From Multiculturalism on Campus:
Theory, Models, and Practices for Understanding Diversity and Creating Inclusion
Second Edition
Edited by: Michael J. Cuyjet, Diane L. Cooper, Mary F. Howard Hamilton, and Chris Linder
The following is an excerpt from the unedited manuscript.
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INTRODUCTION
The first edition of this book provided a comprehensive resource for students, faculty, and higher
education administrators about multiculturalism and diverse populations on college campuses. It
was one of the first texts to gather in a single volume the related theories, assessment methods,
and environmental and application issues pertinent to the study and practice of multiculturalism
and to offer suggestions of ways to enhance multicultural programming and culturally diverse
campus environments.
Although the open discussion of multiculturalism on campus has been steadily increasing
during the last quarter of the 20th century and the early 21st century, cultural diversity and the
need for cultural competence seems to have grown exponentially in the past decade, especially
since the release of the first edition of this book in early 2011. The election and re-election of an
African American President, the rapid growth of non-White populations - particularly Latinos –
in several states and numerous urban centers, increasing tension between police and minority
populations, and the 2015 Supreme Court decision legalizing same sex marriages in all states are
among a number of societal changes that impact cultural interactions in the country at large and
particularly on our college campuses.
Like the first edition of this book, this second edition reviews the theories and models that
have been primary guides to understanding the development of college students, and continues
an attempt to give greater voice to students who are not part of the dominant culture. New in this
edition is a chapter on intersectionality that explores the intercultural diversity of cultural identity
among many students whose life experiences do not fit nicely into preconceived cultural
patterns. This edition of the book also updates the chapter that addresses issues of students who
identify as part of the U. S. ethnic majority to provide additional material that will help them
navigate their White racial identities and White privilege and provide lessons for all students to
address racism and racial justice. The book also provides some new cultural frameworks as well
as updated best practices for creating an inclusive environment for marginalized groups. Each
chapter also includes either a case study, list of questions, suggested interventions, or a set of
exercises to enhance understanding of the group’s behaviors and characteristics. The material in
the third section of the book, Critical Consciousness of Cultural Competence is enhanced
significantly over the content in the first edition, so readers will find it more helpful in preparing
professional practitioners, students, and faculty with new skills and information.
While aiming for completeness, the editors recognize that some cultural subpopulations are
not included among the groups addressed in this book. For example, student athletes form a distinct subculture on some campuses that have large athletic programs. Similarly, fraternity and
sorority members can be a significant subgroup on campuses where their numbers constitute a
large plurality or even a majority of the students and veterans and military students are a growing
population that will require attention on many campuses. Neither of these is covered.
Nonetheless, the editors hope this book will continue to fill a void in the current student
development literature by presenting broad overviews of the issues multicultural students bring
to our campuses. One’s cultural identity is more than ethnicity or race. Gender, age, religion,
geographic identity, sexual orientation, and intersectional cultural identity are equally part of the
cultural makeup of a multicultural individual—all factors this book takes into account.
Furthermore, with this book the contributors provide student affairs professionals, students, and
faculty an opportunity to assess their own levels of multicultural sensitivity, awareness, and
competence.
To assist readers to understand more fully the problems they will encounter with increasing
diversity on college campuses and enable them to frame appropriate policies, this book
approaches multiculturalism from three perspectives, each of which is a section of this book:
Awareness of Cultural Issues, Information on Cultural Populations, and Critical Consciousness
of Cultural Competence
Section One: Awareness of Cultural Issues
This section begins with a chapter that introduces multiculturalism and multicultural competence
and provides the background information, definition of terms, and key concepts to understanding
multicultural issues in higher education settings. It also highlights changes in the way
multiculturalism is perceived and manifested in the demographic college student trends and
issues that have occurred in the first decade of the 21st century. This section also includes a
competency assessment to help readers gain some insight into their own level of understanding
of multiculturalism and racial identity awareness. This section stresses the importance of
observing environmental influences (physical, organizational, structural, and human) that may
impede the successful matriculation of multicultural students, as well as outlining methods to
identify and complement intercultural identity within the campus community.
In chapter 1, Mary Howard-Hamilton, Michael Cuyjet, and Diane Cooper set the context
with definitions of multiculturalism and multicultural competence as a foundation for
understanding how these central concepts connect with each diverse group presented in
subsequent chapters. This chapter proceeds to explain why multiculturalism is important and
necessary and presents a number of competence models from 1998 to 2015 to demonstrate why
competencies are significant to multicultural development and how they can be acquired. The
chapter also explores how commonalities among cultural groups tie multiculturalism together
(rather than focusing on the differences) and finally suggests how faculty, administrators,
students, and related constituents and stakeholders might use this book and apply its insights
across campus.
In chapter 2, Oppression and Its Effect on College Student Identity Development, Mary
Howard-Hamilton and Kandace Hinton provide an overview of privilege, power, oppression, and
identity development from a 21st-century perspective that takes into account the varying
complex identities students internalize and bring to campus as part of their persona. The chapter
includes a case study that presents readers with a set of hypothetical student problems and
connects them with theories related to racial identity, oppression, and critical race ideology. In
chapter 3, Michael Cuyjet and Jason Meriwether explores the environmental influences on
culture and offers some perspectives on campus ecological systems using a multicultural lens.
This perspective also presents an overview of environmental influences on nonmajority students
that includes issues of campus size, type, location, and mission.
Rounding out this first section of the book, Chris Linder examines the tenets of
intersectionality theory, including a historical framing of intersectionality. She provides some
suggestions for student affairs educators striving to employ an intersectional approach to their
work and specific examples to illustrate the complexity of intersectionality theory.
Section Two: Information on Cultural Populations
This section focuses on the problems, concerns, issues, and perspectives of various racial/ethnic
cultural groups on college campuses. Each chapter updates the earlier edition’s examination of
demographic trends, issues, and practices that can promote the academic success of specific
different groups, and successful programs that promote student growth and development. The
chapters in this section include case studies and discussion questions that student affairs
professionals can implement on their own campuses. They also consider the characteristics that
each specific ethnic or cultural population has in common with other groups. This echoes the
emphasis in the book’s first chapter on commonalties rather than differences among cultural
groups and the fourth chapter’s focus on intersectionality.
In chapter 5, Anna Ortiz and Susana Hernandez look at the history of Latinos in the United
States, mainly focusing on the Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban experience, and explore their
current conditions in a sociological context—income levels, generational factors, and the impact
of discrimination. The chapter also examines student experiences that can inform student affairs
professionals, especially the role of family and campus climate issues, particularly at community
colleges.
Chapter 6 examines the demographics of the Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI)
collegiate population in general, as well as several of the largest Asian ethnic groups. Julie Park
an OiYan Poon also explore the ramifications of the Asian model minority stereotype and
describe some of the differences among the dozens of individual ethnic groups and their levels of
acculturation to the American majority culture and their interaction with the American college
environment. The chapter authors also look at some developmental models pertinent to AAPI
groups.
In chapter 7, Bettina Shuford and Lamont Flowers provide a review of the recent enrollments
statistics of African Americans in the United States higher education and an overview of the
historical struggles African American students face while attending college. The authors also
explain how student development theory is applied to African American college students and
connect Cross’s (1971) Nigrescence theory and its more recent revisions by various researchers
to a number of current issues. The chapter concludes with recommendations of effective
practices for university faculty and administrators.
In chapter 8, LeManuel Bitsoi´ explores issues of self-identification with tribal culture and
community, tribal sovereignty, and government oppression, and offers an overview of the history
of American Indians to help the reader understand Native American college students. He
presents a model of America Indian identity development and define important issues for higher
education practitioners to consider while working with this student population.
Chapter 9 explores some of the experiences particular to biracial and multiracial college
students: the quest for self-identification, the impact of their physical appearance (and others’
reactions to it), and the establishment of a multiracial peer culture. Kristen Renn and Marc
Johnston’s chapter also includes a description of several identity development models that can
apply to this population, and offers corresponding suggestions for student affairs professionals to
help these students find a place in the campus community.
In chapter 10, Chris Linder provides an overview of the social construction of whiteness,
synthesizes current literature about whiteness and white privilege on college campuses, and
highlights some White identity and racial justice ally development models. She concludes the
chapter by providing suggestions for student affairs educators attempting to support and
challenge White students in their White identity development.
International students face challenges on college campuses ranging from language barriers to
visa issues and xenophobic behavior by Eurocentric Americans. In chapter 11 Sevan Terzian and
Leigh Ann Osborne discuss the multicultural competencies necessary for student affairs
professionals to become more aware and knowledgeable about the issues these students face, and
the need to acquire the skills to be effective communicators and empathetic advisers for this
population.
The history of women and men in higher education is in many ways the history of the
education of White men, and initially only those of substantial means. For many, the term gender
issues translates to women’s issues. A more honest and complete exploration requires the
inclusion of men. To do less provides a picture of only part of our world and ignores the
important understandings gained from studying the interplay between women and men. Chapter
12 by Merrily Dunn and Philip Badaszewski provide us with an examination of sex and gender
roles and offers examples of methods we can use in practice to help students developmentally,
socially, and cognitively.
Dena Kneiss, Tony Cawthon, and Kristin Walker address the collegiate experiences of
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender students in chapter 13, including a history of LGBT
movements on college campuses and the impact of heterosexism and homophobia on identity
development. They also present different developmental models for gays, lesbians, bisexuals,
and transgender students and explore intersectionality in the context of LGBT student
development. Examples of best practices from a number of campuses conclude this chapter.
As we get further into the 21st century, the number of students over the traditional age range
of 18–21 entering colleges and universities continues to increase. In chapter 14, Fiona
MacKinnon and Rosiline Floyd share information on the challenges facing college campuses to
enable faculty and administrators to better serve the adult population on campus. They provide a
conceptual cognitive and psychosocial map called the Adult Persistence in Learning Model to
give student affairs professionals an overview of how this population has become a central
demographic on many college campuses today.
In chapter 15, Martha Wisbey and Karen Kalivoda explore issues faced by students with
disabilities on today’s college campuses. Since the passing of the Americans with Disabilities
Act in 1990, the number of students with disabilities on college campuses has grown. However
visible and hidden barriers need to be addressed to create an environment of full inclusion.
Martha and Karen provide case studies for readers to explore the challenges faced by students
with disabilities from a variety of perspectives and insights for student affairs professionals to
consider in creating more inclusive and welcoming environments.
Chapter 16 considers the issues of religious affiliation among college students and provides
an overview of issues of spirituality that affect students. To clarify the role of religion in the
modern system of higher education, Laura Dean and Darris Means review the history of religion
at colleges, including religious diversity and religious conflict, and its impact on students and the
student affairs practitioners who serve them.
Section Three: Critical Consciousness of Cultural Competence
In the comprehensive concluding chapter, the writers stress the need for student affairs
professionals, students, and faculty to increase their critical consciousness in personal and
professional approaches to their work on college campuses. They also suggest how student
affairs professionals might move forward to apply the material in this volume to improve
experiences for all students. Successfully applying the knowledge presented and personally
incorporating the concepts, models, theories, and practices outlined can bring about systemic
change in the college environment.
The editors and chapter authors of this volume identify the areas where we all must hone our
cultural awareness and knowledge and develop our critical consciousness. The text has described
the defining characteristics of a broad array of identifiable cultural groups among our student
populations, and discussed frankly the skills we need to develop to bring about a more cultural
competent approach to our work. It is our hope that the cumulative effect of this collection of
information, data, and recommended practices will encourage and motivate students, faculty,
academic administrators, student affairs professionals, and others who care about the state of
higher education to foster greater understanding, acceptance, interaction, and common
appreciation among all the members in the collegiate community. To strive for anything less will
be a failure to live up to the ideals of American higher education in the 21st century.
References
Cross, W. E., Jr. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of
Black liberation. Black World, 20(9), 13–27.
Spring, J. (2007). Deculturalization and the struggle for equality: A brief history of the
education of dominated cultures in the United States (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw
Hill.