Human Rights Brief
Style Guide
Revised September 2014
1
Table of Contents
Plagiarism ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Human Rights Brief Format and Style ............................................................................................ 4
Article Formatting ................................................................................................................... 5
General Grammar and Style Guidelines .................................................................................. 5
General Editing Guidelines ............................................................................................................. 9
Apostrophes ........................................................................................................................... 11
Colons .................................................................................................................................... 11
Commas ................................................................................................................................. 12
Lists ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Periods ................................................................................................................................... 17
Semicolons............................................................................................................................. 17
Quotation Marks .................................................................................................................... 18
Copy Editing Resources: Grammar .............................................................................................. 20
Dangling Participles .............................................................................................................. 20
Parallel Construction ............................................................................................................. 20
Passive Voice ......................................................................................................................... 21
That v. Which ........................................................................................................................ 22
Commonly Confused Words ................................................................................................. 22
Copy Editing Resources: Style ..................................................................................................... 27
Capitalization ......................................................................................................................... 27
Abbreviations......................................................................................................................... 27
Contractions ........................................................................................................................... 28
Foreign Words and Transliteration ........................................................................................ 28
Gender ................................................................................................................................... 28
Paragraph Level ..................................................................................................................... 28
Sentence Level ....................................................................................................................... 29
Word Level ............................................................................................................................ 29
Things to Avoid ..................................................................................................................... 29
Copy Editing Checklist ................................................................................................................. 31
Fact Checking ............................................................................................................................... 32
Citation Checklist.......................................................................................................................... 33
Citation Guide ............................................................................................................................... 34
2
Signals ................................................................................................................................... 38
Short Cites: Id., Supra, and Hereinafter................................................................................. 38
Citation Cheat Sheet ..................................................................................................................... 40
HRB Content Tags ........................................................................................................................ 42
3
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a violation of Washington College of Law’s Honor Code. As such, the Human
Rights Brief has a zero-tolerance policy. Under Article IV of the Honor Code, Plagiarism
includes, but is not limited to: “incorporating into works he or she offers in compliance with such
program any passages taken either word for word or in substance from any work of another,
unless the student credits the original author’s work by quotation marks and footnotes or other
appropriate written explanation.” Anything that includes four or more words from the a source
must be in quotation marks or paraphrased. Please direct any questions regarding plagiarism to
your Senior Editors.
Human Rights Brief Format and Style
To ensure consistency in our publication, please adhere to the following general guidelines when
writing and editing pieces for the HRB.
4
Article Formatting
These guidelines apply to longer practitioner pieces for the Year in Review. For general
guidelines for all written work, see the following section on “General Grammar and Style
Guidelines.”

Articles use endnotes, not footnotes. Endnotes should be numbered with Arabic
numerals, not roman numerals. Endnotes should go outside quotation marks.

Headers and subheaders are in Times New Roman.

Headers are centered, bolded, in small caps, and in color.

Subheaders are left justified, in small caps, and de-bolded.

The bio line should be in a footer at the end of the first page.

Place a space after the asterisk in the bio line. There should be no space between the
name and the asterisk in the byline.
- EXAMPLES:
* Jane Smith is co-director . . .
by Jane Smith*
The byline should have a lowercase “b” with no colon or comma following it. The byline
should be in italics.
Correct:
by Megan Chapman*
Incorrect:
By: Megan Chapman

General Grammar and Style Guidelines
These guidelines apply to all student and practitioner pieces.

All writing must be submitted as a Microsoft Word document, single-space, Times New
Roman, 12 point font.

Student column drafts should be cited with footnotes. These can be informal, but there
must be sufficient information to conduct fact checking.

One space between a period and the following sentence.

Try to be gender neutral where possible. See “Gender” in the “Copy Editing
Resources: Style” section of this Style Guide.

Verb tense should be consistent throughout the article.
5

Do not use contractions.
- EXCEPTION: Where the contraction is used in a direct quotation.

Do not use periods in abbreviations.
- EXAMPLE:
Correct:
United Nations  UN
European Union  EU
Incorrect:
-
EXCEPTION:
United Nations  U.N.
European Union  E.U.
United States  U.S.

Court case names should be italicized, not underlined.

Non-English words and phrases should be italicized.

Use the Oxford comma.
- EXAMPLE:
Correct:
She likes apples, bananas, and plums.
Incorrect:
She likes apples, bananas and plums.
-
EXCEPTION: When the list is a direct quote from a source that does not use
serial commas.

Numbers 0 to 99 should always be spelled out. Anything above should be included in
numeral form unless it starts a sentence or you can use hundred, thousand, million, or
billion to eliminate the multiple zeros.

The words “state” and “government” should be lowercase except when a party to a
suit. If a state or government is party to a suit, try to use the country’s name where
possible. This rule also applies to the words president, administration, and other
similar words except when used as a substitute for an individual’s name.
Correct:
The European Court found Italy in violation of Article 1.
Incorrect: The European Court found the State in violation of Article 1.
Incorrect:
Human Rights Watch concluded that the State violated Article
1.
6

Acronyms
-
Once an acronym has been defined in a column, the acronym can be repeated
throughout the column (including all sub-parts) without being redefined.
-
UN does not need to be defined. Sub-entities (e.g., UNICEF, UNAIDS,
UNIFEM) must be defined. The author may use UN or United Nations
interchangeably throughout the article or column.
-
NGO does not need to be defined. The author may use non-governmental
organization and NGO interchangeably throughout the article or column.
-
Courts, Commissions, and Conventions should be abbreviated as shown below.
Alternatively, the author may use “Convention,” “Commission,” or “Court”
without defining the acronym, unless there is more than one of each kind
referenced in the piece.
European Court of Human Rights - ECtHR
European Convention on Human Rights - ECHR
Inter-American Court on Human Rights - IACtHR
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights - IACHR
American Convention on Human Rights - ACHR

When using percentages, always write out “percent.”

When using monetary figures, always use monetary symbols (e.g., $, ¢, €, etc.).
- EXAMPLE:
The damages totaled $11 million.

When using dollars, specify whether you are referring to U.S. dollars or Canadian dollars.
- EXAMPLE:
The United States paid the victims $1,000 USD.
Canada paid the victims Canadian $1,000.

Double quotation marks should be used for all quotations. Single quotation marks should
be reserved for quotations within a quotation.

Decades do not have apostrophes. Try to include the numerical expression of the decade
whenever possible (i.e., “in the 1970s” not “in the seventies”).
- EXAMPLE:
Correct:
1960s
Incorrect:
1960’s

Washington College of Law should be “the Washington College of Law”

In the text of an article, correct date formats include 1) the full date; 2) the month and day
if the year is unambiguous from the surrounding text; or 3) the month and year.
- EXAMPLE:
Correct:
May 20, 2009
7
May 20
May 2009
Incorrect:
May 20th
May of 2009
May, 2009

E.g., and i.e., should not be italicized. If possible, try to use an alternative such as “for
example.”

All spelling should be standard American English.
- EXAMPLE:
Correct:
color
center
analyze
traveling
Incorrect:
colour
travelling
centre
analyse
check
cheque
8
General Editing Guidelines

Always use track changes when editing an article.

Be thorough.

Keep all deadlines. They are extremely important to the smooth running of the HRB.
Missing a deadline by just one day can throw the editorial calendar off course.
Familiarize yourself with the editorial calendar and plan ahead so you can complete your
work on time. If there is an emergency or you are in a position where you cannot
complete your work by the deadline, contact your Senior Editor or the Co-Editors-inChief immediately.
Senior Editors

Do a complete editing job. Simply pointing out a problem is not sufficient. You must find
a solution.

Help the author to make their argument as clear and readable as possible while trying to
preserve their voice.

Use comment bubbles to make suggestions or enter a note. Do not enter comments
directly into the text.

Be professional and diplomatic in all communication with authors. Proofread everything
you send them. If you have any difficulties or concerns, contact the Co-Editors-in-Chief.
- REMEMBER: you are the official liaison of the HRB and the author is most likely
an expert in their field.

Save your document as a Word 97-2003 compatible document.
Staff Editors

Verify all citations. If you are editing a long form practitioner piece, look up each citation
and check it against the Bluebook to make sure it is in the proper format per your Senior
Editor’s instructions. For all pieces, verify that any assertions are properly supported in
the cited source and quotations are accurate. In addition, confirm that the author has not
plagiarized anything from the original materials.

Add appropriate hyperlinks throughout the piece.

Check for grammar and spelling errors.

Verify that the piece conforms to HRB style guidelines.

Keep all deadlines you set with your Senior Editor.
9

Do not contact an author yourself. If there is an issue that you believe needs to be
discussed with the author, contact your Senior Editor

Suggest high-resolution photos that fit the piece’s topic and that are free to use (Flickr
Creative Commons, Wikimedia Commons, etc., have options that may be reproduced
with HRB pieces).

Insert all appropriate tags at the end of the document for use on the website. Possible tags
are included at the end of this guide. **IMPORTANT** Be sure to precisely follow the
capitalization provided.
-
EXAMPLE: Tags: Armed conflict (non-international); Command responsibility;
Syria; Geneva Conventions
Substantive Editing
Senior Editors should keep the following guidelines in mind when making substantive edits to an
article that was externally submitted. REMEMBER: Your goal is to make the author’s article as
organized, clear, and readable as possible. Senior Editors may, however, provide more extensive
line edits for internal pieces.

Verify that the author’s argument supports his or her thesis and conclusion and that the
ideas flow logically throughout the piece. If it does not, give clear suggestions on how to
improve the organization and structure.

Make sure the author’s argument can withstand academic and legal scrutiny. Is the
argument logical in its conclusions? Is there sufficient support for the arguments the
author makes?
- REMEMBER: the question is not whether you agree with the author’s argument, but
rather whether they have properly supported their assertions.

Simply pointing out a problem to an author is not enough. You must find a solution or
give a suggestion.
- EXAMPLE:
Do not say: This is unclear.
Instead try: This is unclear. May I suggest ….

Preserve the author’s voice to the extent possible. Authors should recognize their articles
when they are returned.
10

Use comments to make suggestions for revisions. Do not enter comments directly into the
text, as this can be confusing for the reader. Clarity is very important, so make sure your
comments are specific and understandable.

Remember to maintain professionalism in your communications with the author. Be firm
but polite and diplomatic in your corrections and suggestions.
Copy Editing Resources: Punctuation
Apostrophes

Apostrophes are used for possessive phrases.
- Two people who share an item or event also share a single apostrophe.
-
For a single possessive, the apostrophe generally precedes the “s”; for a plural
possessive, the apostrophe generally follows the “s.”
-
Note that when a proper noun ends in an “s” and is made possessive, it should be
followed by an apostrophe after the “s”, e.g. “Mr. Jones’.”

Apostrophes are used to form contractions
- REMEMBER: Contractions are only used in the HRB within a direct
quotation.

Apostrophes should never be used to form the plural version of a word.
- EXAMPLES:
 I went to Mike’s house.
 I went to Mike and Chris’s wedding.
 Congress’s laws are poorly written.
 The two burglars’ tools were found on the lawn.
 That is the Smiths’ house.
Colons

In sentences, the words in front of a colon must always constitute a complete,
independent clause — i.e., they must form a whole sentence by themselves. The
initial independent clause may end in phrases such as “the following” or “as follows.”

When the material following a colon is used as a single response, a list, or responsive
sentences, it should answer, illustrate, or amplify the clause.
-
EXAMPLES:
Incorrect:
Correct:
The money went to: soup kitchens, homeless shelters, and
clinics.
The money went to soup kitchens, homeless shelters, and
clinics.
11
Correct:

Colons should never introduce a compound object of a sentence.
- EXAMPLES:
Incorrect:
The most popular pets are: cats, which are fearsome,
scratching beasts; dogs, whose loyalty is indefatigable; and
mice, which are small, white rodents.
Correct:

The money went to elementary institutions: soup kitchens,
homeless shelters, and clinics.
The most popular pets are cats, which are fearsome,
scratching beasts; dogs, whose loyalty is indefatigable; and
mice, which are small, white rodents.
Colons should be used to introduce quotations longer than one sentence.
Commas
“The comma causes trouble equally by its absence, by its presence, and by wrong
placement.” – Wilson Follett, Modern American Usage

Use the Oxford comma except when a list is a direct quote from a source.

Use a comma before the conjunction in a series
- EXAMPLES:
Incorrect:
She had Tofurkey, salad and vegan pumpkin pie for
Thanksgiving.
Correct:
She had Tofurkey, salad, and vegan pumpkin pie for
Thanksgiving.
Okay:
As her mother wrote angrily in her journal, “She had Tofurkey,
salad and vegan pumpkin pie for Thanksgiving.”

Commas are used to separate two or more independent clauses in a compound
sentence unless there are only two and they are very short.

Do not use a comma to unnecessarily splice two large sentences together.
- EXAMPLES:
 Spot is a small dog, but she is capable of great and long-lasting
achievement.
 Spot is a dog and she’s beautiful.
 Spot is a beagle, and Barker is a black and white mutt.
 Spot wants to go for a walk, but is it raining cats and dogs?
 Spot is a beagle, Barker is a black and white mutt, and Agatha is a gray cat.

Commas are used to separate two or more adjectives, each of which modifies a noun.
- EXAMPLES:
 I have a big, brown book.
12
 ACUS is a defunct federal agency.
 We salute a red, white, and blue flag.

If the first adjective modifies an idea expressed by the combinations of the second
adjective and the noun, no comma should be used.
- EXAMPLES:
 The restaurant is near the eastern city limits.
 He supports tough, technology-based environmental laws.

Adverbial and adjectival dependent clauses and phrases should not be set off by
commas from the main clause unless:
-
They precede it.
- EXAMPLES:
 If she goes without medicine, she will die.
 She will die if she goes without medicine.
 The trip will take more than an hour however you go.
-
They are nonrestrictive—i.e., they can be removed without altering the meaning
of the main clause.
- EXAMPLES:
 Dr. Tomas, who came to our meeting, will deliver the keynote address.
 The doctor who came to our meeting will deliver the keynote address.
 John, overcome by the smoke, was taken to the hospital.
 The man overcome by the smoke was taken to the hospital.

An introductory adverbial and participial phrase that immediately precedes the verb
should not be separated from it by a comma.
- EXAMPLES:
 Beneath the mailbox was a clean white envelope that someone
dropped.
 Sitting quietly there in the room is the third victim.
 Blocking out the path to the crooks was a high chain-link fence.
 Planted between the house and the garage was an oak tree.

Commas should be used to set off transitional adverbs unless they are integral to the
sentence.
- EXAMPLES:
 All of the evidence, therefore, was admitted.
 All of the evidence was therefore admitted.
 The witness’ credibility, consequently, has been undermined.
 The witness' credibility has consequently been undermined.
 He will, perhaps, seek better counsel.
 Perhaps he will seek better counsel.
13

Commas should set off complementary and antithetical phrases (not merely
compound verbs) that refer to a single, following word.
- EXAMPLES:
 I want to, and probably should, take a vacation.
 I can and should take a vacation.
 The defendant has had and will have chances to prove his innocence.
 You are one of the best, if not the best, students in my class.
 The man ran toward, rather than away from, the fire because his child was
in the house.

Antithetical phrases beginning with “not” are often set off by commas unless their
removal would destroy the meaning of the sentence.
- EXAMPLES:
 Kim, not Tim, washed the dishes.
 The jury found him guilty, not because of the evidence against him, but
because the color of his skin.
 I'm speaking to you not as your father but as your friend.
 He bought not only the TV but also the VCR.

Interdependent antithetical clauses should be separated with a comma.
- EXAMPLES:
 The longer he studied, the more he learned.
 Whatever the outcome, we gave it our best.

Commas should be used after expressions such as “that is,” “namely,” “i.e.,” and
“e.g.” These terms may be preceded by an open parenthesis, a dash, or a comma,
depending upon the magnitude of the break in the flow of the sentence.
- EXAMPLES:
 She dotes on her younger children, namely, Juan, Maria, and Marcos.
 The witness said that she was standing 50 feet away (i.e., she could not
have heard what he said unless he yelled) when the gun went off.

Commas should set off phrases beginning with “such as” but not phrases with “such
. . . as.”
- EXAMPLES:
 Katharine learned about the various ecosystems, such as oceans, rivers,
and swamps.
 Katharine learned about such ecosystems as oceans, rivers, and swamps.

Use of “including”: The phrase should be set off by commas at the start and the end.
- EXAMPLES:
 Several states are parties to the treaty, including Germany, France, and Italy,
demonstrating its acceptance.
14

Commas always appear on both sides of a year that follows a date with both
the month and the day, and on both sides of larger geographical unit that follows
a smaller one. If only the month or the season appear with the year, no commas
are necessary.
- EXAMPLES:
 The feds will always be wary when the anniversary of September 11, 2001,
rolls around.
 The candidate from Louisville, Kentucky, gave a good speech.
 Paris, France, is warmer than Paris, Maine.
 June 1995 was the rainiest month in history.
 In June 1995 it rained every day.

Names and Titles: When a name accompanies a title, the following phrase should be offset by commas before and after.
- EXAMPLES:
 Hadar Harris, Executive Director of the Center, led the session.
 The Editors-in-Chief, Diana Damschroder and Christa Elliott, adore
semicolons.

Commas should be used to set off interjections, words in direct address, and
parenthetical elements that are too closely related to the sentence to be set off by
parentheses or dashes.
- EXAMPLES:
 No, sir, there isn’t any whiskey left.
 Matt, do not sit there.
 The plaintiff, the court said, would have to seek relief elsewhere.
 He did, at least, tell me in advance that he would be late.

Commas are used to set off direct (but not indirect) questions included at the end (but
not the beginning) of a sentence.
- EXAMPLES:
 The question is, how do you jump-start negotiations when the parties are
at loggerheads?
 The court wondered why the plaintiff's lawyer had not crossed-examined
the witness.

Commas should be used to prevent mistaken junctions and to separate unrelated
numbers.
- EXAMPLES:
 Mary jumped up when John came in the room, and gasped.
 In 1879, 124 children died of consumption.
15

When the clauses of a compound sentence are joined by a conjunction, place a comma
before the conjunction unless the clauses are short and closely related.
EXAMPLE:
 The two men quickly bolted the door, but the intruder had already entered
through the window.
Em Dashes ( — )

Most word processing programs will convert two hyphens automatically to a single
em dash. Remember to include a space both before and after the em dash.

Em dashes should be used to set off radical breaks in the grammar or meaning of
sentence. They are useful for interjecting emphasis or explanation.
- EXAMPLE:
 She said — and we’ve got this on tape — “you can have it
for a hundred bucks.”

Em dashes may also be used to set off phrases that have internal commas and to
introduce phrases such as “that is” or “namely.”
- EXAMPLES:
 John studied the classics — Homer, Dante, and Shakespeare — while Jane
preferred modern authors — Greene, Ludlum, and Cook.
Lists

Use numbers only when the listed phrases are very long and numerous, when the
order of the phrases is significant, or when you want to refer to them later by
number.
- EXAMPLES:
 The most popular pets are cats, dogs, and mice.
 These are the most popular pets: cats, dogs, mice, and birds.
 The most popular pets are cats, which are fearsome, scratching beasts;
dogs, whose loyalty is indefatigable; and mice, which are small, white
rodents.
 The most popular pets are (1) cats, which are fearsome, scratching beasts
that many people love to hate; (2) dogs, which pay slavish attention to
people, especially those who fear them; (3) mice, which are small, white
rodents without a shred of personality; and (4) birds, which cannot
distinguish between fingers and sunflower seeds.
 These are the most popular pets: cats, which are fearsome, scratching
beasts; dogs, whose loyalty is indefatigable; mice, which are small, white
rodents; and birds, which can't distinguish between fingers and sunflower
seeds.
 The most popular pets are [note the lack of any punctuation mark here]
cats, which are fearsome, scratching beasts; dogs, whose loyalty is tireless;
16
mice, which are small, white rodents; and birds, which cannot distinguish
between fingers and sunflower seeds.
Periods

Use periods at the end of declarative and imperative sentences.
- EXAMPLES:
 My professor wrote a book.
 Take out the trash.

Use periods to end indirect questions.
- EXAMPLE:
 This raises the issue whether the practice of non-refoulement
has become a peremptory norm.

Do not use them at the end of sentences incorporated into other sentences, whether
within parentheses, brackets, dashes, or quotation marks.
- EXAMPLES:
 My professor wrote a book (it’s not very good) on the First Amendment.
 Her statement, “My mother said she was afraid,” is hearsay.
Semicolons

Semicolons should be used between two independent, coordinate clauses that are not
separated by a conjunction. The second clause is usually responsive to an implicit
question in the first.
- EXAMPLES:
 The umbrella is not in the stand; John must have taken it to work.
 There was no one in the store when I entered; the clerk had gone to the
bathroom.

When adverbs, rather than conjunctions, lead a subsequent independent clause, they
should be preceded by a semicolon if the two clauses are to be put in the same sentence
(but note that such clauses also can be treated as separate sentences). E.g., however,
thus, hence, indeed; besides, therefore.
- NOTE: “Yet” and “so” are adverbs but are generally accepted as conjunctions.
- EXAMPLE:
 I went to the store to buy fish; however, they did not sell any seafood.

Use semicolons to separate the coordinate clauses of a compound sentence that have
internal commas.
- EXAMPLE:
 Killer is a beagle, which is a calm breed of dog; Barker is the mutt that I
found at the pound; and Agatha is a gray cat, which followed me home one
day.
17

Semicolons should be used to separate long and complex phrases in a series.
EXAMPLE:
 The most popular pets are cats, which are fearsome, scratching beasts;
dogs, whose loyalty is indefatigable; and mice, which are small, white
rodents.
Quotation Marks

Periods and commas should go INSIDE of a quotation mark.
- EXAMPLES:
 The Court considered it to be “inhuman and degrading.”
 The definition of “inhuman and degrading,” however, is not clear.
 Semicolons and colons should be placed OUTSIDE quotation marks or parentheses.
- EXAMPLE:
 Curtis assumed that everyone in the room had read “Mr. Prokharchin”; he
alluded to it several times during the discussion.

Exclamation and question marks can go inside or outside quotation marks, depending on
whether they appear within the quoted material.
- EXAMPLES:
 Can you believe she said, “I don’t like to learn about grammar”?
 I said, “Can you believe she doesn’t like to learn about grammar?”

Quotations within quotations should be marked with a single quotation mark.
- EXAMPLE:
 “Those who arrive on our shores seeking asylum find not the ‘golden door’ of
freedom but the steel doors of prison.”

Omissions: When omitting part of a quotation, use ellipses to replace the omitted
portion. Put spaces before and after the three periods in the ellipses and in between each
period (i.e., where*.*.*.*they).
- EXAMPLE:
 “If the international community fails to address the needs of Darfurians . . .
this genocide may very well continue unchecked.”

Block Quotations: Do not use quotation marks unless something is internally quoted
within the block quote. Instead, indent the block quote on both sides. Block quotations
should never begin with ellipses.

Use quotation marks for quoted material less than 50 words long; otherwise, use a block
quote.
18

Citation: If an author is quoting from another source, they should either attribute the
source within that sentence or paraphrase the material without using quotation marks.

Endnotes should go outside quotation marks.
- EXAMPLE:
“She is nice.”12

If a quotation that is only part of the sentence in the original forms a complete sentence as
quoted, the first letter should be capitalized even if it was not the beginning of the
sentence. Brackets are not needed.
- EXAMPLE:
Original Text: “He went to the park and then he drove home.”
Quoted Text:
The police report noted, “He drove home.”

If a quote follows a direct attribution (e.g., “he said,” “she said,” “they said”) the first
letter should be capitalized. If “that” is inserted, the first letter is lower case.
- EXAMPLE:
 He said, “She is nice.”
 He said that “she is nice.”
19
Copy Editing Resources: Grammar
Dangling Participles

Participles must be as close as possible to nouns they modify.
- EXAMPLES:
Incorrect:
John forgot to lock the door, exhausted from the workout.
Correct:
Exhausted from the workout, John forgot to lock the door.
Incorrect:
Correct:
Jane went out to walk the dog, forgetting to lock the door behind
her.
Jane, forgetting to lock the door behind her, went out to walk
the dog.
Parallel Construction

Multiple equivalent elements in a sentence must be constructed similarly, whether they
are subjects, verbs, objects, predicates, prepositions, or dependent clauses. Each
element must form a whole grammatical sentence if the other equivalent elements are
removed.
- EXAMPLES:
 Multiple subjects:
Incorrect:
Drama, playing tennis, and collection of stamps are my favorite
activities.
Correct:
Acting in dramas, playing tennis, and collecting stamps are my
favorite activities.
Correct:
Drama, tennis, and stamp collecting are my favorite activities.
 Multiple verbs:
Incorrect:
The baby stood up, has fallen, and has cried.
Correct:
The baby stood up, fell, and cried.
Correct:
The baby has stood up, has fallen, and has cried.
 Multiple predicated:
Incorrect:
Blue has broken her leash, the gate, and caught a rabbit.
Correct:
Blue has snapped her leash, broken the gate, and caught a rabbit.
Correct:
Blue has snapped her leash, which was new; has broken the gate
that leads to the park; and has caught a wild rabbit, which she
carried home and ate.
 Multiple prepositions of objects of a preposition:
Incorrect:
The hound dog ran by the door, the mailbox, and through the
park.
Correct:
The hound dog ran by the door, past the mailbox, and through the
park.
Correct:
The hound dog ran by the door, the mailbox, and the park.
20
 Multiple gerunds as objects of a preposition:
Incorrect:
The woman was arrested for loitering, solicitation of “Johns,” and
for indecency.
Correct:
The woman was arrested for loitering, soliciting “Johns,” and
dressing indecently.
 Multiple dependent clauses:
Incorrect:
He said that he tried to find the book, it was not where he left it,
and that she should buy another.
Correct:
He said that he tried to find the book, that it was not where he left
it, and that she should buy another.
 Coordinating conjunctions:
Incorrect:
I will fix the sentence either by retyping it or entering your
changes by hand.
Correct:
I will fix the sentence either by retyping it or by entering your
changes by hand.
Incorrect:
Both by land and sea, they are arriving.
Correct:
Both by land and by sea, they are arriving.
Correct:
By both land and sea, they are arriving.
Passive Voice

Avoid using the passive voice; most sentences can be rewritten into the active voice.
- EXAMPLES:
Passive:
The rabbit was eaten by my dog.
Active:
My beagle Killer ate the rabbit.
Passive:
The hall is being swept.
Active:
The man is sweeping the hall.
Passive:
The bill will be passed by a wide margin.
Active:
The house will pass the bill by a wide margin.
NB: The passive voice may be necessary when the writer does not wish to attribute the
action described by the verb to a particular person, or when she does not know who
committed the act. (“I was told the man is a thief.”)
NB: The following sentences do not use the passive voice.
-
The verb “to be” is reflexive:
 My beagle’s name is Killer.
 Killer is being an obnoxious brat today.
-
Helping verbs merely change the tense:
 Killer has been my dog for a long time.
 My professor has been writing that book for a long time.
21
That v. Which



“That” and “which” introduce adjectival/relative clauses.
“That” should be used when the clause is being used to identify exactly what is being
discussed, i.e., when the clause restricts the meaning of the noun to an identifiable
thing or group of things. Restrictive clauses begin with "that" and should never be set
off with commas.
“Which” should be used when the noun has already been sufficiently identified. The
clause merely imparts additional information to the reader. Thus, the clause does not
help to identify, or restrict, the noun. Nonrestrictive clauses begin with "which" and
should be set off by commas.
-
EXAMPLES:
 There are three chairs in the room. Mary is sitting in one of the two red
chairs. The red chair that Mary is sitting in is the most comfortable.
[The clause is necessary to identify which red chair is most comfortable.]
 The blue chair, which is covered in dog hair, is the most comfortable.
[Because there is only one blue chair, no more information is necessary to
identify it. The clause does not restrict the possibilities as to which chair is
under discussion; it merely adds other information about the chair.]
 The book that I read was on the War for Independence.
[The point of the sentence is to identify the subject of the book that the
speaker read. The adjectival clause “restricts” the noun by identifying
which book is being discussed.]
 The book, which I read, was on the War for Independence.
[The fact that the speaker has read the book is tangential to the point of the
main clause, which is the subject of the book. The fact that the speaker has
read the book does not help to identify it; it is merely an aside.]
Commonly Confused Words

A v. An - Use “a” before a pronounced “h,” long “u” or “eu,” and a word such as
“one.” A word’s beginning sound, not beginning letter, is determinative of whether “a”
or “an” is appropriate.
- EXAMPLES:
 A hotel, a euphonious word, a union, a one, a NATO meeting.
 An honor, an heir, an NAACP meeting.

Accept v. Except - Accept means to receive. Except means to exclude.
- EXAMPLES:
 I accept your kind offer.
 The law excepts no one.
22

Affect v. Effect - Affect is usually a verb (except in psychology, describing a person’s
appearance) and means to influence. Effect, as a verb, means to cause; as a noun it means
result.
- EXAMPLES:
 A high tariff will affect our cotton exports.
 I want to effect a settlement (verb).
 For every effect, there is a cause (noun).

Alternative v. Option - An alternative is a choice between two. An option is a choice
between two or more.

Although v. While - While means “during the time that.”
- EXAMPLES:
 I took a nap while he went for a walk.
 Although Wallace is strict, he is fair.

Altogether v. All Together - Altogether means wholly, totally. All together means
everybody together, or all at the same time.

Appraise v. Apprise - Appraise means to ascertain value. Apprise means to inform.
- EXAMPLE:
 After you appraise the gem, please apprise me of its value.

As Per - The “as” is not necessary.
- EXAMPLE:
 Per her instructions, I sent the letter.

As Long As - Use “as long as” rather than “so long as.”

Assure/Ensure/Insure - Assure means to confirm or to give confidence to someone.
Ensure means to make certain. Insure means to indemnify or to protect.
- EXAMPLE:
 I assure you that I called to ensure that he would insure the home against fire.

Because v. Since - Since connotes the passage of time. Do not use “since” and “because”
interchangeably.
- EXAMPLES:
 Laura will get a good job because she is smart and driven.
 Laura has done well since she demonstrated that she is smart and driven.

In Behalf of v. On Behalf of – In behalf of means in the interest or for the benefit of. On
behalf of means as a representative of.
- EXAMPLES:
 The witness spoke in behalf of the accused.
 Joanna went to the meeting on behalf of her sister, who was sick.
23

Between v. Among - Between can only be used to describe the relationship of two words
or objects; for three or more, the word among is used.
- EXAMPLES:
 She facilitated in negotiations between the government and the rebels.
 She facilitated in negotiations among the government, the rebels, and the
counter-revolutionaries.

Common v. Mutual - Common means belonging to two or more persons. Mutual means
reciprocal or interchangeable.

Comprise v. Compose - Parts compose the whole. The whole comprises (includes,
brings together) the parts. Do not use is comprised of.
- EXAMPLES:
 The 50 states compose the United States of America.
 The United States of America comprises the 50 states (NOT: is comprised of
the fifty states…).

Continual v. Continuous - Continual means in rapid succession. Continuous means
without cease.

E.g. v. I.e.
- E.g. is the abbreviation for exemplae gratiae, or “for example.” Use it when you are
listing some, but not all, of the applicable. NB: In general, don’t use unless you have
three or more.
- I.e. is the abbreviation for id est, or “that is.” Use it when you are giving an exact and
complete example.
-
EXAMPLES:
 I like many kinds of cereal, e.g., Crispix (America’s favorite cereal), Kashi
GoLean Crunch!, and Cheerios.
 I like three—and only three—kinds of cereal, i.e., Crispix (America’s favorite
cereal), Kashi GoLean Crunch!, and Cheerios.

Elicit v. Illicit - Elicit means to draw out, bring forth, provoke. Illicit means to be illegal,
illegitimate, unlawful.
- EXAMPLE:
 One’s illicit acts can elicit harsh rebukes, fines, or even jail time.

Engender
- In most contexts, engender means to bring into existence or give rise to:
EXAMPLE:
 “Every cloud engenders not a storm.” — W. Shakespeare, “King Henry VI,”
Part III.
-
In gender studies, however, engender means to give something a gendered meaning:
24
EXAMPLE:
 They would like to engender the peacekeeping operation so it respects the
unique needs of women and men alike.

Farther v. Further - Farther is a measure of distance. Further indicates time or degree
- EXAMPLES:
 The farther I travel…
 The further I want to explore…

Floundering v. Foundering - When one is floundering, he or she is struggling or
thrashing about. When one is foundering, he or she is failing at something, misfiring, etc.

Insipient v. Incipient - Insipient means stupid or foolish. Incipient means beginning to
exist or appear.

Into v. In To – Into is used to indicate one motion or a transformation. In all other
contexts, use in to.
- EXAMPLES:
 She walked into the room to deliver the letter.
 She walked in to deliver the letter.
 The town hall meeting deteriorated into a shouting match.

Lay v. Lie - Lay means to place something. Lie means to recline.
- EXAMPLES:
 The policeman asked the burglar to lay down his gun.
 The child was tired, so his parents told him to lie down and take a nap.
-
EXCEPTION: Lay is the past tense of lie, but lay is never used to mean to recline in
the present tense.
EXAMPLES:
 Yesterday, he lay on the floor sleeping.
 Correct: Lie down there.
Incorrect: Lay down there.

Less v. Fewer - Less refers to quantity or degree. Fewer refers to number.
- EXAMPLES:
 His troubles are less than mine. (His troubles are not as great as those that I
have.)
 His troubles are fewer than mine. (His troubles are not so numerous as mine.)

Percent v. Percentage - Percent is always used with a number. Percentage is used
without a number.
- EXAMPLE:
 A large percentage of our funds have no sales charge.
25

Prescribe v. Proscribe v. Circumscribe - Prescribe means to recommend, order, or lay
out. Proscribe means to forbid, ban, or make illegal. Circumscribe means to restrict,
refine, or demarcate.
- EXAMPLE:
 The doctor cannot prescribe for my migraine proscribed medication, because
the use of drugs is circumscribed by the Food and Drug Administration.

Principle v. Principal - A principle is a fundamental truth. A principal is the chief, a sum
placed at interest, or one who employs another.

Reticent v. Reluctant - Someone who is reticent is quiet, reserved, or taciturn. Someone
who is reluctant is unwilling or unenthusiastic.
- EXAMPLE:
 Her reluctance to discuss the matter with him made her somewhat reticent.

That v. Who - That refers to a thing or a class of people. Who refers to people or
domesticated animals.
- EXAMPLES:
 He is the kind of person that will settle only for perfection.
 She is the one who heads the task force.

Who v. Whom - Use who for the subject, whom for the direct object.
- EXAMPLES:
 The spy who came in from the cold.
 The spy whom Dr. Evil killed.
26
Copy Editing Resources: Style
Capitalization

Regarding government bodies:
- EXAMPLES:
Incorrect:
U.S. Government
Correct:
U.S. government
Incorrect:
U.S. Administration
Correct:
U.S. administration

Parties to a Treaty:
- EXAMPLES:
Incorrect:
Correct:
Correct:
Incorrect:
Correct:
State Parties or States Party
States Parties
Member State
state party or State party
State Party

State v. state:
 Capitalize proper names: Washington State
 Do not capitalize unofficial designations: Northwestern states
 Do not capitalize state when used alone: The judgment affected the state.
 Capitalize if party to a suit

Treaty titles:
 Check UN and other web sites to make sure capitalization is consistent with the
official title.
E.g., Convention against Torture, NOT Convention Against Torture.
 Only capitalize “convention” if it is used to replace a proper noun.
E.g., Zimbabwe has not signed any human rights conventions.

Verify the capitalization of titles, e.g., Secretary of State. The Chicago Manual of Style
provides many useful standards and EXAMPLES.
Abbreviations

When referring to an agency, institution, corporation, statute, or other entity, the name
of which is long or cumbersome, consistently use an abbreviated form after introducing
it parenthetically. Do not use “hereafter” and do not put quotation marks around the
abbreviation.
- EXAMPLES:
 Introduction: International Committee for the Red Cross (ICRC) monitors
compliance with the Geneva Conventions. The ICRC has found . . .
27

Noun v. adjective: U.S. v. United States
 “United States” is the noun form: The United States signed a treaty.
 “U.S.” is the adjectival form: The U.S. administration is whack.
Contractions

Do not use contractions unless in a direct quote.
Foreign Words and Transliteration

Italicize foreign words or phrases that have not been incorporated into common
English usage. Check a dictionary if you’re not sure.

When using transliterated names, BE CONSISTENT. Use what is most commonly used,
and stick with it throughout. E.g., Al Qaida, al Qaeda. Consult other HRB columns to
maintain consistency throughout the publication. If you are unsure about which version to
use, check with your Senior Editor or the Co-Editors-in-Chief.
Gender

Avoid using s/he, him/her, or his/her.

Try to make all language gender neutral by employing the following techniques as
suggested in The Elements of Style by Strunk and White:
 Use the plural rather than the singular.
EXAMPLE:
Correct:
Writers must address their readers’ concerns.
Incorrect: The writer must address his readers’ concerns.
 Eliminate the pronoun.
EXAMPLE:
Correct:
The writer must address readers’ concerns.
Incorrect: The writer must address his readers’ concerns.
 Use the second person instead of the third person.
EXAMPLE:
Correct:
As a writer, you must address your readers’ concerns.
Incorrect: The writer must address his readers’ concerns.
Paragraph Level

Paragraphs: Try to avoid one and two sentence paragraphs. Can the sentences be
added to the paragraph that precedes or follows them? If not, is it a thought that could
benefit from further development?
28

First/Second/Third: Do not use a “first” without a “second” or an “(a)” without a
“(b).”
Sentence Level

Sentences may begin with adverbs such as however, nevertheless, therefore, etc.

If using “e.g.,” try to use at least three authorities to support it. If possible, use an
alternative phrase such as “for example.”

Always use “to” instead of “in order to.” It is more succinct and means exactly the
same thing.

NEVER use “the fact that.” Say what you are trying to say and avoid filler
language.

Run-on Sentences: When possible, divide long and possibly confusing sentences into
several independent sentences.

“This”: Avoid using the word “this” to singularly refer back to the preceding
sentence. Instead of, “This supports the thesis,” use, “This principle supports the
thesis.”
Word Level

Do not use “Natasha and/or Shara.” Instead, use “Natasha or Shara or both.”

Avoid tentative words such as “maybe,” “perhaps,” “probably,” and “seems.”

Pronouns: Avoid ambiguous pronouns such as “it,” “this,” and “that.”

Section/§: In all text, spell out “section.”

Toward/Towards: Prefer “toward.”

“Unique” is by definition singular and should never be modified.
Things to Avoid

Personal expressions: i.e. I think, I believe.

Passive voice.

Hopefully: This word is weak and is rarely used correctly.

Irregardless: This is not a word!
29

One of the most: Avoid this feeble formula. “One of the most exciting developments of
modern science is…” There is nothing wrong with the grammar; the formula is simply
threadbare.

Oriented: A clumsy, pretentious device, much in vogue. Find a better way of indicating
orientation or alignment or direction.

Said: Never use “said” in the following manner: “Said provision makes the treaty selfexecuting.”

So: Avoid, in writing, the use of so as an intensifier: “so good”; “so warm”; “so
delightful.” Where emphasis is necessary, use stronger words.

Utilize: Prefer use.

Very: Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis is necessary, use stronger words.

Wise: Avoid appending “-wise” to nouns when there is a more appropriate modifier, or a
clearer way of presenting the information.
- EXAMPLE:
 Instead of, “The day was fine, weather-wise,” use: “The weather was fine.”
30
Copy Editing Checklist
Staff Editors, use this checklist to ensure a complete and thorough copy edit:
Make sure the article includes an appropriate introduction, thesis and conclusion.
- Make certain that the introduction contains a clear and concise thesis
statement.
- Confirm that the conclusion supports the introduction without adding new
material.
- Verify that all arguments in the piece support the author’s thesis and
conclusion.
Headings
- Ensure all headings properly introduce the information that follows them.
- Confirm that all headings are clearly organized and guide the reader through
the piece.
Paragraphs
- Make sure that each paragraph begins with a strong thesis sentence.
- Check that each paragraph addresses only one major concept.
- Correct any unwieldy or inappropriately short paragraphs.
Sentences
- Correct any run-on sentences or sentence fragments.
- Ensure that all sentences are an appropriate length.
- Verify that each sentence is readable and understandable.
Grammar
- Check all punctuation usage: commas, colons, semicolons, em dashes, periods,
etc.
- Remove contractions.
- Ensure that the entire article is in the same verb tense: past, present, future.
- Remove any inappropriate use of passive voice.
Style
- Confirm that all numbers are in the required format.
- Verify that capitalization is used correctly.
- Ensure that all acronyms are correct and have proper punctuation.
- Confirm that there is one period at the end of each sentence.
Check spelling. Remember, spell check does not catch all errors!
See Commonly Confused Words
31
Fact Checking
General
 Check spellings of names and locations.
 Check dates and chronology of events.
 Check names used in the article (Google is your best friend).
 Perform outside research (online, Westlaw/Lexis) if necessary.
 Note obvious grammatical errors.
 Look up capitalization and abbreviations (e.g., ICCPR, ICESCR).
Quotations
 Ensure that quotations are copied accurately, including exact punctuation, capitalization,
and emphasis (such as italics).
 Omitted or changed letters from words should be indicated with ellipses, brackets, or
both, as appropriate.
 Make sure the quotation is correctly attributed.
Statutes, Treaties, and Cases
 When specific sections of laws, treaties, or cases are mentioned, skim the indicated.
documents to ensure that the article’s text accurately reflects the substance of the law.
 Make sure the name of the statute, treaty, or case is correct.
Foreign Words
 Italicize unless the word has entered general English usage (a good dictionary should tell
you).
 Make sure any accent markings are correct.
 Do not use online sources for this — they tend to be unreliable.
 Consult sources in the War Crimes office when necessary.
32
Citation Checklist
Articles Editors are responsible for checking the accuracy and completeness of citations in each
article. Looking up every citation will likely be the most time consuming part of the editing
process, but is absolutely essential. The HRB is a resource for practitioners around the world and
inaccurate citations damage the reputation of our publication and significantly detract from
the usefulness of the information. This is an extremely important step in the editing process
and one of the most important duties of an Articles Editor. Please take it very seriously.
Is there any information that needs a citation and does not have one? If so, find an
appropriate citation.
REMEMBER: Never cite to Wikipedia or other disreputable sources.
If you have trouble finding a reliable citation, contact your Senior Editor for help.
Look up every citation.
- Verify that the source itself exists.
- Make sure the cited information appears on the page number it is cited to.
- If the citation does not have a pincite (i.e., a citation to a specific page,
article, section, or other subset of the document), add one where
appropriate.
If you have trouble finding a source, Reference Librarians are great resources!
If the source is a website:
- Verify that the site is still active.
- Include the date last visited in parentheses after the citation.
Confirm the accuracy of all citations. Does it say what the author says it does?
Verify that all quotations are correct (word-for-word) and properly cited.
Identify any instances of plagiarism.
- If the plagiarism is minor, add quotation marks or change the language
where appropriate. (It is very common for authors to lift language directly
from a source, so keep an eye out for this).
- If the plagiarism is major, contact your Senior Editor and the Co-Editors-inChief immediately.
If you suspect language is plagiarized, it is helpful to start by copying and pasting it
into an internet search.
Check all citations to make sure they are in proper Bluebook format.
- Always check citations directly against the rules in the Bluebook.
- Check the CITATION GUIDE in this Style Guide for helpful EXAMPLES.
Guide to Foreign and International Legal Citations, on reserve in the
library is another useful resource.
Remove all hyperlinks. Websites should not appear in a different font or color from the
rest of the citation.
To remove hyperlinks in Microsoft Word:
- PC’s: Right click on the link and select “Remove Hyperlink.”
- Macs: Press Apple + K and then select “Remove Hyperlink.”
Double check all uses of “supra” and “hereinafter” for any inconsistencies. Make sure
to link your endnotes appropriately.
Verify that all citations are endnotes with Arabic numerals.
33
Citation Guide
This is intended as a quick reference guide and should not be treated as an authoritative resource. Always check citations directly
against the Bluebook. You will learn basic citation rules in your Legal Rhetoric class, but we understand that many of the citations
used in the HRB can be more complex, particularly those related to international legal sources. If you are unsure about how to cite a
source, contact your Senior Editor for help.
BLUEBOOK
RULE
BASIC CITATIONS
CITATION
(USE JOURNAL TYPEFACE)
U.S.
Rule 10; T.1;
T.6
Ricci v. Destefano, 530 F.3d 87,
88 (2d Cir. 2008).
Foreign
Rule 20.3; T.2
(for countryspecific
information)
Cour d’appel [CA] [regional court
of appeal] Paris, 1e ch., Dec. 20,
1994, J.C.P. 1994, II, 22250, note
Neirinck.
ICJ and
PCIJ Cases
Rule 21.5;
T.3; T.10
East Timor (Port. v. Austl.), 1195
I.C.J.
90, 104 (June 30).
SOURCE
Court Cases
OTHER NOTES
Cite U.S. Supreme Court cases to U.S.
Reports if published therein (E.g., Planned
Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v.
Casey, 505 U.S. 83 (1992).).
Will vary by jurisdiction.
Be sure to include translations of non-English
names of courts where the Bluebook indicates
they are necessary.
Abbreviate party names according to T.10
except where the names are included in the
title of the case.
No parties are listed for advisory opinions
(E.g., Legal Consequences of the Construction
of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, Advisory Opinion, 2004 I.C.J.
Reports 136, 145 (July 9)).
34
SOURCE
BLUEBOOK
RULE
ICC Cases
Three or
fewer
parties
Treaties
Multilateral
Rule 21.4;
T.10
HRB-specific
guideline: If
the US is a
party to the
treaty, the
Bluebook
requires a
citation to a
US treaty
source. Please
note that HRB
only requires
citation to one
official source.
CITATION
(USE JOURNAL TYPEFACE)
Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga
Dyilo, ICC-01/04/-01/06-1495,
Prosecution’s Request for an ExParte Hearing Pursuant to Rule 83
of the Rules of Procedure and
Evidence (Nov. 5, 2008).
Bilateral Agreement regarding
mutual assistance and cooperation
in customs matters, India-Isr., art.
6, Jan. 29, 1996, 2002 U.N.T.S.
71.
OTHER NOTES
For a treaty with three or fewer parties, list the
abbreviated party names from T.10 after the
treaty name.
Always cite treaties to an official treaty
source. See T.4 (Treaty Sources).
Always cite treaties to an official treaty
source. See T4 (Treaty Sources).
Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, adopted Dec. 9, 1948,
78 U.N.T.S 277.
U.S.
Rule 11
U.S. CONST. art. 1, § 8, cl. 1.
U.S. CONST. amend. XIV, § 2.
Foreign
Rule 20.4; T.2
S. AFR. CONST. 1996, ch. 2, § 10.
Constitutions
Give the exact date of signing. If a treaty is
not signed on a single date, use the date on
which the treaty is opened for signature, done,
approved, or adopted and indicate the
significance of the date in italics.
Do not use a short citation form other then Id.
for constitutions.
Do not use a short citation form other then Id.
for constitutions.
Will vary by jurisdiction.
Statutes
U.S.
Rule 12
Genocide Accountability Act, 18
U.S.C. § 1091 (2006).
35
SOURCE
CommonLaw
Systems
Civil-Law
and other
NonCommonLaw
Systems
Newspapers
News Sources
Books,
Journals and
Magazines
News
Articles
Found in
Print and
Online
BLUEBOOK
RULE
CITATION
(USE JOURNAL TYPEFACE)
OTHER NOTES
Rule 20.5.1;
T.2
Supreme Court Fees regulations
2003, 2003 S.N.Z. No. 121.
Will vary by jurisdiction.
Rule 20.5.2;
T.2
Grazhdanskii Kodeks RF [GK]
[Civil Code] art. 123 (Russ.).
Will vary by jurisdiction.
Rule 16.5
Edward Wong, Chinese Artist
Reports Being Barred From Trial,
N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 12, 2009, at A9.
When appropriate, designate the work as an
“Editorial”, “Op-Ed.”, or “Letter to the
Editor” in plain text after the author’s name
and before the title.
Rule 18.2.2
David Pierson, Beijing Loves
IKEA—but not for shopping, LOS
ANGELES TIMES, Aug. 25, 2009, at
A1, available at
http://www.latimes.com/business/l
a-fi-china-ikea252009aug25,0,7736661.story.
Articles
Only
Available
Online
Rule 18.2.3(b).
Dahlia Lithwick, Halfway There,
SLATE, Aug. 25, 2009,
http://www.slate.com/id/2226157/.
Books
Rule 15
JOHN KANE, BETWEEN VIRTUE
AND POWER 257 (Yale Univ. Press
2008).
See Rule 15.2 & 15.4 for information
regarding when to include editors and
publishers.
36
SOURCE
Consecutive
ly Paginated
Journals
BLUEBOOK
RULE
Rule 16.3;
T.13
NonConsecutive
ly Paginated Rule 16.4
Journals and
Magazines
Websites
Rule 18.2.3
Online
Sources
Blogs and
Posts to
Websites
Rule 18.2.4
CITATION
(USE JOURNAL TYPEFACE)
Frank D. LoMonte, Shrinking
Tinker, Students are “Persons”
Under Our Constitution – Except
When They Aren’t, 58 AM. U. L.
REV. 1323, 1325 (2009).
OTHER NOTES
Joshua Ferris, The Valetudinarian,
NEW YORKER, Aug. 3, 2009, at 58.
International Justice Mission,
Injustice Today,
http://www.ijm.org/ourwork/
injustice today (last visited Aug.
12, 2009).
Citation to blogs and posts to websites should generally be avoided in lieu of more
authoritative sources, but may be allowed in appropriate contexts.
37
Signals
Signals are used at the beginning of a citation to indicate the level of support it provides to the
preceding sentence. See Bluebook Rules 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4.

Commonly Used Signals:

[No Signal] is used when the author directly states information from the source.

See is used when the source clearly supports the author’s proposition, but does not
directly state it.

See also is used to indicate other sources which contain the information and
which may be relevant, but from which the information was not directly taken.

See e.g. is used to indicate multiple authorities which clearly, but do not directly,
support the same proposition. This signal may be used without the See if the
author directly states the proposition. As a rule of thumb, do not use this signal
unless it is followed by at least three sources.
Short Cites: Id., Supra, and Hereinafter
See Bluebook Rule 4.1 and 4.2.

Id. is used to cite to a source cited to in the previous endnote when that sources is
the only source cited in the endnote.
 REMEMBER: “Id.” is always followed by a period, and the period is
italicized. See Bluebook Rule 4.1.

Supra is used when a source has already been cited in an endnote, but not in the
endnote immediately preceding the current endnote. Supra must never be used
alone and must always include a reference to the author or title of the article. See
Bluebook Rule 4.2.

Hereinafter is used with “supra” when confusion of the shortened form might
otherwise result. It is also used to refer to a treaty by its popular name in
subsequent citations. See Bluebook Rules 4.2 & 21.4.1(b).
-
EXAMPLE:
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide art. 17,
adopted Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention].
...
21
Genocide Convention, supra note 9, art. 20.
9
The following are general guidelines for short cites:
o Do not use supra alone. It must include a reference to the author or title of the
citation: “Author’s name/Title,” supra note #, at [insert pincite].
- EXAMPLE:
38
Correct:
Incorrect:
-
Blair, supra note 17, at 59.
supra note 17, at 59.
o Id. should never be used more than three times in a row.
EXAMPLE:
17
JOHN KANE, BETWEEN VIRTUE AND POWER 257 (Yale Univ. Press 2008).
18
Id.
19
Id. at 94.
20
Id. at 96.
21
KANE, supra note 17, at 387.
39
Citation Cheat Sheet
(Alphabetical Order)
(Also useful, please see http://www.eisil.org/index.php?cat=0 if you are having difficulty finding
an international treaty, protocol, and so on)
African (Banjul) Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. , Oct. 21, 1986, 21 I.L.M. 58, 1520
U.N.T.S. 217.
American Convention on Human Rights, art. , July 18, 1978, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123, 9 I.L.M. 673.
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, the Fourth World Conference on Women, ¶ (Sept.
1995).
Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,
Dec. 10, 1984, 1465 U.N.T.S. 85; 23 I.L.M. 1027 (entered into force in the United States Nov.
20, 1994).
Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in
the Field, Oct. 21, 1950, 75 U.N.T.S. 31, 6 U.S.T. 3314.
Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick, and Shipwrecked
Members of the Armed Forces at Sea, Oct. 21, 1950, 75 U.N.T.S. 85, 6 U.S.T. 3217.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, G.A. Res.
34/180, art. , U.N. Doc. A/34/46 (Sept. 3, 1981).
Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 (March
7, 1966).
Convention on Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Jan. 12, 1951, 78 U.N.T.S.
277.
Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 24, Dec. 12, 1989, G.A. Res. 44/25, art. , 1577
U.N.T.S. 3, 28 I.L.M. 1456 (1989).
Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Aug. 12, 1949, 75
U.N.T.S. 287, 6 U.S.T. 3516.
Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Oct. 21, 1950, 75 U.N.T.S. 135, 6
U.S.T. 3316.
40
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), art. , U.N. Doc.
A.6316 (Jan. 3, 1976).
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. ,
Sept. 21, 1970, 213 U.N.T.S. 222.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), art. , 21 U.N. Doc.
A/6316 (Mar. 23, 1976).
Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against
Women “Convention of Belem Do Para”, art. (1994).
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection
of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), Dec. 7, 1978, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3, 19
I.L.M. 1524.
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the
Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), Dec. 7, 1978, 1125
U.N.T.S. 609, 16 I.L.M. 1442.
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in
Africa, art. (2003).
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A (III), art. , U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 10,
1948).
41
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