear,
the site should be checked frequently to assess the occurrence of damping-off, frost, or bird and
rodent predation. As the season progresses into summer, sites again need to be checked for
losses due to drought and possible animal damage.
2.34 – Artificial Reforestation
Most of the items discussed in the above section on natural regeneration are applicable to
artificial regeneration as well. Plan artificial regeneration, either planting or direct seeding, only
after fully considering natural regeneration opportunities. There are situations when artificial
reforestation should be the selected alternative. Some examples are:
1. Lack of proper species or genetically appropriate seed sources in adjoining stands or
residual overstory.
2. Low probability of seed, sprout or sucker production in desired quantities to
regenerate the site within required time frames.
3. Logistical problems in cutting or site preparation practices that will not allow for
proper seedbed preparation for natural seedlings.
2.35 – Species Restoration
The restoration of species is an extremely complex subject which will only be touched on here.
All species restoration must be supported by NEPA analysis and DSC. Generally, the agency
fully supports the restoration of native species which have been removed from some landscapes
by past management practices or by exotic diseases. White pine is a notable example where pure
native planting stock has been developed by selection and breeding for resistance to white pine
blister rust. In certain cases the agency may support the restoration of species using planting
stock that has been developed by carefully hybridizing with exotic species. This is true for
chestnut where the disease-resistant hybrids have been repeatedly backcrossed to American
parents to produce material that is almost entirely native. Planting of nonnative species to fill the
function and structure of native species that have been devastated is not desirable and must be
approached with great caution. An example where this might be tempting to consider is when
hemlock trees have been killed by wooly adelgid. Such practices need careful NEPA analysis
and Regional Silviculturist involvement.
2.4 - NURSERY COORDINATION
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This section addresses coordination with Toumey Nursery. Lake States forests are required to
purchase planting stock from the Toumey Nursery. Stock types and species not available from
Toumey Nursery need to be approved by the Regional Silviculturist.
Responsibilities for administration and management of nurseries are outlined in FSM 2473.
When appropriate nursery stock is not available from Toumey Nursery, stock may be purchased
from a private grower upon approval from the Regional Silviculturist. The Toumey Nursery
Manager shall assist clients in developing contract clauses that assure quality tree seedlings are
provided by contract growers. Responsibility for efficient management of the nursery lies with
the Ottawa Forest Supervisor and more directly with the Nursery Manager. The Regional Office
program manager provides oversight, coordination and direction.
It is recommended that the nursery staff meet annually with its Forest Service customers.
Meetings should include the Nursery Manager and other nursery personnel, customers, the
Regional Silviculturist and Regional Geneticist. During these meetings, customers should view
stock in nursery beds and greenhouses, make adjustments in lift and pack requests, discuss
adjustments in lot quantities and seedling specifications. They also should report on the quality
of the past season's planting stock and discuss coordination with the Nursery Manager. The
nursery staff should provide information on current nursery operations and business in general.
Other topics of reforestation interest may also be discussed as part of the workshop format.
2.41 - Critical Nursery/Reforestation Program Coordination Dates
The nursery shall provide a list of critical dates to customers or maintain them on a web page.
(http://fsweb.ottawa.r9.fs.fed.us/teams/toumey/index.shtml) Forest and district personnel
responsible for nursery program coordination should retain a copy of this list. Forests are
responsible for meeting the required deadlines. Stock requests are due September 30, and an
updated stock request is due on January 30 of each year. This confirms forest requests and
allows the nursery to develop space, cultural, and operational needs along with coordination of
seed stratification and sowing dates. These requests will be initialized in the form of a reply due
from the nursery to the forest 30 to 45 days in advance and should be discussed if the forest is to
deviate from the due dates. Schedule appropriate lead times to ensure time frames can be met.
2.42 - Ordering Planting Stock (Sowing Requests)
Toumey Nursery will supply all Lake States forest stock needs up to the nursery’s capacity to
produce. Other forests should order stock from Toumey Nursery as is feasible considering
shipping and differing climatic conditions. Deviations from this should be discussed with the
Regional Silviculturist and the Nursery Manager. Toumey Nursery shall provide procedures for
ordering planting stock. Forms and due dates for orders shall be available directly from the
nursery web page. (http://fsweb.ottawa.r9.fs.fed.us/teams/toumey/index.shtml)
Toumey Nursery grows, either bare root or containerized, the following species: Conifers:
White, red and jack pines, white, black and red spruces, hemlock, tamarack, balsam fir, common
and ground juniper and Canada yew. Hardwoods: Red, white, black, bur, and chestnut oaks,
white and green ash, yellow poplar, white and yellow birch, black and dwarf prairie willow,
black, sand and pin cherry, butternut, cucumber tree, apple, crabapple, hawthorn, serviceberry,
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American and Allegheny plums, American and beaked hazel, American and red-berried elders,
alternate-leaved, flowering, silky, red-osier and roundleaf dogwoods, American mountain ash,
maple leaf and witherod viburnum, highbush cranberry, shiny and staghorn sumac, mountain and
common winterberry, witchhazel, mountain holly, nannyberry, hobblebrush, arrowwood,
common buttonbrush, monkeyflower, smooth hydrangea and large-leaf aster. The Nursery
Manager should be contacted for species availability and specific details.
1. Sowing Request. Provide the following information in the sowing request.
a. Seedlot Information - select seedlot from seed inventory to match site.
b. Type of Stock - bareroot or container, age of seedling, size of container, special
requirements (root, height or caliper), along with size class (reference 2.45 - Exhibit
01).
c. Quantity of Stock - nearest thousand seedlings.
d. Year and Season of Delivery - spring, summer or fall planting.
e. Seed Zone – based on planting zone for Forest and District ( Contact Forest
Silviculturist, Regional Geneticist or Nursery Manager for specifics).
2. Ordering Schedule. Depending on type of stock being used, orders must be made as
far as 3 years in advance of actual planting.
2.42 - Exhibit 01
Example of Sowing Schedule
Seedlings Available
to Plant
Spring 2012
Spring 2012
Spring 2012
Summer 2012
Fall 2012
Spring 2012
Stock Type
3-0 Bareroot
2-0 Bareroot
Container
Container
Container
Plug +1
Submit Sowing
Request
December 2008
December 2009
December 2010
November 2011
November 2011
December 2009
3. Types of Stock. Order stock type consistent with prescriptions for acres that are being
planted. Refer to Reforestation Prescription (Sec. 2.3), Types of Planting Stock and Season of
Planting for guidance.
Toumey Nursery will generally grow seedlings according to standard specifications and cull
according to grading specifications unless otherwise requested by the forest. Coordinate all
special stock specifications in advance with the Nursery Manager to assure the request is
feasible. Identify special growing or grading specifications on the sowing order. Late requests
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may limit ability for the nursery to meet special requests in some cases. Specifically note on the
sowing request if larger caliper is needed for harsh sites or special root lengths for specific sites.
If the nursery does not have standards specifications, coordinate with the nursery to develop
specifications for your order.
4. Quantity of Stock. Order as large a quantity as possible of each seed lot which will
meet the forest’s needs. Small lot orders increase the probability of over-run or under-run
problems and increase the cost of growing the stock. Some nurseries charge extra for small lots.
Districts should consolidate orders to avoid small lot orders. Consider the following to estimate
quantity of stock needed.
a. Desired number of trees per acre from the prescription. This number includes
assessment of available planting spots and anticipated mortality.
b. Extra trees allowed to be planted in the contract. To allow for differences in spacing
variances and types of planting tools used or other factors, the stock order may be
increased by 10 or 20 percent. Use past experience to determine if extra trees should be
ordered. Remember your forest may be required to pay for stock you order even if you
subsequently reduce your order. Also remember that the nursery cannot supply more
seedlings than you order.
5. Seed Lot. Specify seed lots for seedlings. Refer to Seed, Chapter 4 of this handbook
for seed transfer guidelines. Use only seed appropriate for the specific site. Nurseries and
districts should monitor seed lot performance. If appropriate seed lots or seedlings are not
available, consult with the Regional Geneticist to determine if another source is available.
2.43 - Ordering Trees (Lift and Pack Requests)
Contact nursery or utilize the nursery website for packing instructions
(http://fsweb.ottawa.r9.fs.fed.us/teams/toumey/index.shtml). Shipping dates should be scheduled
with the nursery as early as possible. The nursery may coordinate shipments with adjoining
districts or forests.
1. Spring Lifting. Spring lifting will take place as early as possible once soil is
adequately thawed to allow removal without damaging seedlings or nursery beds.
2. Summer and Fall Stock - Special Considerations. In years with an abnormally dry,
early summer or fall, districts may want to delay extraction of seedlings until there is reasonable
assurance of suitable conditions for planting. If weather limits the planting window, this stock
can be held over and planted as spring stock, but close coordination with the nursery is required.
3. Fall Lifting for Over-Wintering and Spring Planting. Stock may be lifted or extracted
and placed in coolers at the nursery to be held over to spring, allowing early spring planting
startup. This can provide an advantage for forests in warmer climates than the nursery, however
it requires sensitive storage and handling practices. Coordinate plans with the nursery.
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2.44 - Seed Inventories
Lake States forests shall coordinate their seed needs through the Regional Geneticist and the
Toumey Nursery Manager. The nursery, in coordination with the Regional Geneticist and
Oconto River Seed Orchard (ORSO) Manager, will regularly update the seed inventory.
Inventories are available from the nursery or from the web page:
(http://fsweb.ottawa.r9.fs.fed.us/teams/toumey/index.shtml). Guidance for maintaining 10-year
seed needs, seed collection requirements, and logistics are documented in the Regional Seed
Handbook (Reference 2409.17 Chapter 4).
Forests that do not maintain seed in the regional seed bank or obtain seed and/or seedlings from
state nurseries should maintain 10-year seed need estimates based on historic seed use resulting
from harvest or disturbance. The Forest Silviculturist is responsible to ensure that seed
movement guidelines are followed and appropriate genotypes are used in all reforestation
activities.
2.45 - Planting Stock Standards
Planting stock standards are used as a basis for nursery and reforestation personnel to strive for a
common understanding of what quality nursery stock is. Stock standards should be used
between any nursery and any forest needing stock. Stock not meeting standards has a lower
survival probability than acceptable stock. Small, spindly trees or those with disease or stress
symptoms have poor survival. Over-sized trees can be difficult or impossible to plant properly
and may be damaged during handling, resulting in poor seedling survival.
Determine stock specifications applicable for the site and species to be planted. Districts and
nurseries should work to determine these specifications based on experience and applicable
research when standard specifications do not yield acceptable survival. See 2.45 - Exhibit 01 for
typical stock specifications.
Nurseries will grade, count, and root prune all planting stock before shipping. Therefore, no
grading, culling, or root pruning will be done in the field. Specifications for planting stock are
listed below.
The following specifications should be used by the ordering units and the Nursery Manager.
Ranger Districts or other ordering units should specify species, class A or B, and fiscal year
desired, considering site and method of planting. The age of stock will not be used as a
specification. Units requesting stock other than as specified here should provide all
specifications needed and the reason the special stock is required. Refer to standard size
specifications for each nursery prior to ordering stock as standard specifications differ.
Refer to Section 2.61, Receipt of Tree Seedlings for additional descriptions of quality stock.
1. Bareroot Standards. Following is a list of quality standards for bareroot seedlings.
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a. Bareroot Stock Dormancy. Nurseries use fertilizer, irrigation, and lifting practices
to produce desired dormancy of tree stock. These practices are detailed in the written
cultural regimes guides and nursery handbooks for each nursery. Trees must be in
optimum physiological condition, and be dormant with properly hardened winter
buds prior to lifting and storing. The safe lifting period (lifting window) for dormant
stock shall be determined at each nursery. Stock with late season lammas growth and
stock with small or soft buds may not be dormant. If dormancy problems are
suspected, the nursery will conduct dormancy tests to assure they are dormant.
b. Top Pruning. Tree height should generally be managed through cultural practices.
However, top pruning may be needed to control height in some lots. Top pruning
must be done when shoots are tender. If done improperly, it can disrupt dormancy
development, cause problems in stock hardening, or destroy terminal buds.
c. Root Length. Root length is determined by cultural practices at the nursery and by
pruning. Pruning practices vary by nursery. The cotyledon scar is used as the
reference point for measuring roots. Root systems must be between 20 cm (8”) and
25 cm (10”) vertically after root pruning. Lateral roots should not exceed 8 cm (3”)
in length from the main root or stem. Shoot-root ratio after root pruning will be
determined by water displacement.
d. Healthy Appearance. Trees shall be free from defect, damage, and symptoms of
disease or problem insects that lower seedling survival potential. Conifers should
have 90% of the needles with less than 15% damage to the individual needle surface
area. In addition, 60% of the needles should be free of tip damage such as winter
burn. Seedling lots with extensive root disease in nursery beds should be destroyed.
Experience has shown that healthy trees cannot be visually separated from trees with
root disease in these diseased lots. For conifers: Terminal buds will be mature, well
formed, and of good size. Trees with small, weak buds, short needles (bottlebrush)
should normally be culled. Foliage should be a normal color. Trees that are green
during the growing season may exhibit yellow and purple tints in fall. This is a part
of the normal hardening off process.
Acceptable stock shall not have late season lammas shoots with soft buds or
immature green stem tissue or active root growth. The nursery will cull pines with
soft buds or buds with more than two fingers width (placed horizontally) of green
tissue below the bud as this indicates lammas growth. Trees with hard buds and
brown tissue below the bud generally store well when packed and are not cold
damaged after planting. Hardwood trees should have a healthy terminal bud and
stems should be free of damage. All trees with forked tops occurring in the lower
25% of the main stem should be culled. However, considerable judgment is required
when culling for tree form. Trees with any visible mechanical or insect wounds shall
be culled.
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Nurseries shall pack seedlings to assure adequate moisture and nutrient regimes.
Roots may appear dry if the soil around the roots has dried. This is not a concern
unless the roots have actually dried.
Contact the nursery if you have concerns with the appearance of stock that is
received.
e. Lifting Damage. There are three significant kinds of damage that can occur during
lifting. Root chips occur when lateral roots are torn from the main root when pulled
upward. This leaves a wound (white chip) on the main root. These trees have poor
survival and should be culled. Chips frequently occur when lifting in wet, heavy soils
or when lifting lots where trees roots have become intertwined in mats. Another
form of damage is excessive mud on foliage. Roots caked with mud and dirt on tree
foliage will cause storage and survival problems. The third type of damage results
when seedlings are lifted in excessively wet soils. When excess soil adhering to the
roots is shaken off, loss of the fine roots and root tips occurs.
f. Size Standards. Examples of bareroot stock specifications are displayed in 2.45 Exhibit 01. Standards vary among nurseries and are available from the nursery or the
web page. These standards will be followed for growing, and grading during packing
unless otherwise agreed to by the nursery and ordering forest. Total height is
measured from the root collar to the base of the terminal bud, and diameter is
measured at the cotyledon scar near the ground line. Coordinate with the nursery to
adjust these specifications at time of the sowing request or prior to the time trees are
packed. The nursery shall attempt to meet the goal size in most cases. To meet
specifications at least 94% of each seed lot will meet minimum size specifications.
With this tolerance, districts should not be expected to grade. Notify the nursery and
Regional Silviculturist/Geneticist if any seed lots do not meet minimum specifications
within the acceptable tolerance.
2.45 - Exhibit 01
Bareroot Seedling Specifications for Toumey Nursery
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS B
CLASS B
HT/INCES CALIPER/MM HT/INCHES CALIPER/MM
AGE
SPECIES
3-0
SPRUCE Spp
6-12
3-8
4-9
3-8
3-0
RED PINE
6-12
3-8
5-10
2-6
3-0
WHITE PINE
6-12
3-8
5-10
2-6
2-0
LARCH
6-12
3-8
5-10
2-6
2-0
JACK PINE
4-12
3-8
4-7
2-4
2-0
HARDWOODS
6-12+
4-8
6-12+
4-8
2-0
N RED OAK
6-12+
4-8
6-12+
4-8
4-0
HEMLOCK/CEDAR
4+
4+
4+
4+
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Forests should keep abreast of changes to standard specs on the Nursery website:
http://fsweb.ottawa.r9.fs.fed.us/teams/toumey/index.shtml. If nonstandard specs are desired, the
ordering unit will work directly with the Nursery. Note that caliper is expressed in millimeters
and height in inches.
2. Container Standards. Following is a list of quality and size standards for container
grown stock. Also refer to Section 2.45 - Exhibit 02 for additional descriptions.
a. Stem Condition. Container seedlings must have sturdy stems and must stand erect.
Spindly or floppy stock is not acceptable.
b. Foliage. All container stock foliage should be green and have a healthy appearance
except that pines stored for spring planting may have a purple tint.
c. Root Plug. Plugs should be firm and filled with roots. Soft plugs indicate
insufficient roots or diseased roots. Trees must not be pot-bound which tends to
occur if trees are held over too long from the scheduled season for delivery. The
roots of pot-bound trees will often spiral around the wall of the container or form a
thick mat of roots at the bottom of the plug. Properly filled plugs, when shaken to
remove soil media, should reveal larger roots pointing downward and smaller roots
filling the plug interior.
d. Healthy Appearance. Container stock shall be free from defect and damaging
disease symptoms.
Terminal buds on spring- and fall-planted stock must be mature, well formed, and of
good size. Buds of spring stock shall be dormant. Weak, soft, immature buds, or
green lammas shoots are not acceptable.
Summer stock must have a definite visible terminal bud. Stems must be lignified
enough to tolerate handling by planters without damage to stem tissue. White root
tips should be numerous in the plug.
e. Size Standards. Each nursery has growing specifications that they use for planning
cultural practices. Refer to 2.45 - Exhibit 02 for an example of container size
specification. Contact each nursery for specifics of their stock. Standard size
specifications may be altered to meet local conditions. Work with the nursery to
develop local specifications. Stock grown at lower densities is generally more
expensive than those grown at higher densities.
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2.45 – Exhibit 02
Example of Container Seedling Specifications
Container Type
198 standard
cell depth – 5.21”
top dia. – 1.10 ”
vol. cu. in. – 3.7
160 standard
cell depth – 5.96”
top dia. – 1.18 ”
vol. cu. in. – 5.5
144 standard
cell depth – 4.33”
top dia. – 1.24”
vol. cu. in. – 5.5
112 standard
cell depth – 5.83”
top dia. – 1.40”
vol. cu. in. – 6.6
91 standard
cell depth – 5.96”
top dia. – 1.53”
vol. cu. in. – 7.9
77 standard
cell depth – 4.58”
top dia. – 1.53”
vol. cu. in. – 7.6
45 standard
cell depth – 5.96”
top dia. – 2.33”
vol. cu. in. – 20.5
Species
Min.
shoot
Ht
(in.)
Ht.
Goal
(in.)
Max.
Shoot
Ht
(in.)
Min.
Caliper
(mm)
Caliper
Goal
(mm)
Red Pine
3.0
5-6..0
10.0
3.0
4.0+
Jack Pine
4.0
5-6.0
10.0
2.5
3.5+
Spruces
4.0
5-6.0
10.0
2.5
3.5+
NW Cedar
4.0
6-7.0
12.0
3.0
3.5+
Hemlock
4.0
6-7.0
16.0
3.0
3.5+
Hemlock
4.0
6-7.0
16.0
3.0
3.5+
Hardwoods
4.0
6-10.0
20.0
4.0
5.0+
Hardwoods
4.0
6-10.0
20.0
4.0
5.0+
Hardwoods
4.0
6-10.0
20.0
4.0
5.0+
Hardwoods
4.0
6-10.0
20.0
4.0
5.0+
2.46 - Predictors of Stock Quality
The following chart displays stock quality factors in descending order of importance in
predicting seedling survival. Refer to applicable research to determine the values for each factor
that will likely increase survival probability. Utilize these factors when determining size
specifications necessary for a specific seed lot. Do not compromise chances of survival by
lowering standards below necessary specifications.
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2.46 – Exhibit 01
Stock Quality Predictors
Seedling factor
1. Diameter (caliper)
2. Shoot/Root Ratio
3. Bud Height
Comments
Best and easiest predictor of subsequent survival and growth.
Generally larger caliper increases survival; however, after a
certain size, survival begins to decline as diameter increases,
possibly reflecting lack of top/root balance (shoot to root ratio)
in larger trees.
If corrected for seedling size, this can be a useful index for
predicting survival. Shoot/root ratio is not a growth predictor.
May have value to determine when seedling’s height is too
large and the tree is out of balance.
Can be used to refine growth predictions when heights or
caliper are equal between two lots.
Additional considerations (not prioritized):
Color
Very broad subjective measure of vigor and physiological
condition.
Multiple Shoots
Seed-collection procedures should eliminate most genetic
causes. Multiple tops resulting from nursery cultural
practices, insect, or animal damage usually exhibit rapid
field recovery within the first year.
Bottle Brush Growth
Decreased needle length and distance between needles
usually indicate seedlings grown under stress conditions or
root disease. Of the two, the former is more likely.
Seedlings should be culled if there is a total loss of previous
year's needles.
Root Size
Current measurement systems are not sufficient to compare
root systems. Subjective judgment is used to determine root
surface area capability for water and nutrient absorption.
Large, fibrous root systems are best.
Root Damage/Deformity
Both conditions require good judgment. Generally damage
and deformity indicate the tree is a poor survival risk.
2.47 - Standard Grading Specifications
Nurseries shall meet stock size specifications for at least 94% of each seed lot. These standards
will be used for grading seedlings at the nursery unless changed by the ordering forest. Refer to
2.47 - Exhibit 01 for examples of grading criteria used by the nursery. Stock not meeting the
above standards shall not be shipped to districts without prior approval of the forest stock
coordinator and/or the ordering district. The forest stock coordinator or the district assumes
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responsibility for stock performance when accepting substandard stock. Substandard stock
should be accepted only in rare instances and only when the chances of meeting planting
objectives are good. For example, some seed lots may not meet minimum height, but may be
accepted by the district when caliper is adequate. Report to the nursery and Regional
Geneticist/Silviculturist if substandard stock is received without prior approval.
2.47 – Exhibit 01
Example of Nursery Grading Specifications
2.48 - Surplus Tree Seedlings
1. Surplus Seedlings at the Nursery.
a. Nursery Overrun. Surplus seedlings ranging from slight to moderate overages of
stock in excess of the original request caused by nursery sowing factors should be
expected. This overrun is not a chargeable surplus to ordering units.
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Forests may, at their option, accept the overrun on a specific lot at the time of lift and
pack request. Forests can accept this overrun and trade it for chargeable surplus that
arises from not taking trees in their original orders. When substituting, they are not
charged for an equal amount declined from the original request unless already ordered
and packed.
b. Chargeable Surplus. Chargeable surplus arises from stock ordered by districts and
then rejected. Forests are responsible for growing costs of this stock up to the time of
rejection, plus a destruction charge.
When the nursery is notified that stock is rejected prior to lift and pack, lift and pack
charges will not be assessed. If rejection is after the lift and pack, the forest will also
be assessed lift and pack costs. Destruction costs are assessed in all cases.
2. Management of Surpluses. Follow the process outlined below to sell chargeable
surplus stock. The nursery has the lead role in selling surplus stock, but forests and districts also
have a major interest in selling surplus stock.
a. Role of Forests and Districts. Districts and forests have an incentive to sell surplus
stock as they will be charged for chargeable surplus if not sold.
Districts and forests can help primarily through local contacts. They should ensure
that the local forest management agency offices in the immediate area are aware of
surpluses. Districts and forests can contact local people responsible for reforestation
and inform them of the surpluses, then have them contact the nursery.
b. Role of Nursery. The nursery shall notify the other forests when there are surplus
seedlings prior to offering them to other government agencies.
c. Surpluses at the District. When there is a large amount of surplus seedlings at the
district, trees can be sold or disposed of as perishable goods consistent with Forest
Administrative Services Directives (GSA). The district and forest has the
responsibility to try to recover the costs of this surplus by sale to other agencies.
Districts should contact adjoining forests to check on their needs prior to advertising
to other agencies. Always stay within seed transfer guidelines. Do not sell seedlings
outside of the geographic area in which they are genetically adapted.
2.5 - SITE PREPARATION
Site preparation is often the most crucial part of the reforestation prescription for both natural
and artificial regeneration. Site preparation must be addressed in the harvest prescription in
order to assure meeting DSC. Coordinate site preparation methods and timing with other
resource objectives. Do not attempt reforestation without appropriate site preparation.
Utilize research and operational field experience in planning site preparation activities. Local
people are often the operational experts in the use of fire, herbicides and mechanical treatments
for their area. Units lacking specific expertise should work with nearby forests or districts.
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Vegetative competition will affect the success of trees to become established and grow. Site
preparation must be sufficient to reduce the vegetation that will compete for moisture or light.
Each species has specific needs which must be met in order to successfully regenerate. Adequate
regeneration of sprouting or suckering species may be obtained by simply removing overhead
competition. Other species may require extensive mechanical site preparation so that in excess of
60% mineral soil is exposed.
Site preparation and soil scarification must be adequate to assure that established competing
vegetation is reduced and microsites for new tree regeneration are created. Maintenance of
coarse, woody debris is beneficial by providing shade and wind protection as well as protection
from animals. For example, with jack pine it is necessary to insure that cones are exposed to
adequate surface temperatures to open the cones which are in the slash. Generally, adequate
mineral soil must be exposed and competing vegetation removed so that seedlings can become
established. However, excessive soil exposure without protective cover from slash and logs will
cause soil temperatures to exceed lethal temperatures killing newly germinated seedlings.
Excessive site preparation can damage soils. For example, bulldozer work to clear the site may
cause soil compaction or disrupt the physical structure of the soil, reducing moisture retention
and nutrient regimes. Site preparation that leaves debris and scattered plants of all types is
preferable as organic matter is necessary for both physical and biological soil enhancement. On
some sites, regenerating shrubs or forbs can be beneficial for shade and protection of seedlings as
long as the site is still acceptable for tree establishment. However, once shrubs or sod have fully
occupied the site, it is difficult for trees to become established. Animal damage to tree seedlings
is often less on sites with adequate (alternate) preferred browse. Consider probable vegetative
response of the site and plant association during the prescription phase of the project.
Many methods of site preparation are available, some of which are further described in Section
2.52. Regardless of the method, site preparation must be planned in advance of the harvest.
Sometimes site preparation dictates the type of harvest treatments needed in order to meet long
term DSC. The stand prescription must clearly designate the site preparation techniques and
timings to be used.
2.51 – Site Preparation Requirements for Reforestation
Achieve the following conditions during site preparation:
1. Remove excess logging slash and debris to reduce fire hazard, if necessary, and
prepare the site for regeneration.
2. If required, retain adequate debris to protect seedlings from extreme temperatures,
animal trampling, and browsing.
3. Provide sufficient woody debris to ensure nutrient, organic matter, and
microbiological needs for healthy soil.
4. Provide sufficient mineral soil exposure to meet seedling establishment requirements
for the preferred species where natural regeneration is prescribed. Mineral soil exposure is
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needed for optimum establishment of early seral species such as jack pine and paper birch.
Shade-tolerant species, such as balsam fir and spruce, can become established without mineral
soil exposure, although thick duff is not suitable. Exposing mineral soil can substantially
improve eastern hemlock regeneration when an adequate hemlock seed source is present.
5. Remove competing vegetation to provide light and moisture to new seedlings. This is
especially critical on drier sites where brush and sod-forming grasses cause intense competition
for moisture.
6. Minimize habitat conditions that encourage rodents such as large slash piles which
provide hiding and nesting cover.
7. Protect long-term soil productivity by avoiding excessive compaction and
displacement of soil horizons. Compacted soils reduce water percolation and root growth. Some
site preparation can change soil structure usually making it denser. Topsoil may be mixed with
organic matter provided it is not stripped away exposing lower soil horizons.
2.52 - Methods
The methods of site preparation will vary between forests depending on site needs and
equipment and methods available.
Site preparation methods are briefly discussed here. Refer to literature on fire, soils, silviculture,
mechanical equipment, and herbicide use for additional information. Older literature deals
primarily with equipment and methods; recent publications focus on effects of site preparation
on the land as well as advances in equipment. Locally experienced foresters and technicians
should be consulted to learn what has been effective in the past.
Some site preparation methods that can be utilized are:
1. Mechanical Equipment. The use of mechanical equipment is an effective means of
obtaining site preparation. Equipment used for site preparation is rapidly changing and
improving. The Missoula Technology and Development Center (MTDC) is involved in
development and evaluation of new equipment. Refer to their literature for current information.
Avoid excessive soil disturbance when using mechanical equipment. On some soils, site
preparation must be timed to avoid compaction and other problems. Select the proper equipment
and provide good project administration to ensure the prescribed level of disturbance is achieved.
Excavators with various types of heads are becoming more readily available, may be less
damaging to soils, and may be preferred over bulldozers on some sites. Site preparation
techniques must be sufficient to reduce competing vegetation, which often is the limiting factor
in seedling survival. Excessive site preparation, however, creates major problems in soil
compaction, displacement and animal damage.
Retain coarse woody debris scattered on the site for seedling protection and site productivity
during fuels abatement and site preparation practices.
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Excessive disturbance during site preparation activities can encourage establishment of weed
species. Equipment should be cleaned thoroughly before and after use to avoid spread of
noxious weed seeds. Follow applicable county, state, and federal laws.
a. Dozer. Scarification usually involves the use of the dozer blade or a modified
blade like a rock rake or a salmon blade to move slash and other debris to prepare a
plantable or seedable microsite.
b. Roller Chopper and/or Chaining. Scarification usually involves pulling some form
of a drum chopper or chains which crushes slash while exposing varying amounts of
mineral soil.
c. Brackë or Disc Trenchers. Spot scarifying which prepares a plantable or seedable
site by exposing mineral soils in narrow rows or spots.
d. Excavator. Spot treatment, either alone or in conjunction with fuel hazard
reduction, involves the use of an excavator to pile slash and/or prepare mineral seed
beds for planting or seeding using some type of flail or chipping head.
e. Disking. Scarification involves the incorporation of slash and/or duff into the
upper layer of mineral soil to prepare plantable or seedable microsites.
f. Rippers or Subsoilers. Scarification breaks up subsoil compaction caused by heavy
mechanical equipment like skidders especially rutting on temporary roads.
g. Chainsaws. Can be used to provide growing space for desirable trees by cutting
undesirable or poor quality trees. For oak or aspen, cutting of small diameter
understory trees following harvest stimulates vigorous sprouting. In combination
with fire, sprouts from thin barked species can be controlled while allowing fire
resistant oak sprouts to be released.
2. Herbicides. Herbicides can be used to reduce vegetation without disturbing the soil
surface. It is especially useful in removal of established unwanted vegetation such as
undesirable trees, grass and brush and is an option for partial site preparation for fill-in planting.
Herbicide use must be addressed in NEPA documentation. Contact the Regional Pesticide
Coordinator (NA State and Private Forestry at Newtown Square, PA) for assistance during
planning stages.
a. Ground Based Broadcast. Application involves the use of broadcast sprayers
which require less intensive labor and provide coverage of the entire site.
b. Ground Spot. Application usually involves handheld equipment which is labor
intensive and only covers some portions of the site, but controls placement of the
chemicals.
c. Stump Treatment or Tree Injection. Application involves the use of handheld
equipment to treat freshly cut stumps or inject herbicide into tree trunks.
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3. Fire. Fire is a natural disturbance in many ecosystems, and when used properly, it can
be an effective and ecologically beneficial tool. Some of the benefits include fuel abatement, fire
hazard reduction, improving access to the site, nutrient release, seed bed preparation and
stimulating seed production. When properly timed, fire can increase desirable species sprouting,
while retarding undesirable species. Fire must only be used where it is compatible with both
long and short term DSC. For example, fire may decrease merchantability or kill residual trees.
Use fire in site preparation in accordance with FSM 5150.
Fire treatments require both a silvicultural stand prescription and a burn plan prescription. The
silviculturist needs to be involved with the preparation of both prescriptions. When fire is used
for site preparation, it must contribute to meeting the DSC while being conducted safely. Timing
can be extremely critical in meeting silvicultural burn objectives and often causes a narrow
burning window. Trees have varying resistance to fire, and it will differ by time of year and
physiological processes occurring within the trees. Timing the fire for the season when
unwanted species are most susceptible to mortality can enhance control of them. For example,
when sap is flowing in spring, some species are at greater risk of being damaged or killed.
Treatment objectives and safety shall not be compromised simply for the sake of getting the burn
accomplished. Treatment costs, risk aversion, and smoke management problems can limit the
use of fire.
a. Broadcast Burning. Broadcast burning sometimes can be used successfully to
remove excess slash and prepare microsites by removing varying amounts of the litter
layer. Avoid peak temperatures in excess of 200 degrees Celsius, which is the point
where nitrogen can volatilize and become unavailable to plants.
b. Wildfire Use. Some wildfires adequately prepare sites for reforestation efforts.
Consider amount of duff layer removed and the microsites available for seedling
establishment. Reforestation efforts should take place as soon as possible after the
fire event to take advantage of prepared sites and reduced competition.
c. Underburning. Some sites benefit from underburning by controlling competing
vegetation or preparing microsites for seeding establishment. In some systems like
red or white pine, properly timed underburns can increase seed production by
reducing the presence of insects which damage seed crops.
d. Pile Burning. Ash and hydrophobic soils left by pile burning can sometimes be
detrimental to seedling establishment and growth.
4. Hand Methods. Hand scalping planting spots is often done as part of the tree planting
operation. Tools used include planting hoes (hoedad), adzes, McLeods, and hazel hoes. The
hoedad has the advantage in that scalping can be done with the same tool used to plant the tree.
McLeod tools are used to remove light vegetation, duff, and litter commonly in the auger
planting operation. Hazel hoes are used for heavier vegetation such as grass sod or small shrubs.
The optimum hazel hoe blade width is 7-1/2 inches. The term “scalping” can refer to cutting
plants as well as scraping the soil surface. In this handbook, scalping is used in reference to
removal of plants in preparation of the planting spot.
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a. Scalping Terminology. Use clearing and scalping, as defined below, in tree
planting operations and contracts.
(1) Clearing is the removal of the duff, litter, ash, dry surface soil, and debris to
facilitate the opening of a hole. Clearing of 6 to 8 inches is adequate on most sites.
(2) Scalping is the removal of competing vegetation prior to hole opening. Scalps
are usually done to remove only vegetation tops and root crown. Scalping removes
competing vegetation making more light, water and nutrients available to the tree
seedling. Identify the size of scalp in the planting prescription. Use scalps 18 to 24
inches in diameter on sites with heavy competing vegetation. Scalps 12 inches in
diameter may be suitable on other sites. Where vegetation is very dense and scalps
larger than 24 inches are needed, utilize other treatments such as mechanical,
herbicide, or burning. Scalps larger than 24 inches in diameter are difficult to achieve
by hand tools and are very expensive.
b. Depth of Scalp or Clearing. Depth of the scalp or clearing will vary depending on
the site. Scalps of 1 to 2 inches are usually sufficient. Do not create pits during
scalping. Trees planted in deep depressions will suffer from cold and over-heating
problems and may collect excess water. Clearing depth will vary depending on
amount of duff and debris on sites and requires a sufficient depth to remove debris
down to the soil surface.
5. Timber Harvest Activities: Log skidding sometimes provides adequate soil
scarification needed for regeneration. Control logging and skidding operations to meet desired
objectives.
6. Fertilization. Fertilization can be effective if it adds a limiting element thus improving
tree growth. Improved tree growth may allow regeneration to out compete other vegetation or
more quickly outgrow herbivory problems. However, in some cases fertilization has actually
increased herbivory. Some new products on the market are claiming reduced herbivory because
of the presence of compounds which cause the regeneration to be less palatable.
2.53 - Additional Considerations
Successful site preparation depends on prescriptions that have considered physical and biological
factors for each specific site. Harvest methods and site-preparation activities have a major
environmental impact on any site. These activities must be matched to physical and biological
site factors to assure that selected tree species will successfully establish. These activities also
influence shrub and grass response in ways that are reasonably predictable. Often local
experienced silviculturists and technicians are the best source for information to improve
success. Knowledge of succession specific to habitat type is essential in order to evaluate
possible vegetation responses that will result from harvest activities and site preparation.
Treatments will affect all plants, not just trees. The vegetative response from these activities will
affect light, temperature, moisture, chemical, and physical conditions of the site. Consider
physical extremes that can sometimes occur and physiological tolerance of seedlings to
withstand these limits.
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1. Light. Know light requirements of desired species when considering treatment
alternatives. The amount and quality of light is related directly to the silviculture systems used.
The percent of residual canopy will affect quantity and quality of light, which affects amplitude
of air and soil temperature and photosynthetic capability of trees. Removing the overstory
canopy causes the most significant change in light; however, mid-story and understory
vegetation can also substantially affect light quality and quantity at ground level. Site
preparation techniques and timing have additional effects by changing density and distribution of
intermediate and understory plants. Poor regeneration will result if insufficient light is provided,
especially for early seral species. If faster-growing shrubs, such as hazel (Corylus sp.), striped
maple (Acer pensylvanicum L.) or raspberry (Rubus sp.) are not controlled, insufficient light for
regeneration of mid-tolerant species may result. Successful regeneration of desirable species can
also be negatively impacted by tree species that are less desirable for the site. Tree species
considered undesirable vary throughout the Eastern Region. Depending on the location within
the Eastern Region, the site, and the DSC, undesirable trees may include any or all of the
following species: aspen, red maple, sweet birch, dense thickets of American beech
seedlings/saplings, pin cherry, striped maple, and yellow birch. In some areas of the Eastern
Region, dense ground coverage of grasses, sedges, New York fern, sweet fern, or hayscented
fern also serves to severely limit establishment, survival, and growth of planted or naturally
developing seedlings
2. Temperature (air, surface, and soil). The amount of daytime heat gain versus
nighttime heat loss is related to canopy closure and understory vegetation. Site preparation
techniques and residual overstory density will affect temperature fluctuations. Temperature is
also affected by slope, aspect, ground cover, air drainage, and soil color. Site preparation
techniques can drastically influence temperature regimes by the amount and distribution of duff
and woody debris. Temperature extremes, particularly cold temperatures and freezing soils in
the Lake States and New England, can cause mortality of seedlings during the first growing
season.
Minimize potential for temperature extremes during site preparation activities. Extreme low
temperatures freeze plant tissue. Site preparation can modify thermal properties that produce
extreme temperatures by altering surface materials (such as litter, burned soil layer, or mineral
soil). Maintaining adequate debris will help maintain favorable thermal properties.
Harvest units should be designed so they do not create air drainage traps resulting in cold air or
frost pockets. Where cold air drainage is a problem, retain adequate overstory to reduce
temperature extremes or reforest with frost-tolerant species.
3. Moisture. Moisture variation across the Eastern Region is substantial. Regular
summer rains in the Northeast and the Ohio River region make moisture available through most
growing seasons. Dry spells during the growing season often cause stress on many forest types
in the Lake States especially on lighter soils. It is helpful to utilize site preparation methods that
effectively reduce vegetative competition.
In some habitat types, grasses, forbs, and shrubs may affect plantation or natural regeneration
success by competing for essential soil moisture. Some of the strongest competitors are beaked
hazel, raspberry, bracken fern, witch hazel, hay-scented fern, and New York fern. Aspen sprouts
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may also out-compete planted conifers. These species can fully exploit available soil moisture to
the exclusion of tree seedlings. Site preparation must sever the root collar and invert the plant to
expose and dry the root system, or otherwise kill the plant. Herbicide treatments can be very
effective in reducing competition from unwanted vegetation.
4. Nutrients. The nutrient base on forest sites is usually not important for initial seedling
establishment, but it is important for seedling growth and development throughout the rotation.
Nutrient depletion can result if the site preparation is done without consideration for nutrient
reserves. Many past practices that created excessive soil disturbance and removed the upper soil
horizons, litter layers, and coarse woody debris, depleted nutrient reserves.
Impacts to the nutrient base are especially important on shallow or sandy soils. Maintain woody
debris on the site at recommended levels to avoid critical nutrient losses. Excessive soil
disturbance, compaction, and severe burn treatments can significantly reduce growth capability
of forested sites. It is not essential to know exact nutrient levels for forest sites when planning
site preparation, but it is important to know the relative impacts that may be caused by these
activities.
5. Soil Structure. Soil structure may be affected by ground disturbing site preparation
activity. Shallow, wet, or high clay content soils are especially sensitive. Machine site
preparation may have limited capabilities on shallow soils. Machine site preparation can further
reduce soil depth, displace nutrients, and potentially mix soil horizons depending upon the
machine used. Site preparation through fertilization, chain saw cutting of undesirable stems, or
herbicide treatment normally have little effect on soil structure.
6. Duff and Litter. Duff and litter and the immediate soil horizon play a critical role in
nutrient cycling because most organic matter and nutrients are contained in this layer. Duff and
litter serve as a mulch to prevent or slow drying of soil. Micro flora/fauna and seed that occur in
this layer affect the total health of the ecosystem. However, duff and litter in planting holes
cause air pockets and prevent seedling root contact with the mineral soil. Excessive amounts of
duff and litter can limit natural regeneration. If this layer is too thick, it can act as a barrier to
germinating seeds.
7. Logging Debris. Cull logs, stumps, and other debris shelter seedlings from solar
radiation, frost, heat, wind, drifting ice and snow, and animal damage. This debris retains
organic matter for soil moisture and soil microorganisms. If site preparation or brush disposal
removes too much of this debris, the desired microclimate for seedlings may be reduced.
Excessive debris can make hand site preparation and planting difficult. The amount of woody
debris desired on each site varies by forest type, soil fertility, species needs, and forest plan
objectives.
8. Competing Vegetation. Prediction and control of lower vegetation layers are essential
elements in regeneration, development, and growth of forest trees. Reducing competing
vegetation will improve initial survival and growth of tree seedlings and improve long-term
performance.
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Prepare a site-specific analysis of existing and potential species composition to accurately assess
the vegetative response and its capability to meet specific objectives. Many species tend to
respond in predictable ways based on types. Develop treatment thresholds that, when reached,
will trigger a site preparation or release treatment.
Vegetation interactions on the site being regenerated can be very complex and in some instances
difficult to predict. As an example, raspberry can increase dramatically on some sites following
harvest. Seeds are stored in the soil. Several years of seed fall can lie buried awaiting the right
sequence of events for seed germination and plant development. Tree seed disseminated by wind
(sweet or yellow birch) may also blow in from outside the area and influence regeneration
development. Grasses and ferns may also increase dramatically. Undesirable tree species may be
released following removal of canopy and can quickly occupy a site and shade out other
desirable species. Striped maple, pin cherry, and grapevines are also strong competitors in parts
of the region.
Consider the following factors relative to vegetative competition:
a. Desired species’ shade tolerance and growth rate.
b. Kind and intensity of site treatment in terms of reducing competition.
c. Expected response of existing plant species to timber harvest and site preparation
treatment selected.
d. Potential reactions of buried and windblown seed to selected silvicultural
treatments.
e. Duration of potential competition in terms of height-age interactions of competing
species and tree seedlings.
f. Potential for animal damage.
g. Planned release treatments.
A prescription for site preparation must include an assessment of existing and potential tree,
shrub, vine, forb, and graminoid competition on the site. (Competitor, as defined here, refers to
potential competition with desired regeneration. All species compete for water and or light, but
competitors as defined here are plants that can cause moderate to major problems establishing
the desired species.)
2.6 - DISTRICT SEEDLING CARE, HANDLING AND STORAGE
A successful tree planting operation requires that many sequential steps be done correctly. The
foundation of success in these operations is quality seed and seedlings. Proper tree care from the
time seed is sown until the time it is planted is essential to success. Plantation failures can result
from a single major tree care error, or they may result from an accumulation of small insults to
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trees as they pass through the sequence of steps. The guides that follow emphasize basic
principles of tree care and storage.
2.61 - Receipt of Tree Seedlings
Proper tree care during shipping is critical for tree survival. Forest Service nurseries may
contract for tree shipping, ship in their own trucks, or require that the client pick up their trees at
the nursery. Regardless of who is responsible for shipping, inspect for proper tree care and
compliance with handling and temperature guidelines.
Follow these guidelines when accepting delivery of trees.
1. Handling of Tree Bags. Remove bags from the truck with care. Rough handling of
trees may result in a reduction of tree survival. This is especially important when handling
frozen stock. Frozen trees are full of ice crystals, and they are very brittle.
2. Inspection of Trees. Open a sample of the shipping containers and inspect trees upon
receipt. People responsible for care and receipt of trees must have a basic understanding of tree
quality standards. Refer to Section 2.4, Nursery Coordination, for regional standards for stock
quality. If possible, report stock not meeting quality standards immediately, but this can also be
done after trees are prepared for planting. Districts are not responsible for the cost of poorquality trees that do not meet specifications. Do not plant trees that do not meet specifications if
the failure to meet specifications will affect survival.
Report to the nursery and to the Regional Silviculturist if trees do not meet specifications or
shipping was not done properly. Notify the Contracting Officer immediately if contract
violations occur. At the forest level, notify the forest stock coordinator or Forest Silviculturist of
poor quality stock. Contact the nursery directly if the stock coordinator is unavailable. Inspect
for the following upon receipt:
a. Temperature problems (too warm or too cold). (See sections below.)
b. Torn or damaged packages.
c. Incorrect District and seedlot numbers.
d. Mold or sour odors.
e. Incorrect number of trees.
Additionally, during tree planting, check stock quality: (See sections below.)
a. Root lengths and root dormancy violations.
b. Height and caliper standard violations.
c. Lammas growth and top dormancy violations.
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d. Incorrect number of trees.
e. Dry trees, especially roots or plugs.
f. Excessive mud on bare root seedling roots or in the bags.
g. Other grading standards not met: damaged roots, stems or buds.
h. Mold or sour odors.
3. Temperature of Delivered Tree Seedlings. Assure proper temperatures of the
delivered stock. The desired temperature may vary with the stock type and season of delivery.
a. Spring Delivered Trees. Both bareroot stock and container stock are delivered in
the spring. The temperature inside the tree bag should be 33 to 35 degrees Fahrenheit
and not exceed 36 degrees Fahrenheit at any time during shipment. This is
imperative since heat may begin to initiate respiration of trees inside the shipping
containers. This will further stimulate trees and any microbial activity in the bags.
Once these processes start, they may increase at an exponential rate and be difficult to
stop. Remember that stock injury is accumulative. Seedlings do not fully recover.
Poor storage and handling at any step in the sequence of events can result in dead
seedlings and failed plantings. District coolers should be set and maintained at
between 33 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit for bareroot stock and longterm storage of
container stock. Set them between 34 to 38 degrees Fahrenheit for short-term storage
of container stock. Test a sample of the containers on the load at delivery using soil
probe type or digital electronic probe thermometers. Probe thermometers 12 inches
in length have been used successfully. Insert thermometers into the center and leave
for 2 to 3 minutes or until temperature stabilizes with temperature inside the
container. Test sample throughout the load, including from the top of the load.
Usually 5 to 10 containers will give an adequate sample. If warm temperatures are
found, take additional samples to ascertain the problem fully. Prior to use, calibrate
the thermometer for accuracy by checking it against a good mercury thermometer or
placing it in a glass of ice water (32 degrees Fahrenheit, 0 degrees Celsius). Several
thermometers should be on hand as they need to be replaced periodically.
Contact the nursery and the Regional Silviculturist if there are any questions or
concerns about temperatures of delivered trees.
b. Summer and Fall Delivered Trees - Container Stock. Stock is ordered for delivery
just prior to planting and will not tolerate long-term storage. The temperature of
delivered trees is not as critical as for spring-delivered trees. Container stock should
be conditioned (acclimated) by keeping it in a shade house after leaving the
greenhouse and before planting. Plant trees within 3 to 10 days of delivery for
summer planting and within about 2 weeks for fall planting. Temperatures of arriving
trees to be planted in the summer or fall should be 38 to 42 degrees Fahrenheit.
Follow the same bag sampling schemes as for spring-delivered trees. Contact the
nursery if trees are frozen, if they exceed 45 degrees Fahrenheit on arrival, or if other
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problems are detected. If they are too warm, place them in the cooler until the
temperature is reduced to desired levels.
c. Summer and Fall Delivered Trees – Bareroot. Fall bareroot stock is also typically
“hot planted” within a few days of lifting and not stored at cold temperatures. The
intent is to plant the trees while soil temperatures are high enough to promote root
growth prior to winter dormancy. Use the same storage regime as fall planted
container stock.
4. Assessing Stock Quality. When checking for stock quality, refer also to planting stock
standards in Section 2.4, Nursery Coordination. Provide the nursery with information on the
quality of delivered stock. The Stock Quality Assessment Form, FS-2470-21, can be used to
document condition (see 2.51 - Exhibit 01) or a message sent to the Nursery specifically stating
the problems. Be sure to include the seed lot number, pack number, and pack date from the bag
label to aid the nursery in determining specific problems. Check the following tree quality items:
a. Bareroot Stock:
(1) Root Length. Check root lengths to see if standards are met. At least 94
percent of trees in the lot (or the percentage stated in the contract) should meet the
specified standards listed unless otherwise modified by prior agreement between
the district and the nursery.
(2) Live Roots. Check roots by stripping outer layers of bark with a pocketknife
or fingernail to expose the cambial tissue. This tissue is white in healthy roots
and brown to yellow-tan in dead roots. Samples should be taken from the top,
center, and bottom of the bag. It is normal for some roots to have died back a
quarter of an inch or less from the cut ends. However, if more than 15 to 25
percent of the roots are dead more than one-half of an inch back, there is reason
for concern. Seek advice from the nursery or the Regional Silviculturist on the
quality of the trees.
(3) Root Dormancy. For spring planted stock, check roots for elongation of new
white root tips. A dormant root system will have little, if any, new elongating
white growing tips. If new root tips are longer than a quarter of an inch on more
than just an occasional root, the trees have broken dormancy prior to receipt.
Trees with appreciable new root growth prior to planting have a risk of reduced
survival, except on moist sites. However, new root tips should be short and few
in numbers. For “hot planting” of bareroot stock in the fall, new root growth
should be visible as the trees were lifted during the fall root growth period.
Dormant trees planted in the fall may suffer from winter desiccation (top drying
or “burning”) or frost heaving if not adequately covered by snow as they have not
extended new roots into the soil and cannot adequately take up moisture.
(4) Top Caliper and Height. Nursery cull standards for both top height and stem
diameter are listed under Nursery Standards and Size Specifications. (Reference
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2.45 - Exhibit 01). Unless agreed otherwise, at least 94% (or as stated in the
contract) of the stock packed should meet this standard.
(5) Color. Foliage of healthy conifer stock is various shades of green, however,
the shade can also be misleading. Yellow-green or gray-green tints are normal in
dormant stock but can also be a sign of a problem. If the off color is accompanied
with other signs, such as dryness or discoloration of the cambial tissue of stems or
roots, there is a problem.
(6) General Tree Health. Check for the following conditions if there is reason to
suspect tree problems.
(a) Root and Stem Cambium. Peel back exterior bark of roots and stems
to check the cambial tissue. The cambium underneath should be
glistening white. If it is brown, yellow, or creamy brown, trees have been
damaged by freezing, poor storage, or fungal attack. This may also be an
indication of frost damage prior to packing.
(b) Buds. Slicing buds vertically should reveal green healthy internal
tissue. Brown, black, or yellowish internal tissue in buds is a definite sign
that the bud is damaged. If just the terminal bud has been damaged, trees
are still plantable. If other buds are also damaged, the stock should be
destroyed.
(c) Needles. Dry or wilted foliage are signs of stress or damage. Needles
that fall off when brushed are dead. Pine needles that easily break when
bent are also dead, unless they are frozen.
(d) Plant Moisture Stress. Pressure bomb readings are a good measure of
stress on nondormant trees, although this is not required. If used, sample
trees across the load. Readings exceeding 15 atmospheres may indicate a
problem. Contact the nursery for assistance.
(7) Lammas Growth. Lammas growth is the abnormal late season growth of
terminals or buds. It can occur on all species, however, it tends to create
problems in pines. The late growth is often succulent and not hardened off
properly. Trees in this condition may not be fully dormant and will not store well.
There are three classes of lammas growth concerns:
(a) Lammas shoots develop when the current year’s terminal bud bursts and
elongates. This will result in 2-0 stock having the appearance of 3-0 with the last
growth whorl in varying degrees of hardening off, some of which may not be cold
hardy.
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(b) Long buds are the current year’s terminal buds which have elongated with no
corresponding bud burst. Elongation may be from 0.25 to 5 inches. The result is
often a long, skimpy, succulent terminal with a soft, unhardy terminal bud.
(c) Proleptic shoots emerge from current year's lateral buds with the terminal bud
remaining dormant.
While these classes are clearly defined, lammas growth will vary in gradation, and
some tree lots will exhibit growth that is a mixture of classes. The nursery should
cull lammas shoots with succulent green stem growth and soft buds. Report to the
nursery if more than 10% of the tree lot (or as specified in the contract) are
included in shipment. Do not plant trees with lammas growth longer than 3
inches or if soft buds are present.
(8) Top Dormancy. Loss of top dormancy is exhibited by “candle” elongation or
bud swelling. With pines, it is often hard to distinguish candle elongation in the
packing bag from elongation that occurred previously in the nursery bed. One
way is to look at curvature of the candle. Pine candles that are curved upward in
the bag or curled in loops (extreme situation) have broken dormancy in storage.
As buds and candles break dormancy, they also soften and turn green. A slight
curvature is allowable, but the greater the curvature, the greater potential for
problems. If buds or candles are curled, the trees should be destroyed. Once
green needles appear, trees should be destroyed. Root condition (live or dead)
should be closely checked in lots that are breaking dormancy.
(9) Dry Roots. Roots should feel moist to the touch. Roots that feel dry to the
touch may be damaged. If dry roots are suspected, check cambium condition by
peeling bark with your fingernail or a knife. If the tissue inside is white and has
moisture down to within a quarter of an inch of the end of the root, trees are in an
acceptable condition. Wrapping trees in polypropylene or similar towels and
dipping roots in water can also be used to evaluate root health. Usually, within 12
hours, healthy trees will take up water, and moisture can be observed in the
cambial tissue of the cut roots and stem.
(10) Mold or Fungus Mycelium. Check for presence of visible mycelium.
Presence of visible mycelium (white or black threads or strands of fungal tissue)
may be cause for some concern. However, most molds on roots are either
saprophytic (living on dead substances) or mycorrhizal (symbiotic). Mats of
mycelium on foliage are a major concern. If dead or dying trees are packed in the
bag, mold will often spread rapidly from these trees into healthy adjacent trees.
Fungi associated with strong odors, brown cambial tissues in roots or stem, or
spotting of needles are a problem. Keep tree bags with developing mold as close
to freezing as possible. Fine strands of mycelium on foliage or tufts in the roots
without other symptoms are not usually harmful. When in question, request help
from the nursery, reforestation specialist, or forest pathologist.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: August 29, 2008
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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(11) Mud or Dirt in Bags. Trees packed in bags should be relatively clean.
Excess mud and dirt, especially on foliage, will promote fungal problems and
foliage discoloration. Muddy trees are also an indication of lifting in soils that are
too wet. This can result in excessive root damage that results in tree mortality.
(12) Tree Count. For private and state nursery contracts, it is desirable to count
tree seedlings in at least 2 percent of the bags to insure proper payment. Excessive
tree numbers also create problems with contract planting crews.
b. Container Stock.
(1) Adequate Root Mass. Root mass should be developed to the point where the
plug can be extracted from the container and still retain its original form.
Excessive root development (pot binding) is not acceptable. To check this, shake
the plug until medium pulls away from roots. Most of the roots should be
pointing downward with the exception of smaller lateral horizontal roots. Larger
roots should not be circling or spiraling around the plug. The tree is suffering
from pot binding if there are large horizontal roots that are spiraling, or if the
roots stay in a thick net (the shape of the original plug). Often pot bound trees
will not develop into a normal tree.
(2) Root Media Moisture. Roots and plugs should generally be moist, however,
spring delivered dormant stock may be frozen or relatively dry.
(3) Live Roots. Check roots for live tissue using the same technique as described
for bareroot stock. If container stock is pulled from the containers prior to
shipping, root plugs must remain intact.
(4) Top Caliper and Height. Ensure top height and caliper meet contract or
nursery standards. Refer to Section 2.4, Nursery Coordination.
(5) Sturdy, Standing, and Erect. Individual trees must be capable of standing
erect without support.
(6) Top Dormancy. Spring and fall stock can be dormant. Summer stock will
not be dormant.
(7) Color. Color standards described for bareroot stock are applicable to
container stock also.
(8) Mold. Any signs of strands or threads of mycelium on tree foliage or buds
should be noted. Light mold is generally correctable by proper handling at the
district. Heavy mold in foliage should be reported immediately.
(9) General Health. Check for general seedling health. Use guidelines described
for bareroot stock.
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EFFECTIVE DATE: August 29, 2008
DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.
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2.51 - Exhibit 01
Stock Quality Assessment Form
USDA – Forest Service
STOCK QUALITY ASSESSMENT FORM
(Ref. FSH 2409.17)
FOREST
DISTRICT
SEED LOT NO.
PACK NO.
PACK DATE
BAREROOT STOCK
94% OF TREES MEET STANDARD STANDARD
STANDARD
ROOTS
YES
NO
94% OF TREES MEET STANDARD
TOPS
YES
1. Length
4. Caliper
2. Live
5. Color
3. Dormant
6. No Lammas Growth
7. Dormant
8. Height
BAREROOT PACKAGING
12. Temperature
9. Packing Material &
Roots Moist
10. Mold Absent
13. Tree Counts
11. Trees Free of
Excess Mud
14. Package Free
of Damage
CONTAINER STOCK
ROOTS
1. Root Mass Adequate
4. Caliper
TOPS
2. Media Moist
5. Sturdy
3. Live
6 Dormant
7. Color
8. Mold Absent
9. Height
CONTAINER PACKAGING
10. Temperature
11. Tree Count
12. Package Free of
Damage
NARRATIVE (Comments and reasons standards were not met).
Name & Signature
Date
NO
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2.62 - Tree Seedling Storage
The purpose of tree storage at the ranger district facility is to keep the trees in a healthy condition
from the time of receipt until planted.
1. Principles. It is essential to keep the seedlings in optimum conditions so that they
maintain normal physiological and phonological functions. Proper tree storage will keep the
tree's physiological activity to a minimum. Spring-delivered stock should be kept as dormant as
possible. Keep temperatures low in long-term cooler storage to prevent heat build up to
minimize tree respiration and minimize the activity of microorganisms, especially fungi. Coolers
should be started and maintained well before they are needed to ensure they are working
properly when the stock arrives. Tree coolers must be in good operating condition must be
properly calibrated, and monitored daily to ensure proper temperatures and humidity are
maintained. Use of thermographs is fully justified to monitor temperatures in coolers.
Trees need air movement to reduce heat buildup. Provide space between bags for adequate
airflow to permit removal of heat, carbon dioxide and other gases that build up from respiration.
The rate at which heat and gases are created is minimal at 33 to 35 degrees Fahrenheit, but it
begins to increase slowly at 36 degrees Fahrenheit and exponentially around 40 degrees
Fahrenheit. If air space is not provided, tree packages can warm rapidly even when ambient
storage temperatures are ideal. Leave 3 to 4 inches between bags initially so that at least 1 inch
of space is maintained between bags after settling.
2. Storage by Stock Type and Season of Planting. Stock storage requirements vary with
the type of stock being planted and the season it is planted.
a. Bareroot Stock (spring planting only). Successful bareroot planting is dependent
upon trees being lifted from the nursery bed while they are dormant and keeping them
dormant until planting in the spring. Nurseries must wait until trees are dormant in
the fall to initiate lifting, or lift trees as soon as possible in the spring before trees
break dormancy. Fall lifting is desirable provided adequate time exists between tree
dormancy and early winter weather, adequate storage is available, and past spring
planting of fall lifted stock has proven successful.
(1) Fall-Lifted Trees. Trees are lifted in the fall when they have reached a level
of dormancy that allows them to be properly stored. The inside bag temperature
of trees is maintained at 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit. Conifers in full dormancy
and fully hardened can withstand very low temperatures, but since the degree of
hardening cannot be guaranteed, storage temperatures should not drop below 26
degrees Fahrenheit. Usually, coolers set at 32 Fahrenheit will maintain good
storage. Trees will be packaged in a bag to prevent drying.
(2). Spring-Lifted Trees. Spring-lifted trees are shipped to districts a few weeks
after lifting. When these trees are lifted, they are in the process of initiating
physiological activity. They must be kept as cold as possible without freezing
them. Temperatures inside the tree bag must be maintained between 33 and 34
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degrees Fahrenheit but not exceeding 36 degrees Fahrenheit. With pines, it is best
to be as close to 33 degrees Fahrenheit as possible. These storage temperatures
may result in some ice crystals in the bag; but as long as trees are not frozen
below 30 degrees Fahrenheit they will not be damaged.
b. Bareroot Stock (fall planting only). Successful fall planting of bareroot stock is
dependent upon trees being lifted after top growth has stopped but while root growth
is still taking place.
(1) Fall Planting (“hot planting”). Fall planting is done in a short planting
window and requires very short storage. Plant trees promptly after receipt.
Storage can be done either at local coolers or at planting sites. Request multiple
deliveries to minimize storage time.
If trees are held more than 7 to 10 days, the initial growth benefit of fall planting
will begin to decline. Trees for fall planting are not conditioned for long storage
periods. These trees are very active physiologically and have active root growth.
Because of the short planting window and variable conditions, fall planting is
often risky.
(a) District (Local) Coolers. Storage at cold temperatures tends to retard
initial growth, as the seedlings will react by initiating fall dormancy. Fall
planting needs to be rapid to allow continued root growth and take
advantage of the remaining warm soil temperatures. Prolonged storage can
cause problems with the stock and reduce field survival. Set cooler
temperature to maintain inside tree bag temperatures at 38 to 42 degrees
Fahrenheit. Temperatures above 42 degrees Fahrenheit will stimulate
respiration, mold, and gas build up in the closed bags. Although trees can
take temperatures below 35 degrees, it is critical not to freeze them as new
root tips are easily damaged by freezing. Since the goal is to achieve
some root growth before winter dormancy, it is not desirable to cool the
trees and possibly retard potential root development. Properly set and
monitor coolers to maintain a low risk of freezing. High humidity levels
in coolers are desirable but not required due to the short storage time.
(b) Planting Site Storage. Trees should be stored in sheltered areas not
exposed directly to sun or wind. Leave bags sealed to maintain 100%
humidity. Cover tree bags with space blankets, or similar coverings, to
protect seedlings. Cover bags and select a suitable storage site to
minimize possible animal damage.
(2) Late Fall Planting. Late fall planting stock is also designed for short storage
regimes. The best planting time is between October and early November. By this
time the stock has completed its top growth and is entering the fall hardening off
phase. Some root growth may occur if stock is planted early. If planted late, the
planting site should have winter snow cover to protect the trees. Trees will resume
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growth the following spring. Utilize coolers or on-site storage as described. Plant
trees stored on site as soon as possible after delivery.
c. Container Trees. Container trees can be planted during spring, summer, and fall
planting windows. Container stock is more tolerant of temperature variations than
bareroot stock. Care must still be exercised not to stress stock during the planting
process. Stock should be kept in the shade and away from drying winds, moisture
stress, and freezing.
3. Tree Storage Coolers. For long-term storage of tree seedlings, refrigerated storage
units must maintain product temperatures of 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit and relative humidity of
over 95 percent. Specially designed tree storage cooler units are normally required. Ordinary
coolers are not acceptable for long-term stock storage due to long defrost cycles.
For short-term storage, refrigerated trucks, grocery, meat, or beverage coolers can be used. To
keep the storage period short, trees should be left at the nursery until right before planting starts
and should be stored 7 to 10 days at the most. Use of these coolers for short-term storage is
discussed in Storage Options, Section 2.65.
Some older refrigeration units can be modified to meet storage requirements by adjusting the
defrost system (hot air defrost) and providing a means to manipulate humidity. An experienced
refrigeration maintenance firm should make these adjustments.
a. Maintenance of Tree Coolers. Refrigerated tree coolers represent a substantial
initial investment. Proper maintenance is necessary to maintain its designed
capability. Qualified service representatives recommended by the manufacturer
should perform maintenance. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for
operation, start-up, and shutdown. Start coolers well before trees arrive to check
cooler operation and get temperatures regulated to desired levels.
b. Monitoring Storage Conditions. Monitor coolers frequently to ensure proper
temperatures are maintained and to prevent unintentional freezing or thawing of
seedlings. Some coolers have warnings devices such as alarms, telephone calls, and
flashing lights that indicate the cooler is not operating properly. Do not rely solely on
these devices. Assign a person to monitor the cooler at least twice daily when trees
are in storage. The use of hygrothermographs is appropriate for monitoring cooler
operating conditions.
c. Temperature. Monitor ambient air temperature and inside bag temperature. To
determine the inside bag temperature, use a probe thermometer with either a digital
readout or circular dial. Use a probe that is at least 12 inches long so it can reach to
the center of the bag. Measure temperature of bags in various parts of the cooler.
Measure ambient air temperature in various locations as well.
Calibrate the thermometer so that it reads 32 degrees Fahrenheit when inserted into a
container of water packed with ice. Some digital thermometers operate within a
certain temperature range and should not be left in the coolers. If the digital read out
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unit gets too cold, it will give false readings. They should be calibrated occasionally
throughout the season.
d. Relative Humidity. Relative humidity is primarily a concern with long-term
storage if trees are not in sealed poly-lined bags. If seedlings are exposed to ambient
airflow, relative humidity should be at least 95 percent for long-term storage. The
nursery should package trees to provide reasonable moisture barriers. Low humidity
will cause trees to become desiccated as moisture evaporates even through moisture
barriers. Use sling psychrometers or hygrometers with digital readouts to monitor
humidity.
Check relative humidity of the cooler when it is empty to identify its initial capability.
Simply putting trees in a cooler can increase humidity in the ambient environment
because of moisture coming from trees. A general slow decline in humidity is an
indication that moisture is being lost and needs to be replaced. Humidity can also be
maintained by keeping wet sawdust on cooler floors.
e. Hygrothermographs. Hygrothermographs are used to measure and record
temperature and humidity over a period of time. Recalibrate and maintain these
instruments annually to assure accuracy.
4. Stock Temperatures. For over-winter or long-term storage keep trees at 32 to 34
degrees Fahrenheit. Do not allow trees to freeze and do not allow temperatures to exceed 36
degrees. Stock can be severely damaged if allowed to freeze depending on the physiological
condition of the stock at the time of freezing. Stock lifted in late fall or early in the spring and
kept cold has a high probability of being dormant and relatively inactive physiologically. This
stock may not suffer damage if frozen. However, stock lifted later in the spring or stock exposed
to higher temperature during storage may have begun breaking dormancy. This stock has a high
probability of damage if frozen. Since it is not possible to know the exact condition of trees, it is
critical to assure stock does not freeze. Remember that the affects of mishandling stock
accumulate. Temperature variations, drying, and rough handling can all lead to seedling losses
and planting failures.
2.63 - Tree Care from Storage to Planting
During all aspects of tree handling, keep seedlings cool and roots relatively moist. Root hairs
can be damaged in minutes by exposure to wind and low humidity. Temperatures over 36
degrees Fahrenheit will increase respiration and cause depletion of food reserves. High
temperatures can also result in accumulation of gases in tree bags. These gases can damage trees
severely and are a particular problem in pines that are coming out of dormancy. Trees damaged
or killed in this manner cannot be easily distinguished from healthy trees.
1. Thawing Frozen Stock. Frozen trees are brittle and will be damaged easily. Handle
bags carefully to avoid damage. Do not handle trees before they are properly thawed. Follow
these practices when thawing trees:
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a. Handle seedlings very carefully. They are full of ice crystals and very brittle.
Never attempt to separate frozen trees or bundles. Handle tree bags with care. Rough
treatment can cause damage to the seedlings.
b. Let bundles thaw slowly at cool temperatures between 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit
with good air circulation but in an area protected from wind and direct sunlight.
Thawing time will vary depending on several variables. Allow sufficient time for
thawing.
c. Never place trees in warm water to thaw.
d. Once thawed, handle as unfrozen stock. Reset cooler temperatures and maintain
optimum temperatures.
e. If it is necessary to handle both frozen and thawed stock in the district cooler,
frozen stock should be removed by taking individual bags or groups of bags from the
cooler. The frozen stock should be taken to a relatively cool storage area and allowed
to thaw slowly. Inside storage areas, such as sheds or warehouses, where temperature
ranges are generally 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit are ideal. If outside areas are used,
space blankets or tarps should be used to protect the trees from nighttime low
temperatures. Never allow tree bags to be exposed to direct sunlight. Thawing trees
rapidly is not advisable. Be aware that if inside bag temperatures rise above 36
degrees Fahrenheit for more than a few hours, molds may develop rapidly. It is best
to keep them in the 33 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit range.
2. Bareroot Tree Preparation for Planting. Handle seedlings as little as possible
especially during the early spring when seedlings will likely be exposed to freezing nighttime
temperatures. During this time of year, daytime high temperatures are commonly below 35
degrees Fahrenheit for extended periods, and warm temperatures are reached for only a few
hours in the afternoons. Soil temperatures do not warm appreciably in these conditions.
Remove trees from storage bags at a sheltered tree station near the planting site. Do not shake
soil from the roots, and mist with a fine spray of water if the roots are not moist. Root dipping of
small bundles of trees may be required to apply certain compounds but is not the preferred
method to moisten roots. Place the trees immediately in insulated planting bags ready for
planting. Ensure all roots are moist. Do not allow planters to carry too many trees, as they will
dry out if kept in bags for long periods of time. Regulate the number of trees based on the
temperature and humidity conditions on site.
3. Root Pruning. Root systems are pruned at the nurseries according to specifications.
Report stock not meeting pruning specifications to the nursery and the forest silviculturist.
Root pruning at the District is not recommended. If, in a rare case, pruning at the District is
needed, it should be coordinated with the nursery and done in the cooler or other location where
temperature and humidity are controlled. Any pruning must be done before transport to the field;
it is never done at the time of planting. Scissors or paper cutters are recommended for root
pruning while trees are laid on a table. Long laterals may be snipped off at this time, but major
alterations of the root system should be avoided. Pruning taproots is not desirable.
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Pruning just prior to planting can be detrimental because root ends do not have time to heal
(callus) over and to generate new growing centers prior to planting. Late or improper pruning of
tree roots can cause tree mortality. Long lateral root ends can be placed in the bottom of the
planting hole without compromising future tree development.
4. Transport of Trees. Trees in unopened bags should be transported in canopied trucks,
closed trailers, or vans. They can also be transported in open pickup beds providing they are
well covered with white or reflective tarps. Do not expose tree bags to wind or direct sunlight.
5. Tree Care While Planting.
a. Keep bags in shade. Cover bags at all times to keep them cool using reflective
tarps (shiny side down) such as space blanket type tarps. Stacked bags of trees shall
be separated to provide free air movement between bags. Punctured or torn
containers must be promptly resealed. Have a roll of duct or masking tape available.
b. Planting bags for bareroot stock must have a minimum depth of 15 inches. Canvas
bags with a silver colored reflective material on the outside and an inside
compartment of neoprene and drain holes are preferred. This should be specified in
the contract.
c. Seedlings, whether individual, in bundles, or bags, must be protected at all times
from drying, heating, smothering, freezing, crushing, drowning, abrasion, rapid
temperature fluctuations, or contact with injurious substances.
d. Do not remove trees from shipping containers until they are to be placed in
planting bags. If water has accumulated in the bag, it must be emptied before being
filled with seedlings.
e. Plant tree seedlings without further root or top pruning, or culling. If pruning or
culling appears necessary, or if mold, dry roots, evidence of injury, or dying is seen,
the condition shall immediately be reported to the contracting officer or the planting
foreman.
f. Trees in planting bags shall have only their tops exposed.
g. Do not remove a tree from the planting bag until the planting hole has been opened.
h. Remove seedlings gently from planting bag, one at a time, to prevent root stripping
or other injury, and quickly and gently insert it in the planting hole.
i. Seedlings carried in planting bags shall not exceed the amount that can be carried
and removed without injury, or which can be planted before critical heating or drying
occurs. Once trees are placed in bags they must be planted and not returned to
storage.
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j. Container trees are extracted from tubes or blocks in which they are grown and
placed in plastic bags for shipment. Each bag contains a set number of trees, usually
25 to 30 trees per bag depending on the grower. Some growers may wrap trees in
plastic wrap rather than bags. Spring-shipped trees may be frozen. They must be
thawed prior to planting.
k. Bagged trees go directly to the planting bags. Place trees vertically, with tops up,
in planting bags. Do not overload planting bags. Do not double stack seedlings in
planting bags, even if tops are only 6 to 8 inches high.
l. Fall-delivered trees should be planted as promptly as feasible, as they are not
conditioned for storage.
6. Weather and Soil Hazards During the Planting Operation. This section contains
detailed guidelines for planting in harsh weather conditions.
a. Cold Air Temperature Hazards.
(1) Spring Planting. Do not begin planting until the probability of severe cold
events has lessened to avoid freeze damage. Most planting windows in the
northern portion of the Region are not open until after mid-April. For the
southern tier forests, the planting window opens by March. . Monitor the weather
forecast once planting has started. Plan to suspend planting on days when
extreme cold events such as Canadian air masses are expected to move in.
Most problems are caused by extended periods of cold when temperatures are in
the lower teens and twenties. Early morning frost is rarely a factor but wind can
increase the risk of seedling damage. Plant when trees are still dormant since
dormant trees will withstand cold temperatures better.
Do not plant during freezing temperatures, and do not expose roots to freezing
temperatures during planting.
Experience has shown that planting too early in the season can result in high
seedling mortality. Low soil temperatures inhibit root growth and water uptake.
Do not plant when there is still a chance of killing frost or when soil temperatures
are below 42 degrees Fahrenheit at 3 inches depth. Trees packed in bags have
high moisture content in the stems and needles. In freezing conditions, the water
in the plant tissues freezes, killing the tissues.
(2) Fall Planting Bareroot. Fall planting is not recommended in the northern
forests. For southern-tier forests freezing temperatures during the fall planting
season, especially at night, may be a problem. Fall stock is not frost hardy. Trees
stored on site must be protected from severe freezing as new root tips are easily
damaged. Do not start planting after the chances of hard frost has begun.
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(3) Fall Planting Container. Fall-planted container stock is subject to frost
damage when planted later in the season. On northern forests, frost heave is a
major concern. Container planting should be limited to late summer or early fall
to allow root growth prior to soils freezing.
Trees planted from late August through mid-September on northern forests and by
mid-October on southern forests are able to harden off normally as days shorten
and night temperatures decline. By mid-November, these trees become cold
hardy and can withstand temperatures well below freezing. If severe cold (teens
to low twenties) weather is forecast, delay planting until low temperatures are
expected to rise to normal fall temperatures. The moisture content of
containerized trees coming out of the cooler will often be high. It will take a few
days on the site for trees to lose the high moisture content and become more
resistant to freezing.
b. Frozen or Cold Soils. Trees cannot be properly planted in frozen soils. It creates
problems in opening the planting hole and filling it properly. Suspend planting
operations if soils are frozen more than an inch deep. Do not plant if soils are below
42 degrees Fahrenheit at rooting depth. Adequate soil temperatures are needed for
seedlings to continue root growth and absorb soil moisture.
c. Drying Winds. Winds can damage trees by drying roots and tops. Watch seedlings
closely for signs of soil or root drying. Consider suspending operations if tree roots
are drying between the planting bag and planting hole, or if soils are drying before the
hole can be closed.
Warm winds can desiccate trees that have open stomata, typical of trees just removed
from the planting bag. Consider suspending planting operations if there are warm
drying winds and temperatures exceed 75 degrees Fahrenheit.
d. Dry Soils. Sufficient soil moisture is needed so the planting hole can be properly
opened and closed. Base the decision to plant on soil condition and experience of
local moisture patterns and planting windows. For example, if soils are dry and no
rain is forecast, planting may not be appropriate. During normal precipitation years,
dry soils are typically not an issue in the Region.
Seasonal moisture expectations dictate planting strategies during the fall planting
season. Trees are becoming dormant and their moisture needs are declining as the
season progresses. Also, trees with less water content will be less prone to freeze
damage. Trees planted in early fall will need more soil moisture than those planted in
late fall. Planting too late in the fall however, can result in cold damage to trees that
are not properly conditioned for freezing temperatures.
e. Snow-Covered Sites. Snow can make finding planting spots difficult. If planters
cannot find planting spots, stop planting until the snow melts enough that planting
spots can be detected. On some sites only an inch or two of snow can make planting
spots difficult to find.
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f. Warm Temperatures. Warm temperatures alone may not be extremely harmful,
however, there are cases when heat may be a concern. Consider planting in early
hours and late evening on very warm days. Consider compounding factors
particularly wind. Moderately warm temperatures coupled with drying winds are
extremely stressful to trees.
g. Water-Saturated Soils. Trees planted in waterlogged soils will suffocate and die.
Tree roots must have air to function. Saturated soils also affect the ability to plant,
especially in high clay or silt content soils. Soils must be well drained enough to
properly open and close a hole for successful planting. Often soils too wet to plant
immediately after snowmelt or heavy rains are plantable a few days or a week later.
On very wet sites, it may be necessary to change the stock type or season. For
example, in spruce bottoms that are so waterlogged they can only be planted with
summer and fall container stock.
7. Trees Left Over at End of Planting Day. Avoid having leftover trees by limiting trees
delivered each day. However, when trees are left over at the end of the planting day, consider
the physiological condition of trees. If they are still dormant, and bag temperatures are low,
these trees may be retained and returned to the tree cooler or appropriate storage area. However,
discard trees if they have warmed or are becoming physiologically active. Do not return any
trees that have been in planting bags. Also consider the availability of stock and how long before
trees will be needed in making the decision for returning stock to coolers. If there is a shortage
of trees, there may be a need to take more risks in holding over trees than if there is tree excess.
Caution should be used when disposing of spoiled stock to avoid adverse public relations.
The next working day, plant those trees first that were excess to the previous day’s needs that
had been returned to storage.
2.64 - Testing for Spoiled or Damaged Trees
Exclusive of visual cues, there is no precise method for evaluating seedling quality. If spoiled or
damaged trees are suspected, request nursery assistance or conduct field tests. Quality dormant
stock can sometimes look off-color or have small damage but still be plantable with high
survival potential. A thorough evaluation is sometimes necessary.
1. Seedling Quality Tests at the Nursery. Nurseries have traditionally used
morphological characteristics, health indicators, dormancy, and moisture stress to evaluate
seedling stock. Some nurseries can test trees for cold hardiness, root growth potential, and
stress. If the nursery has the capability for these tests, contact them for directions on how to
submit a sample for testing if there are suspect seedlings.
2. Pot Tests. There are relatively simple procedures that can be used as indicators of
seedling quality. A simple potting test can be used at the District. Plant seedlings in plastic pots
or constructed wooden bins. Forest soil is suitable for the potting medium.
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Place pots either inside or outdoors where seedlings will receive at least a half-day of full sun.
Place pots where they are not influenced by pavement or other artificial factors. Winter tests
have to be conducted inside with about 8 to 10 hours of lighting; but once the weather warms in
spring, pots can be placed outside during the day and brought in at night if a severe freeze is
expected. Water trees as needed. Results of the test are expressed in live or dead condition, bud
flush, and root growth. This test is somewhat crude, but it can indicate the ability of stock to
flush and/or grow roots. It takes several weeks to see results, which is a limitation of this test.
2.65 – Storage Options
1. Other Refrigeration Units. Refrigeration units not specifically designed for tree
storage may be used for short-term storage (up to 4 weeks). Some types of refrigerated coolers
include beverage coolers, meat coolers, fruit storage facilities, and refrigerated semitrailer. Use
these units only for short-term storage because it is difficult to maintain appropriate temperatures
and high relative humidity with these units. Most refrigeration units are not designed to operate
at low temperatures (33 to 34 degrees) and high humidity (above 95 percent). The cooling coils
typically will ice up with resulting wide fluctuations in temperature. Temperature fluctuations
cause trees to break dormancy and create moisture condensation problems, both of which
stimulate development of microorganisms. The increase in biological activity increases heat and
toxic gases in the tree bags. Improper refrigeration will result in tree mortality.
Use only units that have temperature adjustments and monitor them frequently. Temperatures
should be as close to 34 degrees as possible and fluctuation in temperatures avoided.
If fruit storage facilities are used, keep trees separate from fruit and any respiration retardants
used to preserve fruit. Chemicals released by ripening fruit can increase tree growth, but some
chemicals can kill trees.
During short-term storage, maintaining high humidity is not a concern providing the bags are
closed and sealed. Check bags for damage and repair as needed. Air space is required between
bags to allow for heat removal from the individual packages.
Keep all short-term storage time as short as possible. Leave trees at the nursery as long as
possible, or arrange for multiple shipments to reduce storage time.
2.7 - TREE PLANTING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
Tree planting tools and the planting techniques presented in this section are designed to assure
successful plantations. It is assumed that the trees are being planted according to a silvicultural
prescription, and that seed source, species, and successional requirements have been met.
2.71 - Planting Spot Selection - Microsites
Planting in favorable microsites created by down logs, stumps, or slash, protects seedlings from
potentially harmful conditions and improves the probability of survival. This is especially true in
areas of extreme winds or south facing slopes. To take advantage of microsites, planting crews
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may need to be allowed to adjust the spacing requirements to fit on the ground conditions.
Silviculturists must evaluate local site conditions to assure that adequate microsites are available
to protect stock that will be planted.
1. Wind Exposure. Full exposure to wind can cause seedling desiccation during draught
conditions. Winter winds that blow snow and ice can cause damage to tree seedlings, especially
container-grown stock.
2. Sun Exposure. Direct exposure to full sunlight can cause excessive heat and drying
causing seedling stress.
2.72 - Planting Spot Site Preparation
Prepare the planting spot before planting in order to prevent surface debris (litter and duff) from
falling into the planting hole and to free the spot from competing vegetation. Herbicides may be
used to reduce or eliminate competing vegetation. Prior to opening the hole, the planter must
follow this procedure:
1. Clearing. Remove all surface debris down to moist mineral soil within an area that is
a minimum of 6 inches in diameter. Remove duff, litter, rotten or charred wood, loose rock,
ashes, snow, surface frost and similar debris. After the tree has been planted, this material may
be pushed back over the cleared surface to serve as mulch.
2. Scalping. If necessary cut and remove all vegetation to a minimum of 1½ inches
below the root crown. Width of the scalp is dependant upon the amount and kind of competing
vegetation. Planting in sod-forming grasses generally requires scalping of 18 to 24 inches.
Where larger scalps would be needed, herbicide and mechanical spot treatments should be
considered.
2.73 - Planting Hole Design
Locate holes for tree planting in good soil that is deep enough to accommodate the fully
extended seedling roots. They should not be placed in rotten logs, duff or mixes of organic
matter, or soil that easily dries out. The hole must be large enough in all dimensions so that
seedling roots may be inserted without becoming deformed or damaged. Only an occasional
long lateral root can be laid in the bottom of the hole in a nonvertical position.
Utilize the "Open Hole Method" in all cases. Open a hole with the planting tool to create a hole
of adequate size to allow for natural alignment of tree roots and compaction of soil. Place
loosened soil back into the hole and progressively firm soil from the bottom of the hole toward
the top. The seedling should be positioned in the center of the hole. Side hole planting is only
acceptable in limited cases where sandy soils are present. Do not plant trees in narrow slits
opened in the ground (slit planting); the seedling roots will not develop properly in most soils.
The standard minimum-sized planting hole for bareroot stock is:
1. Two inches deeper than the root length of the tree being planted.
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2. At least 3½ inches in diameter for the full length of the hole. A minimum 4-inch
diameter hole is required for auger planting to permit necessary tamping for firmness.
The minimum-size hole for container stock is:
1. One inch deeper than the plug length.
2. At least 3 inches in diameter at top of the hole and 1 inch at bottom.
2.74 - Hand Tools for Planting
There are five broad categories of handheld planting tools. Each of these tools has been used
successfully although each has an advantage on specific sites under certain conditions. The
optimum tool will vary with the type of ground and kind of stock to be planted and experience of
planting crews. Select the tool to be used recognizing that the primary objective is to open a
planting hole sufficient in size, depth, and orientation to allow proper alignment of roots for good
tree establishment.
1. Planting Hoes, Mattocks. Planting hoes are also referred to as mattocks, hoedads, or
plug hoes. Hoes used for bareroot stock and plug hoes for container stock, have a planting blade
and most also have a scalping blade. They are used both to plant the tree and to prepare the
planting spot (scalping and clearing). Planting hoes are used to plant all types of planting stock
but are limited by stock size. Bareroot stock with roots longer than 12 inches are too long to
properly plant with a hoe and should be planted with augers or shovels. Hoe planting is
physically demanding and requires skilled planters. The foreman and contract inspectors must
enforce proper hole-opening techniques. Plantation failures will result from poorly planted trees,
a direct result of failure to enforce contract requirements.
a. Tool Description and Size. Planting hoes are available in a variety of sizes and
shapes. Refer to reforestation supply catalogs for further information. Hoes used in
bareroot planting are 4 inches wide and the planting blade must be 2 inches longer
than the root length of the stock to be planted. Plug hoes for planting container
seedlings are 3 inches wide at the top, tapering to 1” at the tip and must also have a
planting blade 2 inches longer than stock. Regular hoe handle brackets are designed
for a 90-degree relationship between the handle and planting blade. A newer design
has the bracket with a 100-degree angle between the handle and blade that allows
planter to get vertical holes more easily especially on flat ground.
b. Hoe Planting Procedure. One person performs both hole preparation and tree
planting. The correct procedure for planting is illustrated in 2.74 - Exhibit 01. Open
the planting hole by swinging the hoe, from one to five or more times, with the blade
inserted vertically into the soil. Utilize the "open hole method" described in Section
2.73. Break the hole out on three sides. Hold the loose soil above the hole with the
hoe and suspend the tree. Fill in the hole with original soil, firming the soil around
tree roots from the bottom of the hole progressively toward the top. 2.74 - Exhibit 01,
Step 5, illustrates the progressive filling of the hole and firming of the soil. After
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planting, roots shall be in their natural position, and the stem shall be erect and free to
grow.
Do not fill the hole in such a way as to compact tree roots along the side of the
planting hole. 2.74 - Exhibit 01, lower diagrams, illustrates an example of the
planting hole improperly opened and filled.
2.74 - Exhibit 01
c. Advantages of Hoe Planting.
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(1) Most cost efficient tool for a wide range of conditions and soils.
(2) Can be used efficiently with a mix of bareroot and containerized stock.
(3) Can be used as both the scalping and planting tool.
(4) Can result in more trees being planted because planter can move to a new
planting spot within the spacing requirements when unplantable ground is
encountered.
d. Disadvantages of Hoe Planting.
(1) Not suitable for planting in some rocky and heavy clay soils types if hole
cannot be opened properly.
(2) Requires strict contract administration and individual planter control to avoid
improper hole opening.
(3) Contract administration costs may be higher than with augers.
(4) Limited to stock with root lengths less than 12 inches. Larger stock requires
augers or shovels.
(5) Not suitable in areas of heavy slash or other conditions where swing of tool is
impeded.
2. Tree Planting Augers. Planting augers are powered by chain saw or other types of
power heads. Carbide auger bits are recommended and are worth the extra initial cost. They last
longer in all soils and are necessary in rocky soils.
a. Auger Planting Procedures. Auger planting consists of three operations: planting
hole preparation (clearing, scalping), hole augering, and planting. A different
person(s) performs each operation. Auger holes must be planted promptly before the
soil dries. Loose soil deposited on the surface by the auger dries quickly, and some
drying takes place on the face of the hole. Trees must be planted with moist soil thus
crews should be balanced so that tree planters work close behind auger operators.
Refer to 2.74 - 02 for diagrams of auger planting.
(1) Scalper. One to three scalpers precede auger operators. They select the
planting spot and prepare the planting hole by clearing and scalping. Hazel Hoe
and McLeod Tool are good scalping tools. Hazel Hoes are heavy tools good for
grubbing brush and heavy sod. McLeod Tools are good for light vegetation and
litter. In areas of heavy site preparation where scalping is not necessary, the auger
operator can select suitable planting spots.
(2) Auger Operator.
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(a) Select planting spot or proceed to scalped spots with the auger running
slowly.
(b) Place point of auger on chosen spot at proper angle. The first attempt
should be in center of scalp. Advance motor to full throttle.
(c) Let auger sink into ground of its own accord. Do not force it.
(d) Slow the motor slightly when withdrawing the auger to clear soil from the
hole to avoid scattering the soil it brings up. Cut motor to about half speed
and quickly withdraw auger when hole is 2 inches deeper than root system
being planted. Paint or flagging can be used to mark the proper depth
(generally 12 to 14 inches) on the auger. Making holes too shallow will cause
roots to be planted in U-, L-, or J-shapes. Holes that are too deep increase the
possibility of air pockets in bottom of hole.
(e) Drill one or more auxiliary holes in very rocky areas where the fill soil
would contain many rock fragments. The auxiliary holes provide good
mineral soil to place around the tree.
(f) Return throttle to slower speed and proceed to next spot.
(3) Tree Planters.
(a) Follow behind augers to freshly drilled holes. Soil should still be cool and
moist and not drying out. The planter moves along the downhill side of holes.
(b) Reach into the hole with one hand and clear loose soil which has slipped
from the auger and hold it to one side of hole. An alternative is to firm the soil
at the bottom of the hole so that the seedling will not “sink” after the soil
settles. Firming the soil in the bottom of the hole may be quickly
accomplished using a blunt ended 1” to 1/1/2”diameter limb or old tool
handle. There should be no air pockets at the bottom of the hole and the root
collar should be even with the ground surface.
(c) Remove one seedling from planting bag, and place it in the hole so the
root collar is 2 to 3 inches below soil surface.
(d) Raise seedling so the root collar is about level with the top of the hole and
tree is centered in the hole.
(e) Fill the hole one-third to one-half full with soil. Firm the soil being
careful not to damage lateral roots while holding the tree in the center of the
hole.
(f) Continue to place damp soil, free of debris, in the hole and firm it until
soil is even with the root collar.
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(g) Test tree for firmness by testing the ground around the tree. Soil should
be firm.
2.74 - Exhibit 02
Auger Use
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b. Auger Operating Precautions.
(1) Tools and parts should be available to repair machines in the field. Cutting
surfaces of auger bits are hard faced. When this material wears off, the rest of the
auger wears rapidly. Carbide bits are recommended because they have longer
life. Keep spare bits or hard-faced cutting parts available on site, especially when
working in granitic and rocky soils. Extra spark plugs, oil and fuel are also
necessary on site.
(2) Follow the manufacturer's lubrication instructions. Do not use petroleum
products to oil the chain due to the potential for petroleum products to
contaminate the planting hole and kill the tree. Vegetable oil is the recommended
alternative lubricant.
(3) The auger tends to hang up on medium-sized rocks and roots. The operator
should be alert to this danger and when the machine first contacts the obstacle,
throttle down and withdraw the auger before a binding contact is made.
(4) Auger operators must have chaps or baseball type shin guards to protect their
legs from injury.
c. Advantages of Auger Planting.
(1) Augers are more consistent in opening clean holes in a wide range of soils.
There is optimum root arrangement in the hole with roots extending 10 to 12
inches vertically into soil. Problems associated with improper hole opening and
roots pushed into one plane (slit planting) or compacted into shallow holes is
easier to avoid with augers than with other tools.
(2) Not all tasks require physically strong people as do hand tool operations.
This allows for an assignment of labor skills to the most appropriate job.
(3) Fewer contract administration problems related to hole opening.
(4) Easier planting of large trees with roots up to 12 inches long.
(5) More suitable for certain types of rocky and heavy clay soils.
d. Disadvantages of Auger Planting.
(1) Scalpers work ahead of the auger, so planting spots are selected in advance.
Unplantable spots are less detectable and may result in fewer trees planted per
acre than with other tools.
(2) Safety hazard on very steep ground (50 to 60 percent plus) or where footing is
difficult.
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(3) Not recommended in extremely rocky soils or soils with lots of thick tree
roots because auger bits can bind up.
(4) Contract costs can be high when compared to other methods.
(5) Mechanical breakdowns occur, the need for fuel (gas and oil), and the high
cost of equipment.
(6) Higher safety hazard.
(7) Requires more people to complete planting operations.
(8) Close inspection is required to insure proper soil firming at the bottom of the
hole is completed and that the soil is progressively backfilled and firmed to
prevent hole subsidence after the first rains.
(9) Augering holes in wet clay soils may result in compaction or “glazing” of the
walls of the hole as the auger spins creating a “clay pot” effect that retards root
penetration.
3. Shovels and Spades. Shovels modified for tree planting are available from
reforestation equipment suppliers. Shovels are used for large planting stock, such as transplant
or large bareroot stock, when operating in easily worked soils with little rock. Rules for shovel
planting are similar to that for planting hoes. However, in some cases the soil is completely
removed and replaced after inserting the tree. The technique may vary a little depending on the
type of shovel employed. Shovels may be preferred especially when planting long-rooted stock.
Roots must be properly aligned as described in the open hole method (see Section 2.73)
4. Planting Bars. Planting bars have a hardened steel blade that is welded to a metal bar
or pipe handle and are narrower than a hoe. Bars are used with smaller bareroot or container
stock. The bar width and length must be slightly wider and longer than the stock being planted.
Planting bars are suitable for planting small trees with roots less than 10 inches long on all but
the most rocky soils. The blade may need to be extended for planting larger stock. This can be
done by welding additional steel to the original blade. Wedge-shaped bars are not useful in
rocky soils.
a. Bar Planting Procedure. Two operations are required: the scalp and planting.
(1) Scalper. Scalpers precede planters and prepare planting spot using Hazel
hoes, McLeod tools, or other scalping tool.
(2) Bar Planting. Planting following scalping as follows:
(a) Drive the bar full length into the ground vertically near the center of
the selected spot. Use foot on the step as needed. Repeated efforts may
be required to adequately insert the bar into the ground. (See 2.74 Exhibit 03 #1 below)
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(b) Use the tip of the bar as a fulcrum and pull the bar 16 to 24 inches
toward the body. This should open the top of a V-shaped hole that is
approximately 12 inches deep. Remove the bar from the hole without
disturbing the soil faces. (#1)
(c) Insert the tree into the hole until the root collar is 2 inches below the
soil surface. Do not slide the roots into place on the blade of the planting
tool. It will result in root deformities. (#2)
(d) Raise the tree so the root collar is level with soil surface. Make sure
the roots are fully extended and near natural position, not curled or
twisted. (#2)
(e) Thrust the bar into the soil 3 inches in front of the tree while holding
the seedling at the proper depth near the center back of the hole. (#3)
(f) Pull the bar backward, forcing dirt into the bottom of the hole,
securing the seedling in place. Avoid crushing the roots between rocks or
by the bar when closing the planting hole. (#4)
(g) Withdraw the bar 1 inch and push it 4 to 6 inches away from the body
to close the top of the hole, or withdraw the bar and drive it full length into
the soil as before at the same point used in (e) above. Do not permit the
bar to angle into the planting hole. This action closes the bottom of the
hole, leaving an open crimp hole. (#5)
(h) Remove the bar and repeat steps 3, 5, and 5 (below) once or twice so
the seedling is surrounded by firm soil.
(i) Place heel across last crimp hole and step firmly to seal it.
(j) Place toe close to the seedling and step gently to firm the soil. Check
tree for firmness and stem position and proceed to next spot.
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2.74 - Exhibit 03
Planting Bar Use
Procedure When Planting With a Planting Bar
2
1
4
7
5
8
3
6
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b. Advantages of Bar Planting.
(1) Allows planting of very rocky soils, however, they have no advantage over
augers or hoes on most other soils.
(2) May be more efficient on sites with untreated slash where swinging a hoe is
impractical.
(3) Cost efficient tool for a wide range of conditions and soils.
(4) Can be used efficiently with a mix of bareroot and containerized stock.
(5) Can result in more trees being planted because planter can move to a new
planting spot within the spacing requirements when unplantable ground is
encountered.
c. Disadvantages of Bar Planting.
(1) Seedling will not be planted in center of hole.
(2) Pushing the bar back and forth creates X- or K-shaped holes that may not be
planted or closed properly.
(3) A V-shaped hole is the preferred shaped hole; however, extra effort is
required to achieve good root positioning so roots are not pushed into a single
plane.
(4) Not suitable for planting bareroot stock with large or long root systems.
Larger stock requires augers or shovels.
(5) Requires strict contract administration and individual planter control to avoid
improper hole opening, root placement, and soil firming.
(6) Contract administration costs may be higher than with augers.
(7) A separate scalping operation may be required.
5. Dibble Planting. Dibbles for container stock are either a solid cone shape that
displaces the soil or a hollow cylinder that removes the soil from the planting hole.
Dibble sizes must match the container size, being slightly larger in diameter and longer
than the plug. The dibble is used in much the same manner as the planting bar described
above. Most have a foot peg to assist in pushing the tool to the full depth. Dibbles are
sized to match the container (plug) so there is very little soil displacement. After planting,
use the heel to firmly close the air space around the plug.
a. Advantages of Dibble Planting.
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(1) Cost efficient tool for a wide range of conditions and soils.
(2) Seedlings can be rapidly planted, increasing daily production per tree planter.
(3) Easiest to use in rocky soils or sites with surface debris or slash.
(4) Can result in more trees being planted because planter can move to a new
planting spot within the spacing requirements when unplantable ground is
encountered.
(5) Requires less strict contract administration and individual planter control as
planting hole conforms closely to stock size resulting in fewer poorly planted
trees.
b. Disadvantages of Dibble Planting.
(1) Not suitable for planting bareroot stock.
(2) Dibbles may cause “clay pot” effect in heavy clay soils when forced into the
soil (The sides of the hole are compacted or glazed which may impede root
penetration).
(3) A separate scalping operation may be necessary.
2.75 - Planting Machines
Machine planting can be a useful technique where there are large expanses of relatively flat
ground with easily worked soils and little debris. Planting machines are pulled behind small
tractors. A Coulter wheel, or steel blade, is mounted on the front of the planting machine. It cuts
a narrow trench through the ground when the machine, in planting position, is pulled by the
tractor. A planting shoe opens the trench to a width of 4 inches, providing a place for the tree to
be inserted into the ground. A pair of packing wheels at the rear of the machine compacts the
soil on each side of the tree as the tree passes between the wheels. The planting machine must be
calibrated to open a trench 14 inches deep in order to plant the trees to the proper depth.
1. Machine Planting Procedure. The planting machine operation is a team effort between
the tractor operator and the planter. A trailing inspector may also be required. The tractor
operator must be constantly aware of what is occurring on the planting machine and must drive
in a manner that will not cause injury to the planter or distract him from proper planting of the
trees.
a. Tractor Operator.
(1) After the planting machine is mounted and the planter is in the seat ready to
plant, start the tractor in motion along the row to be planted.
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(2) Position the hydraulic controls to gently let the planting machine shoe move
into the ground while moving forward. Putting the planting shoe in the ground
while not moving fills the planting shoe with dirt, making it inoperative.
(3) Drive along the planting row. Avoid, or push away with a dozer or “V”
blade, any slash or debris that could injure the planter, damage the equipment, or
interfere with the planting shoe.
(4) If row planting, lift the planting machine from the ground and turn into the
next row. Some units will allow a continuous circular pattern.
(5) Avoid backing while planting.
b. Planter.
(1) When the tractor is in motion, select a single tree from the planting box. Hold
the seedling with root collar between the thumb and forefinger of one hand.
(2) For hand fed machines, gently hold the tree erect, releasing it just before it
passes between the packing wheels. With the tree held vertically at the proper
depth, move the tree to the rear of the planting shoe. A steady tractor speed and
practice will assure proper spacing is achieved.
On the continuous feed Whitfield Transplanter, place the seedling in the planting
fingers. The machine is calibrated for proper depth. Spacing can be adjusted by
skipping every other finger or by changing the finger spacing on the chain.
2. Advantages of Machine Planting.
a. Ability to plant large areas and numerous trees in a short time period.
b. Requires a small crew.
c. Can be used for most stock types.
d. Provides a uniform spacing and planting quality on good sites.
3. Disadvantages of Machine Planting.
a. Does not work well on sloping terrain, rocky or clay soils, or areas of heavy debris
(unless the tractor is equipped with a “V” blade). Machines like the Whitfield
Transplanter have individual wheel hydraulics to adjust for slopes while contour
planting. Otherwise trees generally will not be planted properly.
b. Requires constant inspection to assure proper planting. It is common for the
machine to lose its calibration. Failure to reset the machine may result in poorly
planted or improperly spaced trees.
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c. Can result in swept roots by planting the seedlings too deep in the furrow. This can
cause growth problems that are not recognized until the trees are older.
d. Requires skilled operators.
e. Cannot select best microsites or plant by stationary shade.
f. May require a hand planter to walk behind the machine to replant or compact loose
or high trees on rocky sites.
4. Maintenance and Safety. All machine planters require daily maintenance. Check and
tighten loose bolts and grease movable parts. Keep spare parts on hand for repairs. Provide
frequent maintenance to maintain productivity during good planting conditions. Review safety
hazards daily with planting crews working on or around planting machinery. Use the following
safety reminders:
a. Ensure that the tractor operator is qualified, properly licensed and understands the
operation of both the tractor and the planter.
b. Be sure the planter understands the operation of the planting machine.
c. Keep other workers a safe distance away from operating machinery.
d. Hardhat will be worn by all workers at all times.
e. Tractor operator must wear a seatbelt at all times.
f. Tractor operator and planter should wear ear protection.
g. Do not operate planting machines on slopes in excess of 35 to 40%.
h. A mirror should be mounted on the tractor or in the cab so the operator can observe
the machine and planter while in motion. Provide a buzzer system so the planter can
contact the tractor operator.
2.76 - Planting the Bareroot Seedling
The planting hole must be properly opened for correct tree placement. The seedling must be
inserted at the proper depth with proper root and stem alignment. After the tree is properly
aligned, moist mineral soil must be firmed around the roots. See 2.76 - Exhibit 01 for examples
of properly and improperly planted trees.
1. Planting Depth. Plant the seedling at approximately the same ground line as it was in
the nursery. The root collar or cotyledon scar is an indicator of the original ground line. No
portion of the roots should be exposed, nor any needles or branches covered with soil.
Correct depth placement is especially critical on high insolation sites. The stem tissue at the base
of the tree at the ground line is insulated (thickest bark) better than stem tissue above or root
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tissue below for protection from temperature extremes. High soil temperatures at ground line
can be lethal to tender stem or root tissue.
2. Root Arrangement and Alterations. The seedling should be planted so the root system
is in its natural configuration and free to grow. The roots should radiate downward in a conical
arrangement. Proper arrangement is critical for maximum water uptake. Properly train
inspectors to recognize improper root arrangement. Do not twist the roots. Do not compact the
root system along one plane, or plant with the roots in a U, J, or L shape. An occasional lateral
root may be U, J, or L-shaped; however, taproots must be in a natural position and never bent.
Do not allow planters to cut, strip, or otherwise alter roots prior to planting. Inspectors and
foremen must have a firm visual impression of the root systems in order to inspect for violations.
Root systems vary by species, stock type, and tree lot; therefore, inspectors should visit the
packing shed or check tree bags regularly. Observe the length and number of lateral roots as
well as the length of the taproot. This is important as the contract may allow planters to strip or
shorten the lateral roots of the tree, but the taproot is never shortened. Tree root systems should
normally have a bell shape with many of the laterals hanging down to a length equal to or
sometimes longer than the taproot. The root system should not look like a “skinny carrot” with
no laterals, nor should the laterals all be appreciably shorter than the taproot.
Root stripping happens when planters have trouble fitting roots properly into hole. To help avoid
root stripping, the appropriate kind of stock should be ordered for the site. For example, do not
order 12-inch long bareroot stock for a site with shallow soils. It may be more appropriate to use
6-inch container stock. When applicable, make sure the nursery has properly pruned the bareroot
stock prior to shipment.
3. Stem Orientation. Orient the tree stem at an angle between vertical and 90 degrees
with the slope face. This will be achieved if the hole is opened properly.
4. Firmness. Firmly tamp the soil around the planted tree roots filling and firming the
hole progressively from the bottom toward the top. Do not tamp with sticks or by "heeling in"
alongside the seedlings after planting. Do not leave any large air pockets in the hole and do not
leave debris in the hole after closure. Roots not in close contact with mineral soil will dry,
resulting in tree mortality.
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2.76 - Exhibit 01
Planting the Bareroot Tree
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2.77 – Planting the Container (Plug) Seedling
On some forests the seedlings are extracted from the container racks or blocks and packed (20 to
25 seedlings per package) in wrapped bundles or plastic baggies. They are then bagged in a
similar manner to bareroot stock for shipping to the field. Distribute plugs to planters in baggies,
which are placed directly into the planting bag.
Container seedlings are generally easier to plant than longer rooted bareroot seedlings.
Containers are especially recommended for rocky sites where holes cannot be opened properly
for bareroot stock. Containers can be planted with almost any planting tool available. Hoes,
bars, and augers have all been used successfully, however, dibbles are not recommended in
heavy soils where compaction or “glazing” of the sides of the hole may prevent root penetration.
1. Planting Depth. Plant the plug deep enough so that about 1 inch of soil can be placed
on top of plug level with surrounding soil surface in order to seal the plug in the ground. This is
necessary in areas prone to frost heaving. In all cases, the entire plug and root media must be
below the ground surface.
2. Plug (root) Arrangement. While container trees are somewhat easier to plant than
bareroot trees, the same care should be given to ensure containers are properly planted. Do not
break, bend, flatten or distort the plug in any manner to avoid damage to the root system. After
the planting hole has been properly opened, plant the container tree as described for bareroot
seedlings in Section 2.76.
3. Protection. Containerized seedlings are similar morphologically to natural and 1-0
seedlings in that they have very little heat protection (bark) on the stem. The high soil
temperatures at ground level can easily kill the tree if not properly shaded
4. Dibbles - Caution. Dibbles should be used with caution. They are metal tools shaped
in the form of a container that is pushed into the soil leaving a hole the shape of the container
plug to be planted. Dibbles are suitable in light, fine textured soils, but in clay soils they have
the effect of glazing or compacting the sides of the hole. This causes problems in root
penetration or can create an air layer between plug and soil if not properly tamped. When the air
layer fills with water and freezes, frost heaving will occur. Some dibbles are hollow and remove
a “plug” of soil rather than displacing it.
2.78 - Artificial Seeding Projects
Direct seeding is an operational reforestation tool in the Eastern Region, particularly in the Lake
States. Direct seeding has had mixed results but may be preferable to planting on sites where
access would be difficult for a planting crew or on very thin soils. Adequate site preparation is
essential for successful seeding operations. Seed may be applied by mechanically broadcasting
seed with a seeder mounted on a snowmobile, a skidder, or from aircraft. Some hand seeding is
practiced by preparing a seedbed with a hoe or similar device and applying seed directly to the
prepared site. The amount of seed spread per acre varies by species, seed viability, and adequacy
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of site preparation. Results will be better if the seed has been treated with a chemical suitable to
repel rodents and birds.
1. Advantages.
a. Cost per acre is usually lower than for planting. Seeding can provide significant
savings over planting. There is not much cost difference in costs of site preparation
between seeding and planting, but the application of the seed is significantly less
expensive than tree planting.
b. This is a good method when sites are too remote and/or physically inaccessible for
planting crews, or if soils are too thin or rocky to allow good planting holes to be
made.
c. Direct seeding is easier than planting if the prescribed burn used for site
preparation was not hot enough to consume the larger fuels.
d. Seeding is useful to reforest areas that would be difficult or expensive to plant,
where heavier stocking is desired, or where visual quality is a concern and the
artificial appearance of rows needs to be avoided.
2. Disadvantages.
a. Direct seeding takes many times more seeds to produce one viable seedling than
would be needed to produce one viable seedling at a nursery. Finding and collecting
an adequate supply of seed can be a problem. It may take 25 to 30 times the amount
of seed to reforest an area using direct seeding as compared to tree planting.
b. Not all seed is readily available nor is the cost reasonable enough to justify direct
seeding. Black spruce, birch, and other light seeded species are very expensive per
pound to produce.
c. Seed deposited on the surface of the ground is extremely vulnerable to rodents and
birds, even well after the seed has germinated.
d. Site preparation needs to expose a substantial amount of mineral soil for direct
seeding to be successful.
e. An administrative test conducted by Paul Berrang et al. on the Hiawatha National
Forest found that seeding results were inconsistent across sites, and if natural seed is
available on the site, supplemental seeding is not needed.
3. Artificial Seeding.
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a. Site Preparation. Site preparation is probably the most important task for
successful seeding. The seedbed requires bare mineral soil over most of the area.
Several methods are used to prepare sites which usually involve some combination of
heavy equipment and/or fire. Dozers with brush or salmon blades, skidders with
roller choppers and/or chains, or other types of equipment like brackës prepare
effective seed beds. Fire often destroys existing seed on sites. Site preparation must
expose bare mineral soil, reduce slash, or incorporate it into the soil. Preparing
exposed mineral soil on microsites for seedling establishment over approximately 60
percent of the site is imperative.
b. Seed Application. Direct seeding in the Lake States has been used primarily for
regeneration of jack pine. Direct seeding is also an option to artificially regenerate
black spruce, paper birch, and yellow birch.
(1) Jack Pine. A rate of ¼ pound per acre seems to be the ideal rate for direct
seeding of jack pine, even though it usually produces an overstocked stand.
Higher rates can produce heavier stocking if so desired but usually wastes seed.
Lower rates often produce poor results. Site preparation should be completed as
soon as possible after harvest to promote natural regeneration from the serotinous
cones in the jack pine slash. However, site preparation needs to be completed
before the winter snowfall since seed application is often done in late winter using
a cyclone seeder mounted on a snowmobile. The seed is applied on the snow
crust, so that it contacts mineral soil in the spring when the snow melts. In areas
that do not have heavy snow crusts or in mild years when thick crusts do not
occur, direct seeding can be done with aerial application or with a cyclone seeder
attached to a skidder. Skidders are very costly and are not recommended unless
no other method is available. All Terrain Vehicles (ATV) with cyclone seeders
are totally ineffective unless there is almost no residual slash left on the area and
stumps are cut extremely low. Aerial seeding can be very cost effective. An
experienced pilot is mandatory to achieve desired results. Areas to be seeded
should be large and free of barriers to the aircraft. Combining a number of areas
to be seeded in one general area helps reduce costs. Residual trees in an area may
preclude or reduce the effectiveness of aerial seeding. Residual tree cover should
not exceed a basal area of 5 to10 sq. ft., since the shade inhibits jack pine
seedlings. Heavy residual slash is not desirable since it inhibits the seed from
reaching mineral soil.
(2) Black Spruce. Areas to be seeded to black spruce can be site prepared if the
ground is dry enough. Shrubs, such as Labrador tea, can be serious competitors.
On drier sites scarification can remove this competition. However, soils in areas
where black spruce often grows are too wet to receive mechanical site preparation
treatment. Prescribed fire has been effective at preparing microsites. Direct
seeding has been successful on wet soils without site preparation. Seeding rates
need to be calculated based on site preparation quality, seed viability, number of
seeds per pound, expected naturals, and other variables. Leaving residual
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overstory trees that provide a shelterwood condition is recommended since this
may slow soil drying and reduce the loss of seedlings. The overstory should be
black spruce, if possible, to capture additional natural regeneration.
(3) Paper and Yellow Birch. Direct seeding for artificial regeneration of paper
and yellow birch requires site preparation to eliminate seedling competition,
expose mineral soil, and incorporate coarse woody debris and other organic
material. The ideal time for this site preparation is in the late summer or early fall
when ground conditions are the driest and just before seed dispersal. Scarification
or prescribed fire can be used to expose mineral soil with a goal of 60% exposure
or better. Seed application should occur in late fall or winter so that the seed
descends to moist soil in the spring. Leaving residual overstory trees that provide
a shelterwood condition on hotter, dryer sites is recommended since this may
slow soil drying and reduce the loss of seedlings. The overstory should be birch, if
possible, to capture any natural regeneration.
(4) Red Pine. Direct seeding to artificially regenerate red pine has not shown any
consistent success.
(5) Oak. Some attempts have been made to direct seed oak into microsites
prepared with a hoe or similar tool. Most of these attempts have shown that
rodents are very effective at finding acorns even if the acorns are soil covered.
2.79 - Coppice Projects
Sprouting and suckering can be used successfully to regenerate many sites. On some forests in
the Eastern Region, particularly in oak types, sprouting and suckering generally serves to
supplement natural regeneration of seedling origin. Deer generally prefer to browse on sprouts
or suckers before they browse on seedlings. Consequently, in areas where deer are abundant,
sprouts and suckers rarely contribute significantly to regeneration stocking unless they are
protected or the area is fenced to exclude deer.
Aspen is the primary species regenerated in Region 9 using this method, though many hardwood
species will sprout to varying extents in many parts of the region. In addition to being very
effective, this is one of the least expensive regeneration methods.
In the case of aspen, the mature stand is normally harvested using the coppice method.
Following the harvest, residual sub-merchantable trees may be felled during site preparation.
Care must be exercised so that too many leave trees do not reduce the ability of the site to sprout.
In nearly all cases, this is all that is needed to provide conditions that will promote vigorous
sprouting with high densities to meet most objectives.
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2.8 - TREE PLANTING CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION
The types of contracts, contract requirements, specifications and intensity of planting inspection
may vary between forests. Historic survival rates, species planted and local factors may demand
closer scrutiny of planting operations. This section outlines the suggested procedures required by
a detailed contract and an intensive inspection.
Tree planting contracts are administered under the contracting organizational structure. The
Contracting Officer (CO) is the responsible official. Most preparation and inspection work is
delegated to a Contracting Officer Representative (COR). The COR may supervise one or more
inspectors. The details of this organization and how it functions are covered in FSH 6309.11,
Contract Administration Handbook.
1. Types of Contracts. There are a variety of contract types, including some that are
becoming increasingly more common: Stewardship Contracts and the Performance Based
Service Contract (PBSC). Work with the Forests’ Contracting Officers, and both service and
timber sale COs to select the appropriate contract to meet your needs. Contract specifications
shall assure that proper tree care and planting techniques are used. Submit requests for
procurement to the contracting office under the established Forest procedures and in accordance
with Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR).
a. Payment. The payment method for contractors varies by type of contract. Specific
methods of payment should be developed with the CO and Forest Silviculturist. For
PBSCs, payment is based on specific incentives/disincentives included in the contract
by the Contracting Officer. Payment can be based on the acres planted or actual
numbers of trees planted, as described below.
b. Method of Measurement.
(1) Per Acre. Per acre measurement method provides payment to the contractor
based on the acres planted, modified by inspection results.
(2) Per Tree. The per-tree or per-thousand tree method pays the contractor based
on the quantity of trees planted. This method may encourage the contractor to
find spots and put trees in the ground. There is no pay for covering the acreage if
no trees are planted. Also be aware that when using this method, close, on-site
observance is necessary to prevent hidden or lost tree bundles and bags. The CO
must agree to the payment method. If payment is based on trees counted in
inspection plots, an adequate number of plots must be done to assure reliable
results. An optional method for payment is to make payment based on trees
issued to the contractor.
2. Contract Administration Requirements. CORs on planting contracts shall meet the
requirements of Departmental Regulation 5001-1 (DR 5001-1) and FAR and be designated by
the CO. To assure adequate experience in planting contracts, it is recommended that CORs have
2 years of planting inspection experience. Forest workshops on contract tree planting
administration, with required attendance by CORs and inspectors, are encouraged every 2 years.
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They must also attend general COR training every 3 years to meet FAR requirements. These
FAR/COR sessions are taught either by the CO or by an independent consultant.
Inspectors shall meet the FAR requirements, be designated by the COR, and have previous
planting experience or intensive training from experienced personnel prior to work on a tree
planting contract.
Since planting contract time is limited, CORs and inspectors must understand the contract
specifications and maintain strict contract administration to minimize contract disputes.
2.81 - Contract Preparation
Match the contract specifications to the ground conditions of the planting site.
1. Site Examination and Data Collection. Prior to the preparation of the contract (or task
order for indefinite quantity contracts), make the following determinations in a preplanting or a
reforestation survey.
a. Determine actual acres to be planted within a 5 percent tolerance for per acre
payment contracts. Most units should be GPSed.
b. Estimate number of plantable spots available on the site to determine planting stock
needs. The number of available planting spots may be considerably less than
prescribed levels due to rock, existing trees, other vegetation and conditions that limit
a tree from being planted.
c. Estimate amount (scalp size) and difficulty of hand site preparation needed.
d. Identify protection needs based on seedling needs and potential animal damage.
This information must represent current conditions on the site and should be obtained in fall or
summer before the contract or task order is prepared
The survey, generally a walk-through, should be intense enough to estimate plantable area within
the unit. Do not depend only on above ground observations. Open a few holes to determine ease
of planting and tools required. Failure to do an adequate survey may result in paying the
contractor for areas that are stocked or not plantable with the tool prescribed or inappropriate
scalp requirements. The preplanting survey also provides an estimate of trees to be planted
although actual quantity will vary. It is best to determine plantable spots when conditions are
similar to those where planting will occur. For example, if planting is to occur in the spring,
surveying in fall when the ground is dry may yield more plantable ground than will actually
occur in the spring when the water table may be higher.
2. Contract Specifications. The technical specifications of the planting contracts are
available from forest contracting offices. All aspects of the contract shall be consistent with tree
planting guidance provided in this handbook. The proposals accepted in negotiated contracts
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shall be evaluated relative to the items in this section. All aspects of the accepted proposal shall
also be consistent with tree planting guidance.
a. Identify the Quantity of Trees and Units to be Planted. Specify by unit whether
payment will be by the acre or per tree or thousand trees. Clearly state that actual
number of trees planted may vary and does not substitute for a prospective
contractor’s site inspection and their own estimates.
b. Government Furnished Property. Specify the type of stock and preparation method
for planting stock. Identify minimum and maximum root lengths, top heights and
other stock quality standards the contractor can expect. List other supplies being
provided by the government such as wrapping materials and reflective tarps. Identify
when and where the property shall be issued and returned (when applicable) and cost
that will be assessed to the contractor if the property is damaged or not returned. In
rare circumstances the contractor may also be supplying the stock. In such cases the
seed source, stock type, and specifications should also be specified such that quality
stock comes from the same seed zone in which the planting site is located.
c. Identify Planting Stock Size in Broad Ranges. If the range is too narrow or does
not fit the stock, a costly contract adjustment may occur. It is recommended that the
nursery stock standards be used, but districts should substitute more specific
information if it is more accurate.
Identify the procedure for issuing tree stock to the contractor and the time frame for
planting after delivery. Identify how stock will be cared for until planting. Identify
how stock shall be cared for if more stock is requested and delivered than is planted.
Specify how the contractor will be charged for wasted trees when trees ordered are
not planted in a timely manner and cannot be used. Although the responsibility for
ordering the correct number of trees each day lies with the contractor, it is not
advantageous to the government to have a lot of excess trees. Negotiate with the
contractor so stock orders reflect the quantity that can be planted within the stated
time frame.
d. Planting Equipment. Specify required type and size of tool that is to be used and
enforce contractor compliance. Tool size requirements cannot be adjusted after
contract award without negotiations that may result in payment adjustments. Tool
type (for example, auger vs. hoe) generally cannot be changed after contract award.
Specify bareroot and plug hoe lengths, allowing tolerance for wear. Minimum hoe
size is 15 to 17 inches for bareroot and 12 to 13 inches for container planting. Tool
blade should be 1 inch longer than the roots being planted.
Augers should produce a 4-inch hole for bareroot and 3-inch hole for containers and
be capable of drilling holes 2 inches deeper than roots of stock being planted.
Bars must have a minimum blade length and width capable of accommodating the
root system of stock being planted.
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Planting bags are normally required to be 15 inches deep and light in color.
Reflective silver canvas bags may be specified to reduce bag temperatures.
e. Care of Trees. This section covers all aspects of tree care as described in Section
2.6 of this handbook.
f. Planting Spot Selection. Selection of the planting spot is dependent on spacing and
site conditions. Spacing is generally allowed to vary +/- 25 to 50% to provide
flexibility in finding a suitable planting spot.
g. Planting Spot Preparation. Utilize one of the following options for planting spot
preparation dependent on the site being planted.
(1) Clearing. Clearing debris from the soil surface in an area 6-inch by 6-inch
square or 6-inches in diameter so that a hole can be opened without surface debris
and litter falling into the hole. Identify the maximum depth of material that is
required to be cleared. When debris is deeper than that depth, the spot is
considered unplantable. Clearing is generally required in all units.
(2) Clearing and scalping. Clearing and scalping should only be required in areas
with existing competing vegetation that hampers survival. The clause specifies
that the spot must be cleared as described in (1) and all vegetation must be
removed or scalped from an area of specified size (generally 12 to 24 inches in
diameter) prior to planting a tree. Also specify the maximum depth of the scalp.
If a deeper scalp is required to clear away the vegetation, then the spot is
considered unplantable. Scalping depth should be 1 to 2 inches below the root
collar of all plants to be removed. When this clause is used in the contract, it is a
planting violation if the contractor fails to create the planting spot as specified.
(3) Mulching following clearing. Mulching after clearing requires pushing
surface debris back around the tree once the tree has been planted. This material
is placed back around the seedling to help prevent moisture loss from evaporation
and provide a possible nutrient source for the tree as the material decays over
time. If this option is used, it may be difficult to inspect for proper clearing.
(4) Considerations in site preparation method. If no planting spot preparation
clause is used, the contract allows trees to be planted through existing duff, debris,
and vegetation. If clearing is specified and a no scalp clause is used, then the
contractor is required to clear a 6-inch area and ignore existing vegetation outside
the cleared area. Existing vegetation does not make the spot unplantable in this
case. If there are adequate planting spots free of vegetative competition, the
scalping clause is not necessary. Clearing alone will remove light vegetation
within the clearing limit
Clearing and scalping should be required on units with competing vegetation.
Scalping vegetation such as grass or sedge requires extra effort and will be
reflected in the bid price. Use a scalp large enough to promote establishment of
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seedlings in the first year. If vegetation is present, but is not considered to be
competitive, an option is to require the scalp to be the same size as the clearing.
h. Planting Techniques. Utilize the contract clauses in the standard contract. Proper
planting techniques will assure good inspection results. Refer to the inspection
requirements in Section 2.82.
i. English Language. Contract should specify that at least the crew foreman is able to
effectively communicate in English.
2.82 - Contract Inspection
Planting contracts require intensive inspection. Follow contract inspection procedures specified
in the contract and described in this section. If the contractor is responsible for inspection, the
government shall conduct quality assurance inspections as described in the contract. In
negotiated contracts, field inspection performed by the contractor shall be consistent with the
approved quality control plan. The quality control plan shall be consistent with the following:
There are two phases of contract inspection: (1) Inspection while work is in progress observing
tree care, wasting of trees, and planting technique, and (2) plot inspection where the inspector
checks quality of planting using systematically placed plots.
1. Inspection While Work is in Progress. The COR and inspector(s) shall inspect the
contractor's work during all aspects of tree planting from the time trees are issued to the
contractor until they are returned or planted. Inspectors shall be with the contractor at all times
when the contractor has trees in their possession for per tree and per thousand (tree) contracts. It
is recommended that an inspector be with the contractor on per acre contracts particularly at the
onset of the contract. Per tree contracts require close observance to ensure trees are not hidden.
It is preferable the inspector be on site and observing tree planting and tree care throughout the
planting operation. Much of the damage to tree seedlings that can occur during planting cannot
be detected in the inspection plots that will follow.
a. Inspect the Following Items Throughout the Planting Period:
(1) Rate of Progress. Acres planted per day as a percentage of contract time
(2) Weather conditions. Weather conditions suitable or unsuitable for planting
(3) Organization of work. Foreman on site. Crew should be organized to insure
proper spacing and complete coverage of the unit.
(4) Tree care and field handling. Proper protection and handling of bags when it
is the contractor’s responsibility. Observe individual planters. Watch for on-site
root pruning, root twisting, or excessive exposure to the air.
(5) Planting Technique. Scalps, clearing, spacing, and planting techniques.
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(6) Intentional wasting of trees. Monitor suspect behavior that may indicate
planters are disposing of trees.
(7) Appropriate equipment.
b. Rate of Progress. Monitor the contractor's progress to ensure the time periods
stated in the contract can be met. Tree survival and growth are dependent upon
proper soil and weather conditions at the time of planting, and these conditions exist
for a limited time; contract extensions may not be allowed.
c. Weather Shutdown Guidelines. When the COR determines that temperature,
humidity, soil moisture, winds, or a combination of these and other physical
conditions are unsuitable for tree planting, move the work force to another area or
suspend operations. Whenever suspension due to weather is contemplated,
consideration must be given to the risk of delaying planting. Will conditions worsen
or improve? Is tree survival at risk? When will the contractor return?
(1) Factors to consider prior to suspending operations due to weather:
(a) Degree of stress to trees created by current weather conditions.
(b) Predicted future weather, including expected rainfall, winds, or
temperature changes.
(c) Length of planting season remaining.
(d) Number of trees left to plant.
(e) Condition of planting stock, particularly relative to dormancy.
(f) Availability of alternate sites or adjustment of work shifts.
(2) Appropriate conditions for temporary shutdowns:
(a) Snow on the ground. Snow makes it difficult to select planting spots; too
much snow will obscure planting spots and snow will enter the planting hole,
creating air pockets. Snow increases risks of slips and falls and may be a
hazard to planters.
(b) Frost in the ground. When there is more than ½ inch of frost in the
ground, planting holes cannot be opened or closed properly.
(c) Freezing weather. Frozen tree roots or root plugs become brittle and roots
are easily damaged and broken. Tops and needles are also subject to damage.
(d) Dry Soil. The soil is too dry to properly firm the tree. Dry soils that have
the consistency of flour or hard clay cannot be planted without additional
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moisture. However, trees should be planted if the soil is workable and the
chance of future moisture is reasonable.
(e) Wet Soil. The soil is too wet to properly firm the trees. Sometimes soils
must be allowed to drain before planting can continue.
(f) Winds. Sustained winds of 20 miles per hour or more with low humidity
and high temperatures of 75 degrees Fahrenheit or more are damaging to
seedlings. Winds coupled with low humidity and warm temperatures cause
high moisture stress to seedlings. Consider planting at an alternate time of
day if possible. Many times, springtime weather fluctuates rapidly.
Temperature variations of 30 to 40 degrees with changing winds and humidity
may occur within hours. In these conditions, protect seedlings from drying for
short periods of time.
(g) High temperatures. High temperatures are typically not a problem in the
Region. Under unusually warm conditions, it may be desirable to plant only in
the morning and evening.
(h) Wind or weather conditions in areas with residual trees. Wind or other
weather conditions can make planting hazardous in areas with scattered
overstory trees. Planting should not continue when there are winds predicted
or occurring that increase the risk of snags, trees, or limbs falling within the
unit during the planting operation.
d. Organization of Work. Contractors shall maintain quality control over their crews
and perform planting in an organized systematic manner. Do not permit planting
crews to be scattered.
e. Tree Care and Field Handling. Tree care and handling shall be inspected while the
work is in progress. Utilize the contract clauses that charge for wasted trees when the
contractor mishandles seedlings. Issue a notice of noncompliance for serious or
recurrent violations. The following items should be inspected regularly. It is best to
correct deficiencies early to avoid tree mortality caused by poor handling.
(1) Appropriate planting equipment, tools, and planting bags.
(2) Proper storage of tree bags/boxes. Do not expose containers to the sun.
(3) Inspect for root pruning. To adequately inspect for root shortening during
field handling, know the root lengths of shipped trees before issuing them to a
contractor.
(4) Proper storage of trees. Keep bundles cool and moist.
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(5) Too many trees in planting bag. Seedlings will be damaged if planters put too
many trees or container plugs in the tree bags. Do not allow more trees to be
carried than what can be out-planted before drying occurs.
(6) Careless treatment to trees in planting bag. Do not allow planters to lie on
bags, pile equipment on them, or expose them to oil or gas.
(7) Tree roots exposed to air during planting. Do not allow planters to carry trees
in their hands between holes or while preparing a hole. Trees should be removed
from the planting bag after the hole has been opened.
(8) Dropped trees that are left on ground. Except for incidental trees, count
dropped trees as wasted trees.
(9) Wasting trees. Monitor planters for careless handling that exposes trees to
heating and drying or leaving bags of trees in the sun. Hiding, stashing, or
destroying trees is also a form of wasting. Intentional wasting of trees shall not be
tolerated.
(10) Root stripping or pruning by planters. Do not allow stripping or tearing of
the lateral root or shortening the root system. It is a tremendous shock to the tree
and results in high mortality rates. Watch the planters and if stripping is
suspected, dig trees to observe the roots. Notify the contractor if stripping is
found. If the contractor fails to correct root-stripping violations, issue a
suspension of work order and notify the CO.
(11) Planting spot selection. Assure spot selection is adequate and meets contract
specifications.
(12) Planting spot preparation. Assure clearing and scalping is adequate and
meets contract specifications.
(13) Spacing requirements. Seedlings should be planted to meet spacing
specifications.
(14) Species mix. Assure proper species and stock types are being planted as per
contract specifications.
(15) Hole opening and tree insertion. The hole should be open from all sides and
tree roots shall be suspended in a natural position. The tap root shall not be
twisted, balled up, or in the form of a J or L. Tree shall be upright and between
vertical and 90 degrees with the slope plane.
(16) Tamping soil in auger holes. Root damage can occur if tamping is done with
tool handles or sticks. A rounded stick or tool handle can be used to tamp the
bottom of the hole prior to inserting the seedling. Once the seedling is inserted,
hand tamping is required.
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(17) Moist soil in the planting hole. Dry soil will occur if the auger operator is
too far ahead of tree planters in auger planting operations
(18) Failure to close auxiliary holes in auger or bar operations. Root drying will
occur when open holes are left in proximity of planting holes.
2. Inspecting for Planting Quality. The primary factor in determining the contractor's
payment is the plot inspection. Use the following process and standard inspection form (FS2470-9). Variations to this may be done with approval of the CO and forest silviculturist to meet
specific planting requirements. Specify the inspection process in the contract. Refer to 2.82 Exhibit 01 for a sample of the standard inspection form. The inspector shall sign the inspection
form and initial any changes, as this is the main basis for contract payment. All inspectors
should fully understand the inspection forms and procedures for completing the inspection.
a. Equipment Needed. The following equipment will be useful as planting quality is
inspected: pencils, clipboard, inspection sheets, contract, fifty foot loggers tape, plot
pole or shovel with swivel to attach the tape, flagging, garden trowels for below
ground inspection, shovel, and slope correction table and clinometers in steep areas.
b. Plot Design.
(1) Plot Size. Use either 1/50th- or 1/100th-acre plots for planting up to 10- by 10foot spacing. At wider spacing, use the 1/50th-acre plot to ensure there are
adequate trees per plot for statistical reliability.
(2) Plot radius will vary depending on slope. After determining slope percent, use
the plot table in Section 2.93 – Exhibit 01, for determining radii for 1/100th- and
1/50th-acre plots. Use these radii for the full plot. Do not compensate by
changing radius or raising and lowering the tape when going around the plot.
Such adjustments are included in the table.
(3) Plot Placement. Establish plot in a systematic manner, distributed uniformly
over entire acreage. A grid system is recommended.
(4) Quantity of Plots. The minimum sampling intensity is specified in the
contract. When payment reductions are anticipated, a 2 % sample is required.
c. Inspection Within the Plot. Mark the plot so that it can be relocated by the COR or
contractor. Inspect each plot in accordance with the contract. Utilize the following
inspection for most contracts. Follow this procedure in the described order for
accurate inspection results. The contractor’s on-site foreman can be asked to
accompany the inspector, so there will be no dispute about the number of improperly
planted trees counted in the inspection.
(1) Locate and mark plot center on the ground. A pin flag with plot number or
similar locator is recommended for the center point.
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(2) Use 2.82 – Exhibit 01 to determine the approximate number of trees expected
in each plot based on spacing and size of plot.
2.82 - Exhibit 01:
Plot Size and Possible Number of Planting Spots by Spacing
Average
Spacing
6x6
7x7
8x8
9x9
10 x 10
11 x 11
12 x 12
13 x 13
14 x 14
15 x 15
20 x 20
1/100 Acre
12
9
7
5
4
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1/50 Acre
24
18
14
11
9
7
6
5
4
4
2
1/20 Acre
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
22
18
15
13
11
10
5
(3) Use 2.82 – Exhibit 02 to determine the approximate number of trees to be dug
up to check below ground planter performance. For example if you anticipate 9
trees on the plot, then inspect every tree above ground and every third tree above
and below ground.
2.82 - Exhibit 02
Minimum Inspection Trees
Number of planted trees on plot
Minimum number of
trees to dig*
1
2-6
7-9
10-12
13 plus
1
2
3
4
5
* Note this is the minimum; there is no maximum. The inspector may dig all trees on plot.
(4) Using the form shown as 2.82 – Exhibit 01, or similar form, inspect each tree
first for above-ground condition; then check selected trees for below ground
condition. Working in a clockwise direction from north, locate and examine the
condition of planted trees and record in spaces under columns 2 through 11 of the
inspection form. Record the tree in the column which best describes its condition.
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A poorly planted tree may have more than one violation; however, it may be
recorded in only one column. Identify the most severe error.
2.82 - Exhibit 01
Planting Inspectors Report (R9 FSH 2417-2.8)
(10)
Item Number
Max. Trees/Plot
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
total
% correct =Total planted right x 100/ Total Sampled=
Planting stock properly cared for?
Number of trees planted per day?
Remarks and Safety violations noted:
(11) (12)
Remarks
(9)
Other
Damaged roots
(8)
Location
(4)
Spacing
(3)
Contract Number
Plot Size
Planted Wrong
(5) (6) (7)
Too High
(2)
Exposed Roots
Plot or Row
Number
(1)
Roots Doubled
Spacing
Comp./Stand
Too Deep
Contractor or Crew
Firmness
Date
Forest/District
Total Planted
Right
Total Sampled
(2-11)
Inspector (Signature)
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Planting Inspectors Report (R9 FSH 2417-2.8)
INSTRUCTIONS
Inspect hand planters every day by checking 5% of a day's planting and recording results on this form.
If inspector is satisfied the planter is doing a satisfactory job, inspector may reduce the inspection to a
minimum of 1% of remaining trees. If the planting quality falls off additional inspections are needed. If
a penalty is to be assessed a minimum of a 2% sample is required.
The daily inspection forms will be reviewed by the forester to determine corrective action. File a copy
with plantation maps and one copy goes to the contractor.
Col. 2 Roots should be pointed down not in a J or L shape.
Col. 3 Roots including ends of laterals should not be exposed
Col. 4 Roots are not to be pulled or pruned off by planters.
Col. 5 Soil should be packed tightly around tree. Tool holes must be filled.
Col. 6 Root collar should not be above ground.
Col. 7 Green needles should not be buried.
Col. 8 Spacing must be within 25% or as specified in contract.
Col. 9 Location Ex.-planted in duff, loose ash or soil, species in wrong place.
Col.10 Other specify in remarks. Ex.-not vertical, hole not closed properly, etc.
Col. 11 Total of trees planted correctly on plot or row.
Col. 12 Total trees sampled in plot or row. Sum of columns 2-11.
Other Duties:
Stock care - stored trees must be protected from wind and sun. Roots should not be unnecessarily
exposed when moving form bags to planting bags.
Organization - Check organization and production of contractor or crew.
Safety - Check for unsafe actions or conditions.
Prescription - Check that the reforestation prescription is being followed.
Column 2-Roots Doubled: Root systems must not be twisted, jammed in one
plane, or curved in the shape of the letters U, J, or L. Individual lateral roots may
be slightly bent like the letters J or U but the primary vertical root system cannot
be distorted. Container plug must not be jammed from the top (accordion effect)
or the side (flattened).
To inspect for this violation, dig a rectangular shaped hole on one side of the tree.
Start the hole far enough away from the tree stem (at least 10 inches) so that roots
are not disturbed in the process of inserting the spade. This is best done with a
tool like a tile spade. Once the primary hole is dug, a hand trowel can be
carefully used to excavate nearer to the root system. To probe the root system, use
a pointed instrument such as a screwdriver, ice pick, engineers pin, or similar tool
to explore the seedling roots for orientation.
Column 3-Exposed Roots: This is a common but serious violation and is easily
checked without digging up a seedling. Roots left exposed by planters have a
different color than other miscellaneous duff and organic matter in the vicinity of
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the planting hole. Moist live roots dry to a “dirty gray” color and can be observed
by carefully looking at the tree and the soil disturbed by the planter. Carefully
pulling on such root material will quickly reveal if it is part if the planted tree’s
root system.
Column 4- Damaged Roots: If the dug tree has an obviously shortened root
system, consider it as an improperly planted tree below ground. The contract
shall state a minimum root length; trees with substandard roots should not be
planted and considered a violation if they are planted. Generally the contract does
not allow the contractor to prune roots. Fresh root cuts can often be distinguished
from roots cut at the nursery or during tree preparation. Living inner tissue of
roots cut in advance of planting should be brown at the cut. The brown color may
extend up the root under the bark for a short distance. Freshly cut roots will be
white under the bark unless roots are dead when cut. Root shortening violations
can also be detected during inspection while work is in progress. Another
common error is that the planter will use the tool to shove the roots into the hole
which will often scuff or scrap the outer bark exposing the inner woody layer.
Such trees should be considered improperly planted.
Column 5- Firmness: Trees should be tamped as firmly as soil conditions allow.
In most soils, trees should not pull easily from soil. The inspector may grab the
stem and gently pull upward. If tree comes up to expose roots (below the root
collar) then the tree was not firmed up and is in violation. (A commonly
suggested procedure for pine is to grab a tuft of needles and yank. The needles
should pull from the tree before the tree moves in the soil. This may not be the
best method as you are removing photosynthesis capability from the tree and
adding stress.) This test must be used with caution in very light or sandy soils.
Column 6-Too High or Column 7-Too Deep: Trees are planted too deep or
shallow. These two errors will be discussed together but it is good to separate
them for reporting to the contractor so the errors can be corrected. The contract
requires that after filling, packing, and leveling, the soil shall come up to a point
even with, or up to 1 inch above, original ground line of tree. Note that the
original ground line is always above the root collar and should be considered in
the area between the cotyledon scar and the root collar. No portion of the roots
shall be exposed nor any branches covered with packed soil.
If soil is loose around branches and needles above the ground line, soil will settle
and no harm is done. However, if soil is packed tightly or branches and needles
are in the hole (below the normal ground line), a violation should be cited. Prior
to inspection, inspectors must ensure that they recognize where the root collar is.
It can be seen by scraping bark back to the cambium in the root collar area. Stem
tissue immediately under bark of the stem will have some green color. Below the
root, scraping reveals only white tissue. Trees with roots exposed are in violation.
Some seedlings’ root systems generally do not branch for 2 to 4 inches below the
root collar. This unbranched portion of the root system is often erroneously
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interpreted as stem and left above ground. The root does not have thickened bark
and can be easily damaged by insolation and high soil surface temperatures.
Make sure the entire root system is below ground.
Container plugs should be covered with soil (1/2 inch or more) in order to prevent
frost heave problems.
Column 8-Spacing: A tree that has been planted closer than 75% of the spacing
allowance to another acceptable tree is a violation unless otherwise stated in the
contract. For example, if the spacing is 10 feet by 10 feet and a tree is closer than
7.5 feet or over 12.5 feet to another planted tree, one tree is in violation for
spacing. If one of the trees is improperly planted due to another reason, charge
the spacing violation to the improperly planted tree and check the remaining good
tree as properly planted. For sites prepared by Brackë or other similar device if
all prepared sites are planted unless the contract directs otherwise checking
spacing may be irrelevant. This column is where too many or too few trees per
plot should be recorded. Inspectors will need to use judgment and guidance from
the silviculturist on sites where rock, wet spots or other items make part of the
plot unplantable. Allow variation in spacing and trees per plot to reflect realistic
conditions on the ground.
Column 9-Location: Several things are included in this category. A tree is
improperly planted if it is planted in debris, loose soil, duff, ashes, or similar
material or if the hole is back filled with sticks or other debris. A tree is also
considered incorrectly planted if the species is planted in an area of the unit where
it is not supposed to be, or multiple species are not intermixed as may be required
by the contract.
Column 10-Other: Again several things are included in this category and a note
should be made so that the contractor can correct problems. The stem should be
oriented between vertical and 90 degrees with the slope plane. Improper angle
may result from improper hole opening with hoes. If the tree looks erect above
ground but slanted below ground, then a below ground violation instead should be
cited. If the contract requires scalping and the scalp or cleared area is too small or
too shallow a violation should be noted. If air pockets are left below ground
around the tree roots, this violation may be recorded here.
Column 11-Total Planted Correctly: Record here, trees which are satisfactorily
planted.
Column 12-Total Sampled: Record here the total number of trees sampled on
the plot. This should be a sum of columns 2 through 11.
(5) After all plots have been taken and recorded for the pay item; calculate the
planting quality by the following formula:
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Planting Quality Percent = total trees planted correctly (column 11) times
100%, divided by total trees sampled (column 12)
Exhibit 2.82, 1, can be downloaded from the Regional webpage at:
http://fsweb.r9.fs.fed.us/departments/rr/silviculture/docs/Planting_Inspectors_Report_
R9_FSH_2417-2.8.xls.
3. Relative Importance of Individual Inspection Items. Some inspection items are more
critical to tree survival than others. Violations of some of these items will result in immediate
mortality, while others affect survival and growth over time. The following provides an insight
of the relative importance of inspection items for tree survival.
a. Critical violations with high risk of mortality.
(1) Cutting, stripping, or shortening root systems (this includes lateral roots) just
prior to planting. This is especially lethal to pines.
(2) Planting species in the wrong location. The contract shall specify how units
of mixed species are to be planted. If species are not planted as specified, this is a
violation. For example, the contract should specify that cedar or spruce should
not be planted on upland portions of the unit.
(3) Improper handling of trees that result in drying of roots, or overheating of
trees in general.
(4) Improper root orientation due to improper hole opening or root placement that
results in U-, J-, or L-shaped roots.
b. Important violations that result in growth reduction and may cause mortality on
severe sites.
(1) Poor tamping or foreign material in hole.
(2) Improper depth of tree.
(3) Poor scalp size and depth.
(4) Lack of clearing size and depth.
(5) Lack of protection if required by contract.
2.83 – Payment
Payment procedures are authorized by the CO. Inspectors should work through the examples in
the contract package and understand the payment procedure of the contract. There are different
payment options in various contracts. Payment procedures shall be fully understood by the COR
and all inspectors prior to implementing the contract.
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2.9 - REFORESTATION SURVEYS AND MONITORING
Reforestation surveys are required to monitor reforestation activities in artificial and natural
regeneration treatments. (Reference FSM 2472.4) They are used to determine stocking density,
distribution, species composition, and health of regeneration as required by the NFMA. They are
also used to monitor the effects of management treatments on lands with reforestation objectives.
Utilize FACTS for tracking reforestation activities including surveys. Maintain all reforestation
records in the computerized activity databases. Utilize the FACTS User Guide for data entry
procedures discussed in this section.
Utilize the CSE (Common Stand Exams) Documentation, tools and software to design and
collect plot survey data to monitor and evaluate reforestation activities. Data collected utilizing
CSE protocols will be stored in the FS-Veg * database. FS-Veg utilities can be used to run
stocking reports and determine compliance with NFMA 5 year reforestation requirements.
* (The Natural Resources Information System (NRIS) Field Sampled Vegetation (FSVeg) Module
is an Oracle database used to store data from stand examinations, grid-based strategic
inventories, permanent remeasured inventory plots, forest inventories, and other field sampled
vegetation sources. Visit the FSveg web site http://fsweb.ftcol.wo.fs.fed.us/fsveg/overview.shtml
for more information and access to documentation and software.)
2.91 - Quality Control and Reports
Monitoring reforestation treatments is very important. The effectiveness of treatments must be
determined and the results must be available for use by the Forest Service and other
organizations.
The following persons have responsibility for appropriate monitoring and reporting:
1. Regional Forester/Forest Supervisors.
a. Review database reports and stand records to ensure accurate and timely reporting
b. Provide program quality control checks through site visits and technical support.
2. District Rangers.
a. Ensure all regeneration harvest stands are appropriately coded in the FACTS database.
b. Ensure all other nonstocked land in the suitable timber base is appropriately coded.
c. Ensure stands that are satisfactorily stocked are recorded properly in the database.
2.92 – Project Status Classification
Stands are considered to be in reforestation status from the time they are identified as having a
reforestation need (diagnosed and planned activity entered into FACTS) until they have been
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certified as satisfactorily stocked and not requiring further reforestation treatment. In general,
adequate tree seedling stocking is required within 5 years of the final harvest on suited lands.
Planned regeneration harvests which cannot be adequately restocked within 5 years of final
removal should not be harvested. Where conditions warrant, such as in mixed swamp conifers,
or the central and Allegheny hardwoods, the entire regeneration sequence may take longer than 5
years; but adequate numbers of tree seedlings still must exist within 5 years of the final harvest.
See FACTS definitions and business rules to see what constitutes final harvests. For these types,
some special circumstances exist. Site preparation normally occurs from 3 years before to 3
years after a shelterwood establishment cut or uneven-aged cut or from 15 years before to 3 years
after a clearcut (CC) or shelterwood removal (SWR).
In these same types, stocking surveys may begin 1 to 3 years before either the reforestation
treatment or harvest treatment (whichever comes first) and normally would last until five years
after the SWR, CC, or selection cut. Stocking surveys (or silvicultural examination that includes
collecting seedling and interference data) are used to help determine the harvest prescription and
the reforestation needs that will be discussed in the prescription or the NEPA document. Stands
may be in the regeneration sequence from 7-20 years.
Classify stands in the reforestation sequence as progressing, adequately stocked, certified or
failing. Reassess failures promptly and schedule retreatment if needed. Identify desired and
minimum stocking levels in the silviculture prescription utilizing Forest supplements to this
handbook, local guides, objectives, standards and guides from Forest Plans. For more details on
the prescription process, refer to Section 2.3 - Reforestation Prescription and FSH 2409.17
Chapter 8.
1. Stands Progressing Toward Certification. Stands in this category have either been
planted, seeded, or have received treatments that resulted in natural regeneration. Regeneration
is developing but conditions have not yet been met to certify the stand as adequately stocked. In
Region 9 the definition of progressing toward certification varies depending on species and
regeneration technique.
a. Planted Stands. Generally, stands should not be in a progressing status for more
than four seasons although stands may be in this status longer when there are factors
that may limit regeneration success. Certify stands as adequately stocked as soon as
possible to avoid repeated survey costs. Stands which are certified as adequately
stocked but not fully established beyond possible impact by browsing, insect or
disease issues may require continued surveys and tending (treatments like release or
animal damage control.) Unless the Forest Plan or the stand prescription provides
different guidance, the stand should be failed if more than 20 % of the acreage needs
full planting or more than 30 % needs fill-in planting.
b. Naturally Regenerated or Artificially Seeded Stands. Classify stands planned for
natural regeneration as progressing satisfactorily following the first exam after
initiating the regeneration treatment. Often times this first survey will miss much of
the very small regeneration present on these sites. Stands should not be classified as
progressing for more than four successive years following the final harvest. Stands
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which are certified as adequately stocked but not fully established beyond possible
impact by browsing, insect or disease issues may require continued surveys and
tending (treatments like release or animal damage control.) Unless the Forest Plan or
the stand prescription provides different guidance, the stand should be failed if more
than 20 % of the acreage is non-stocked or more than 30 % is stocked below
minimum trees/acre specified in the silvicultural prescription.
2. Certified Stocked Stands. For the stand to be certified as satisfactorily stocked, it
must meet the following criteria:
a. Tree species stocking on the site must be with acceptable species based on the
prescription.
b. Both planted and natural regeneration must have survived at least three growing
seasons and be healthy with good buds and leaders.
c. The number of desirable seedlings on the stand must meet stocking levels described
in the silvicultural prescription.
d. The silviculturist has determined that the stand is adequately stocked even though it
may require additional surveys and treatments as it progresses past potential
browsing, insect or disease attacks.
The stand can be certified as satisfactorily stocked and regeneration period complete when these
criteria are met. Record this status in the stand folder and record reforestation status in the
FACTS database as certified. Update the stand condition in FS Veg data base.
Stands are most frequently certified following the fifth year exam after final harvest. Continue
with follow-up monitoring as needed after the stand is certified. Schedule the next anticipated
treatment, such as release or survey, in the FACTS database.
3. Failing Stands. Failing stands are stands that do not meet reforestation requirements
for certification without additional reforestation treatment such as site preparation, seeding,
planting, or fill-in planting. Reevaluate failed stands and schedule the necessary treatment
promptly. If it is decided to do no additional treatment, document the decision and reasons on
the stand prescription. Stands not meeting the criteria for progressing or certification should be
entered in the database as failing.
2.93 - Stocking Surveys
Conduct reforestation stocking surveys to determine the quality and quantity of regeneration.
Surveys are either done to assess unknown conditions in areas in order to determine treatment
needs, or to assess the success of the treatments. Sometimes additional surveys are taken in
order to facilitate the logistics of treatments. Survey methods include walk-through, and
systematic plots.
1. Types of Reforestation Surveys.
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a. Pretreatment Exam for Reforestation. Pretreatment exams are generally necessary
after catastrophic events like fire, blowdown, insects and disease mortality. On most
Eastern Region National Forests, especially when timber harvest is planned, pretreatment exams are conducted as part of silvicultural examination before beginning
NEPA analysis. Information obtained from these exams is used to diagnose and
prescribe stand treatment needs on lands suspected to be in need of reforestation.
Pre-treatment exams or silviculture stand examinations are required on most areas of
the Eastern Region. When performed, they should follow FS-Veg protocol and be
entered into FACTS with appropriate activity codes along with the codes for needed
reforestation work.
b. Stocking Surveys. Utilize post-treatment stocking surveys to monitor regeneration
and determine status (certified, progressing, or failing) after seeding, planting, or site
preparation for natural regeneration to determine estimated density and distribution of
seedlings and to assess whether additional treatments may be needed such as release
or animal damage control.
Optimum exam time is variable across the region because of differing vegetation
conditions and exam objectives. On some forests, leaf-on conditions are needed to
differentiate between various species and to estimate interference. On some forests,
surveys start after leaf drop at the end of the first full growing season following
planting, seeding, site preparation for natural regeneration, shelterwood seed cutting
or coppice harvest. Assess regeneration after the first and third growing seasons at a
minimum. A fifth year (or longer) survey may be required on some forest types or
individual forests.
Variations to the following procedures will need to be developed as forest
supplements. Conduct a combination of walk-through exams and quick plot exams.
Poorly stocked stands may be failed with one or two walk-through surveys. Wellstocked stands can be certified with only two walk-through surveys. Other stands
may require as many as three or four walk-through surveys and two quick plot
surveys before a final decision is made to certify stocking as adequate. Schedule
surveys based on past experience on similar sites. An assessment of regeneration
success by type can be useful in predicting the success of regeneration and surveys
needs.
(1) Planted Units. Schedule the survey based on time of year when planting
occurred. Survey planted units after one full growing season. On some forests
this can be done in the fall of the year on others it must be done in the late spring
early summer. Third-year surveys are 2 years later. Do a minimum of two walkthrough surveys, or one walk-through and one quick plot survey. The types of
surveys are defined in the CSE Users Guide.
(2) Natural Regeneration and Seeding Units. Survey stands after the end of the
second growing season after a site preparation treatment followed by seed
dispersal cycle. Site preparation is considered accomplished by a harvest or by a
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separate site preparation treatment. On some National Forests in the Eastern
Region, surveys are generally conducted during the leaf-on period after the first,
third, and fifth growing seasons following treatment. Do a minimum of two
walk-through surveys and a quick plot survey.
(3) Coppice Method. Forests should survey after one full growing season
following the regeneration initiating activity, which may be a harvest, site
preparation, prescribed burn, or other action. A minimum of at least one walkthrough survey is required. Conduct multiple walk-through exams where animal
activity may be impacting regeneration establishment. Use quick plot surveys
where stocking may be in question.
c. Maintenance Surveys. Maintenance surveys may be a combination of animal
damage, vegetation competition or other surveys. Schedule these surveys to monitor
certified stands where there is a risk that regeneration may be damaged by animals,
other agents or that competing vegetation may grow to suppress them.
2. Reforestation Stocking Survey Methods. Variations of walk-through and survey plots
are used for pre-treatment, pre-plant, post-treatment, and maintenance surveys. Plot design and
data collection standards can be customized through CSE. The silviculturist will determine the
type of exam based on expected stocking levels and goals of the exam. Plot surveys may be the
most common method used on some forests. Staked tree survival surveys will be conducted
consistent with the procedure described in Section 2.94.
a. Walk-through Surveys. Walk-through surveys do not require taking plots. These
are conducted by walking through the treatment area and recording ocular
observations. The examiner should have reforestation experience to ensure that
accurate observations are made. Survey the entire area of concern. Occasional plots
may be taken to record specific data but results do not have statistical basis.
Document results of the survey.
During the exam, observe regeneration under varying conditions such as topography,
aspect, and differences in site preparation method. Expect differences in regeneration
establishment in machine prepared areas versus prescribed burn areas and in uplands
and depressions. Walk through surveys are often used to informally verify whether
treatments initially prescribed are still necessary, whether other needs have
developed, or to verify conflicting information from contracted stocking surveys.
They are especially useful in stands where reforestation is clearly absent or clearly
sufficient in which case other types of surveys or plots are not needed.
b. Plot Surveys. Plot surveys use a systematic plot layout installed on a grid or on a
transect. Install a sufficient number of plots to produce a 1 percent minimum sample.
Refer to CSE handbook and Section 2.9 for developing sampling designs that are in
compliance with national protocols and standards. Any variations to the following
procedures need to be developed as forest supplements.
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(1) Plot Size. Select plot size suited to the stand being examined. Plot size should
be large enough to pick up three trees per plot. Do not change the plot size within
a unit.
(a) In most plantations and natural stands, 1/100th-acre plots will result in
the desired number of sample trees.
(b) In well-stocked stands with more than 400 well-distributed trees per
acre, on steep slopes or thick vegetation, smaller plots 1/300th-acre in size
is generally suitable. However, the 1/300th-acre plot is not suitable for
plantations with widely spaced trees. It may yield data that is difficult to
analyze for poorly or under stocked stands since there will be no trees
tallied even in areas with adequate stocking. One-thousandth-acre plots
may be used in stands where coppice treatments result in thousands of
sprouts per acre.
(c) Large plots, 1/50th-acre in size, may be needed for individual species
where trees were widely spaced, such as interplanting of white pine, to
achieve sufficient trees on the plot. Use a nested plot of a smaller radius
to determine numbers of trees and stocking of other naturally regenerated
species.
(2) Adjustment of Plot Radii on Slopes. Use 2.93 - Exhibit 01 to determine the
circular plot radii for 1/100th-acre or 1/50th-acre plots. The 1/300th- and 1/1000thacre plots are small enough that it is acceptable to adjust tape height manually.
To utilize the table, first find the slope of the plot area. Determine plot radius
from the table. Do not change the radius of plot or height of tape when going
from the extreme slope to the contour within a plot as this variation has been
calculated into the table. (Example: On a 50 percent slope, use a radius of 12.5
feet all around the 1/100th-acre plot with no adjustments.)
2.93 - Exhibit 01
Table of Plot Radii
Percent Slope
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Plot Size
1/100
1/50
11.8
11.8
11.8
11.8
11.9
12.0
12.1
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.8
16.9
17.0
Plot Size
Percent Slope
35
1/100
12.1
1/50
17.1
40
42
44
46
48
50
12.2
12.3
12.3
12.4
12.4
12.5
17.3
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.5
17.6
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(3) Examination within the Plot. Record trees in a systematic manner to avoid
missing trees. One method is to start on the uphill side (or north, if level) and
move in a clock-wise direction.
3. Survey Forms. It is appropriate to use locally adapted forms or preferably Common
Stand Exam (CSE) forms built into PDR (Personal Data Recorder). The following minimum
information should be collected. Recognize the purpose of each survey when deciding which
form to use and information to collect.
a. Stand Diagram. Stand diagrams are useful in some exams to identify the relative
location of site characteristics that affect reforestation based on the survey findings.
On the GIS or other spatial unit map, sketch features such as rock outcrops, landings,
skid trails, road access, untreated slash and other features for reference and to indicate
the ability to re-stock portions of the unit. Sketch the travel route for walk-through
exams indicating stocking levels. Indicate plot locations and plot lines when plots are
taken. Show the boundaries of areas having special site preparation needs or groups
of unstocked (or non-stockable) areas or plots to depict the shape and size of the
nonstocked area on the ground. See 2.93 - Exhibit 02 for an example of a stand
diagram for a stocking survey.
2.93 - Exhibit 02
Plot Locations in Stand
b. Analysis or Summary. Write an interpretation of the findings on the back of the
map or on a separate sheet. Indicate the type of survey (walk-through or quick plot),
purpose of survey, and analysis of the findings.
Examples of useful information to include in the write-up:
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(1) “Area meets stocking certification requirements.”
(2) “Area appears stocked and progressing adequately, schedule a survey next
year for certification.”
(3) “Schedule a prescription for replant on west 1/3 of unit.”
(4) “Total area has failed and needs new prescription.”
(5) “Stand has several holes larger than 2 acres that need replanting. Nonstocked areas are due to deer browse. Bud cap or treat with repellant.”
(6) “Stand has several areas larger than 2 acres where stocking is marginal, areas
are seasonal wetland and do not justify a replant to rectify marginal stocking.”
If the survey is a plot survey, tables may be constructed on each field form to
summarize stocked acres and non-stocked acres.
This information is needed to determine status of the stand and if further treatments
are needed.
c. Pretreatment Exam for Reforestation. Generally pretreatment exams will be done
using FS-Veg protocol, however ensure that adequate information is gathered. The
objective of such an exam is to confirm the appropriate reforestation treatments to
meet DSC. Often it is necessary to learn how many plantable sites are available and
how much stock of what species will be needed in a given reforestation unit. A
locally developed form or informal notes on the stand diagram may be needed to keep
track of things like rock outcrops, need for scalping or indicators of potential
problems like insect damage or herbivory. Check for rocks and other underground
conditions that affect plantability by using a hoe in a manner similar to what is used
when inspecting for planting spots in contract administration. This can usually be
done by running systematic or random transects across the unit keeping track of
plantable sites vs. nonplantable sites. Provide remarks necessary to prepare or modify
the prescription, contract and plan further treatments such as animal damage control
and access problems.
As a guide, collect the following information:
(1) Number of available plantable spots based on desired stocking level.
(2) Need for scalping and clearing requirements.
(3) Indicators of disease, such as white pine blister rust, that may affect species
selection.
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(4) Presence of non-plantable spots and reason for non-plantability. Percent
plantable ground equals the number plantable divided by total number of planting
spots times 100 percent.
(5) Indicators of rodent or other animal presence, which would affect
establishment.
(6) Access to unit and roads within unit.
d. Walk-through Survey. Utilize a locally adapted form and protocol to document
results of the walk- through survey. Utilize plot survey forms, or preferably
electronically collected data to document information on sample plots. Include stand
diagrams and an analysis of the condition; both are essential for documenting the
findings and conclusions of the walk-through survey.
e. Field Sampled Vegetation (FSVeg) and Common Stand Exam (CSE). Contains plot
vegetation data from field surveys such as FIA data, stand exams, inventories, and
regeneration surveys.
Use the CSE protocol to collect stocking data. The CSE protocols were developed to
provide national guidance for collecting stand examination data. CSE provides one
set of national data collection protocols, data codes, portable data recorder software,
forms, reports, and export programs. All stand examination data is now stored in one
common database structure, FSVeg. Data from multiple Districts, Forests, Regions,
and participating Agencies can be combined and analyzed. This approach simplifies
the use of data at multiple scales, and reduces maintenance and training costs. The
CSE protocols are used to collect stand, plot, tree, surface cover, vegetation, and
down woody data.
Use the stand examination data entry program for PDRs. After the data is collected in
the field, it is transferred to the FSVeg database for long-term storage. The PDR
program will store, check, and edit data as it is collected.
Data can be collected and recorded on paper forms and then loaded into FSVeg using
ExamsPC. After the data are entered, they are loaded into the FSVeg database. In
many stand exam contracts, the contractor must provide a copy of the paper form and
an electronic copy of the data. The ExamsPC program provides an efficient method
of meeting the contract specifications and a simple way to load the data into FSVeg.
See Common Exam Users Guide for additional guidance.
When using FSVeg and CSE protocol it may be necessary to record additional
information such as differentiating between planted and natural stock, tree condition
class, indicators of stress, plot stocking class, etc. An experienced local silviculturist
should be involved in deciding what data needs to be collected to meet conditions
described in the desired stand condition.
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2.94 - Staked Tree Survival Surveys
Staked tree surveys are used to provide consistent data for the annual national plantation survival
report of first and third year planted tree survival. These are required for major species for which
10,000 or more seedlings were planted on a National Forest. Forests may install staked tree
survival surveys for minor species or to meet additional local needs.
Staked tree surveys are not suitable for long-term performance evaluations such as the long-term
evaluation of genetic stock. Use permanent plot techniques for evaluations longer than 3 years.
Individual national forests may supplement this direction as needed to meet their specific needs.
Sampling of minor species and sampling all planted units may occur.
Design staked tree surveys to sample the species and stock types over varying conditions that
were planted. Staked tree surveys should be established in rows or plots immediately after
planting. (Throughout this section the term “plot” may be substituted for the term “row.”)
Conduct surveys after the first and third growing season. Track staked tree survival by
scheduling the planned or accomplished activity in the FACTS database.
1. Sample Size. Select plantations on each National Forest at the time of planting for
survival surveys. Design the survey so that at least 100 planted seedlings of each major species
and stock type will be staked. A major species is defined as any species which the forest plants
at least 10,000 trees. A minimum of 1 percent (.001) of all planted trees on each district will be
staked and must reflect variability in planting conditions and species. Plantations should be
selected without bias and should represent the major species, stock type, and planting sites being
planted. Do not misrepresent the sample by selecting all very harsh sites or all very good sites.
If a forest is planting less than 10,000 of any species, that species need not be sampled.
2. Survival Survey Design.
a. Guidelines for Locating and Installing the Staked Tree Row.
(1) Locate row(s) to sample varying conditions of the unit including such
conditions as aspect, topography as it affects distance to water table and planting
variability. Do not bias the outcome of the sample by the location of the row.
Insure that the staked trees represent more than one tree planter by staking
perpendicular to the direction followed by the planter.
(2) Install one to four rows of at least 10 trees. If conditions are variable, use
several short rows if this will give a better sample of different conditions.
(3) Install stake row(s) or select the sample trees the same day the unit is planted.
(4) Use wood, metal or plastic stakes, at least 12 to 18 inches long to mark the
first tree of each plot. Paint the upper 3 to 4 inches of the stake bright orange, if
desired, to be easily located. Other trees in each row maybe staked and marked
with a numbered wire construction flag. If the trees are protected with plastic tree
shelters, place highly visible markings on them to designate the sample trees.
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(5) Set stakes 6 to 18 inches away from tree to be marked. Always set stakes on
the downhill side of tree. On flat ground, consistently stake trees on the same
side. Drive the stakes firmly into the ground leaving sufficient height above the
ground to facilitate later location.
(6) Identify species to be staked before initiating the row. Units planted with a
single species will have stake rows of one species. It is acceptable to have either
single species or multiple species in the row in units planted with more than one
species. Assure there are at least 100 staked trees per major species planted on
each National Forest.
(7) From beginning of the row, stake each tree (of selected species) encountered
as the line progresses. Avoid abrupt turns in the line. Any major variance in line
direction should be recorded.
(8) Number stakes with a permanent ink marker or use stamped/scribed aluminum
or plastic tags. Attach tags with ring shank nails, screw nails, or multiple staples.
Numbers must be readable for at least 3 years
(9) GPS the beginning of the row and sketch a map locating an easily discernable
reference point and the rows for easy location later in the season.
b. Staked Tree Data. Record tree data on a staked tree form similar to the one shown
in 2.94 - Exhibit 01. Record initial tree data, such as tree species, at the time trees are
staked. Include date and stand number in the heading of the chart.
Return to the rows following leaf drop after the first and third growing season to
record the condition of each staked tree.
Record tree condition and any dead trees noting the cause of death in the mortality
column. Also note the cause of damage affecting live trees especially in the first year
survey to aid in evaluating future mortality. Calculate survival by each species and
stock type (see Section 2.95).
c. Causes of Mortality.
(1) Record environmental mortality such as frost heaving, winter desiccation,
flooding or high water table, water (too much or too little), insects, and disease.
(2) Record human related mortality such as poor planting quality or poor quality
nursery stock, if easily discernable.
(3) Record animal damage caused by deer, rabbits, mice, voles, other or unknown
(be as specific as possible).
(4) Competing Vegetation.
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2.94 - Exhibit 01
Example - Survival Form after the third year survey
Stake Row Survival Survey
Stand Number: 46301002
Date: 10/15/2004
Examiner: P. Bunyon Jr.
Stake No.
1
Species
RP
2
WP
3
Stock Type
BR
1st yr
Survival
3rd yr
Survival
Mortality/Damage
Cause
live stressed
dead
deer damage
C
live
live
RP
BR
dead
dead
drought or heat
4
5
6
WP
RP
RP
C
BR
BR
live
dead
live
live
dead
live
mechanical damage
7
8
RP
RP
BR
BR
live
dead
live
dead
25
RP
BR
live
no stake
poor planting
2.95 - Monitoring Reports
Reports described in this section are reports that used by Districts, Forests, and Regions to
monitor reforestation programs. Refer to FSM 2490 for required Washington Office (WO)
reports, which are compiled from Regional Office (RO) activity bases or other reporting
methods.
1. Seedling Survival Report. Staked tree seedling survival is reported to the WO on an
annual basis. The seedling survival report is the summary of staked row surveys and is due in
the RO by mid-December every year. Each Forest shall report first and third year seedling
survival based on staked trees representing at least 100 trees for each major species. The
Regional Silviculturist will provide the appropriate format to be used for reporting staked row
surveys.
Assure the years are reported appropriately. For example, in Region 9, the January 2009 report
will include first-year staked tree results for trees planted in the fall of 2006 and spring of 2007
and the third-year survival results for trees planted in the fall of 2004 and spring of 2005.
Species and stock types are recorded separately for each unit. Record both planted acres and
sample acres. These are equal when only one species and stock type is planted. When more than
one species or stock type is planted, a sample acre is the proportional area represented by the
species/stock type. Calculate sample acres by dividing number of trees of a particular species (or
stock type) by total trees planted in the unit and multiply the result by the planted acres.
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(TPA “species A” / total TPA planted) x Planted acres = Sample acres
Survival is based on the weighted average of sample acres by species/stock type.
2. Field Verification. Field verification of stands is an important monitoring step in
evaluating the reforestation program. Review the stand folder, database, and field conditions to
assure they are consistent and reflective of the actual condition.
Regional and Forest Silviculturists should review a sample of stands as part of their ongoing
service and review trips to the Districts. Check stand folders, survey results, and database entries
with actual field conditions.
3. NFMA Reforestation Requirements. Data recorded from stocking surveys and
certification of regeneration of stands having received a final harvest is very important to our
ability to show compliance with the NFMA requirement to adequately restock final harvests
within five years of the harvest. See FACTS activity codes and business rules for activities
which constitute a final harvest.