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Unit 3 Exam
Health and Human Development
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Dimensions of Health
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P
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M
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S
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Mental
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State of well-being in which the individual
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realises his or her own abilities, can cope
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with the normal stresses of life, can work
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productively and fruitfully, and is able to

make a contribution to his or her community
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Social
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Being able to interact with others
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and participate in the community
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in both an independent and
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cooperative way.
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Physical

Relates to the efficient functioning

of the body and its systems, and

includes the physical capacity to

perform tasks and physical fitness.
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Health Status

Health status relates to the overall level of health
experienced by an individual or group (both

individual and group or population should be included for
one mark).

It takes into account various factors such as life expectancy
and morbidity rates.
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Burden of Disease
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A measure of the impact of diseases and injuries.

Specifically, it measures the gap between current health
status and an ideal situation where everyone lives to an old
age free of disease and disability.
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Burden of disease is measured in a unit called the Disability
Adjusted Life Year (DALY
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Physical Environment

Access to recreation facilities: People in major cities generally have
greater access to recreation facilities than those in rural and remote
areas. This can enhance levels of physical activity and decrease the
rate of cardiovascular disease contributing to lower burden ofdisease
compared to those in major cities.
Location of food outlets: People in rural and remote areas often have
more difficulty in accessing resources such as supermarkets due to
geographical factors when compared to those in major cities. This can
contribute to food insecurity which may force people to rely on
processed foods that are energy dense. These foods can then lead to
weight gain and an increased risk of dying from diabetes which
increases the burden of disease.

Road quality in rural and remote areas is often not as good as roads in
major cities. This can increase the risk of death from land transport
accidents which increases rates of burden ofdisease.
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Physical Environment

Work environment: Those in rural and remote areas often
experience more dangerous working environments than those
in major cities. Farming machinery for example, can lead to
higher rates of injury deaths among those in rural and remote
areas which contributes to higher burden of disease.

Lack of access to health care: Those in rural and remote areas
can find it more difficult to access health care such as doctors
and hospitals as they are too far away. This can mean that
conditions such as cancer and cardiovascular disease may go
untreated and lead to higher rates of premature deaths and
higher burden of disease than those in major cities where health
care is often easier to access.
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Nutrients Functions and Sources
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Sodium

Excess sodium causes calcium to be excreted in urine, which
can lead to osteoporosis.

Sodium assists in the regulation of fluids in the body,
including water and blood.

Regulates the balance between fluid in the cells
(intracellular fluid) and the fluid outside the cells
(extracellular fluid).
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Can increase blood volume and contribute to hypertension.
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Sources
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table salt
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olives
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fish
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meat (especially pork)
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cheese
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Nutrients, Functions and Sources
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Vitamin D
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Required for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from
the intestine into the bloodstream
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Fish (such as tuna, salmon, mackerel, sardines and herring)
beef, liver, cheese, egg yolks, fortified milk.
+ the relationship between indigenous
status and the
proportion of people assessing their
psychological distress as high or very
high.
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Indigenous Australians

In all age groups, Indigenous Australians are more likely to
assess their psychological distress levels as high or very
high compared to non-Indigenous Australians. For example,
around 40% of indigenous females in the 18-24 age group
assessed their distress as very high or high, compared to
around 15% of non-Indigenous females in the same age
group.
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Distress

The relationship is that non-Indigenous Australians are less
likely to report very high or high levels of psychological
distress than Indigenous Australians. In most age groups,
Indigenous Australians were more than twice as likely to
report high or very high psychological distress (for example,
around 30% of Indigenous and around 10% of nonIndigenous males in the 45-54 year age group rated their
distress levels as very high or high).
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Relevant determinant
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Biological – Indigenous Australians are more likely to experience
overweight and obesity than non-Indigenous Australians. This can
contribute to poor self-esteem and higher rates of psychological
distress.

Biological – Indigenous Australians are more likely to experience
metabolic disorder (orSyndrome X) than non-Indigenous Australians.
This condition increases the risk of a range of conditions and premature
death which could contribute to stress and anxiety which increases the
levels of psychological distress experienced.
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Behavioural Determinant
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Behavioural – Indigenous Australians are more likely to consume
alcohol at risky levels than non-Indigenous Australians. Alcohol
is a depressant which can contribute to low mood and higher
rates of psychological distress.

Behavioural – Indigenous Australians are more likely to be
sedentary than non-Indigenous Australians. Being sedentary
increases the risk of mental health issues which can contribute
to the higher proportion experiencing very high or high levels
of psychological distress.
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Physical Environment

Physical environment – Indigenous Australians are more likely to live in
overcrowded housing than non-Indigenous Australians. This contributes
to higher rates of mental health issues and psychological distress.

Physical environment – as a result of being more likely to live in rural
and remote areas, lack of access to education and employment
opportunities are more common among Indigenous Australians
compared to non-Indigenous Australians. This can contribute to higher
unemployment rates and higher levels of psychological distress.
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Social Determinants
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Social – Indigenous Australians are more likely to be socially
excluded than non-Indigenous Australians. This can increase
the levels of psychological distress.

Social – Indigenous Australians are more likely to
experience food insecurity than nonindigenous Australians.
This can increase stress levels and contribute to the higher
rate of psychological distress.
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Australia and Other Developed
Countries
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Males in Australia have the same life expectancy as males in Spain at 80
years. Females in Spain have a slightly higher life expectancy than
females in Australia (86 and 85 respectively). Males in Australia have a
higher rate of obesity than males in Spain (28.4% and 22.8%
respectively).
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The life expectancy for males in France is 1 year lower than for males in
Australia. For females, the rate is the same in France and Australia.
Mortality rates for males are higher in France than they are in Australia.
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Mortality
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Mortality relates to death
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Comparisons
Biological and behavioural factors identified and a further two
marks for linking each to the differences in mortality between
males and females.
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Biological
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Body weight: Males are more likely to be overweight than females
which can lead to conditions such as cardiovascular disease or diabetes
which can contribute to higher rates ofmortality.
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Blood pressure: Males are more likely to have hypertension than
females which increases the risk of heart attack and premature death
therefore contributing to higher mortality rates.

Blood cholesterol: Males have quite high rates of high blood cholesterol
in Australia compared to females. This contributes to higher rates of
cardiovascular disease and higher mortality rates than females.
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Behavioural
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Tobacco use: Males are more likely to smoke tobacco than females which can lead to
conditions such as lung cancer, respiratory disease and cardiovascular disease. All of
these conditions can lead to ongoing illness and premature death which leads to higher
mortality rates than females.
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Alcohol use: Males are more likely to misuse alcohol than females which can lead to
many chronic conditions and injuries which can contribute to premature death and
higher mortality rates.
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Risk taking: Males are more likely to undertake risk taking activities such as drink
driving than females which can lead to injuries and premature death contributing to
higher mortality rates.
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Food intake: Males are less likely to consume a nutritious food intake compared to
women. This can contribute to higher rates of diseases such as cardiovascular disease
and higher mortality rates
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Federal Government and Obesity

The federal government provides the funding for Medicare. This allows
people to receive subsidised health care such as doctor’s consultations.
The doctor can provide advice relating to healthy eating and exercise
which can reduce the risk of the person developing an obesity related
condition such as cardiovascular disease.
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Through the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme, the federal government
provides funding for essential medicines. If a person develops high
blood pressure as a result of their obesity, they can access subsidised
medication that may assist in reducing the risk of a heart attack or
stroke.
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Federal Govt and Obesity
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The federal government provide grants to the states and territories to
run public hospitals.
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With these funds, the states and territories can perform more operations
to reduce the impact of obesity such as putting stents in for people
experiencing coronary heart disease.
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The federal government has funded programs such as Shape Up
Australia and Healthy Weight Guide. These programs show people how
to improve their behaviours by exercising more and eating a healthier
diet. This can assist in reducing the risk of obesity and related
conditions.
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Direct Cost – Individual-Obesity
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Patient co-payment for medication to reduce blood pressure.
Patient payments for appetite suppressing medication.
Individual payments for dietitians’ services to assist in
weight control.
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Indirect Cost- Community
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Lost productivity if the person has a heart attack as a result of
their obesity.
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Lost taxation revenue if the person can no longer work due
to complications associated with their obesity such as type 2
diabetes.
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Social security payments (through Centrelink) if the person
is unable to work for extended periods of time due to an
obesity-related condition such as cardiovascular disease.
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Intangible Costs
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The emotional and mental costs associated with illness,
disease and disability.
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Intangible Costs and Obesity
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The person who is obese may experience decreased selfesteem.
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The person may stress that their obesity may contribute to
other health issues such as type 2 diabetes.
+ cardiovascular disease for those in the
lowest socioeconomic status group
compared to those in the
highest socioeconomic status. For
example:
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Around 6.5% of those in the lowest SES group experience
cardiovascular disease compared to around 3.5% in the
highest SES group.
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Around 3% fewer people in the highest SES group
experience cardiovascular disease compared to those in the
lowest SES group.
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Biological Determinants and CVD
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Body weight – Those in the lowest SES groups have higher rates of obesity compared to
those in the highest SES groups. Obesity is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease
which may contribute to the difference between the two groups.
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Blood pressure – Those in the highest SES group experience lower rates of
hypertension(high blood pressure) than those in the lowest SES group. Hypertension is
a risk factor for heart attack and stroke which increases the rate of these conditions in
the low SES group.

Birth weight – The lowest SES group experience higher rates of low birth weight babies
than those in the highest SES group. Low birth weight increases the risk of
cardiovascular disease later in life and contributes to the difference in rates of
cardiovascular disease.
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NHPA
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Cardiovascular Health
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Heart Foundation Tick
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The Heart Foundation Tick (note that this program is being
phased out in 2016/17 but is still a correct response during
these years). This program works by showing consumers which
products are healthier for their hearts. Manufacturers can apply
to display the tick logo if their product meets certain criteria
such as being lower in sodium or fat. This assists consumers in
identifying healthier products and reducing their risk of
cardiovascular disease.
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Live Lighter
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LiveLighter. This State Government-funded program works
by encouraging people to adopt healthier behaviours. The
website contains a meal and activity planner that can
customise a plan for adults based on their personal
information such as age, height, weight and sex. It includes
recipes that can assist people in preparing healthy meals and
therefore reducing their risk of obesity and cardiovascular
disease
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Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden
Program
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Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden program. This program
works by teaching primary school children how to grow,
prepare and cook fresh produce and healthy meals. Staff are
provided with training so they can deliver the program in
their school. Assistance is also provided in building and
starting the garden in each school.
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Justify Program
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Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden program. Eating habits
are often formed during childhood and children who are
obese are more likely to be obese adults which in increases
their risk of developing cardiovascular disease. By educating
children in relation to healthy eating, it can reduce childhood
obesity levels and levels of cardiovascular disease among
adults in the future.
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Justify Program
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The LiveLighter program assists individuals in learning about
healthy eating and physical activity which are two of the most
significant risk factors for the cardiovascular diseases that
are the focus of the NHPA ‘cardiovascular health’.
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Justify Program
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The Heart Foundation Tick program. Unhealthy eating is a
key risk factor for obesity. Many Australians lack detailed
nutrition knowledge which can make it difficult to make
healthier choices. This program aims to make it easier for
people to choose healthier options by displaying the Tick on
these items which can assist in reducing obesity rates which
assists in reducing the rate of cardiovascular disease.
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Diabetes Mellitus
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Diabetes mellitus relates to a range of conditions
characterised by an inability to transport
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glucose into cells.
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Diabetes and nutrition
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A diet low in fat can mean that fewer kilojoules are
consumed. This can reduce the risk of obesity which is a risk
factor for type 2 / gestational diabetes. Reducing the amount
of full cream dairy and fatty cuts of meat can assist in
reducing fat intake.
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Diabetes and nutrition
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Consuming fibre from fruit and vegetables can decrease
blood glucose levels by reducing the absorption of glucose
from the small intestine. This can reduce the risk of obesity
and type 2 /gestational diabetes.
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Diabetes and nutrition
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Water contains no kilojoules which can assist in weight
maintenance. This can reduce the risk of type 2 / gestational
diabetes. Reducing the intake of carbohydrates and fats can
also reduce the risk of obesity which decreases the risk of
type 2 / gestational diabetes
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VIC HEALTH
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Encourage regular physical activity
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VicHealth Mission
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VicHealth is providing funds to sport and active recreation clubs
so they can purchase more equipment so more people can
participate. This is promoting good health in partnership with
others.

The Active Clubs Grants program gives special consideration to
applications from clubs in areas of socioeconomic disadvantage
which is recognising that the social and economic conditions for
all people influence their health which is a part of VicHealth’s
mission.
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VicHealth Mission

The program is promoting fairness and opportunity for better health by
improving participation opportunities for Victoria’s Aboriginal community
who often experience poorer health outcomes.
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This program works to assist sporting and active recreation clubs in
recruiting new members by providing financial support. As a result, it is
working to ‘support initiatives that assist individuals, communities,
workplaces and broader society to improve wellbeing’.

Active Clubs Grants seek to increase physical activity levels for those who
do not receive the recommended amount. This can reduce the risk of
conditions such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. As a result, this is seeking to
prevent chronic conditions for all Victorians.
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Principles of the Social Model of Health

Addresses the broader determinants of health – the Active Clubs Grants
program is addressing economic factors by providing funds to clubs in areas
of socioeconomic disadvantage.
Involves intersectoral collaboration – VicHealth is working with local
sporting clubs which are different sectors working together.

Empowers individuals and communities – Aboriginal communities are
empowered by having greater access to physical activity through funded
sporting clubs.

Acts to reduce social inequities – those in areas of socioeconomic
disadvantage and Aboriginal communities are a focus of this program which
promotes equity.
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Physical, Social, Mental
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If individuals are more physically active as a result of the program, they are more likely
to maintain a healthy body weight (physical health).

If more people are regularly active, they are more likely to have improved fitness
(physical health).

People may join sporting clubs with friends and loved ones which can strengthen
relationships (social health).

By joining sporting clubs, people have greater opportunities to socialise and meet new
people which enhances social health.

By being involved in a sporting club, people may feel more socially connected which
can enhance self-esteem and promote mental health.
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Being physically active releases endorphins which promote feelings of mental wellbeing(mental health)
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Prevalence and Incidence

Prevalence refers to the total number or proportion of cases
of a particular condition at a given time whereas incidence
refers to the number or proportion of new cases of a
particular condition during a given time period.
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NHPA
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Cancer Control
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Types of Cancer

prostate cancer
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melanoma skin cancer
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breast cancer
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non-melanoma skin cancer
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colorectal cancer
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cancer of the cervix
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lung cancer
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non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
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Selection of Cancer
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Cancer is the leading cause of YLLs in Australia.
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Cancer can often be prevented.
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Cancer is a leading cause of morbidity in Australia.
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Cancer is responsible for significant direct, indirect and
intangible costs in Australia
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Determinants and the increasing risk of
cancer
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Social

Access to health care – when people access health care, they can be provided with
advice to reduce their risk of cancer such as eating fibre and not smoking. Those who
lack access may therefore have an increased risk of cancer as they are not receiving
these messages.

Socioeconomic status (low) – lack of education can contribute to higher rates of
smoking which increases the risk of lung cancer.
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Food insecurity – those who lack food security may consume higher amounts of
processed foods which may be lower in fibre increasing the risk of colorectal cancer.
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Occupation – people who work in occupations that are exposed to chemicals (such as
those in manufacturing) experience an increased risk of some cancers such as lung
cancer
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Determinants and the increasing risk of
cancer
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Physical Environment

Tobacco smoke in the home – a person who is exposed to tobacco
smoke in the home experiences an increased risk of cancers related to
smoking such as lung cancer.

Work environment – if any individual’s work environment is outdoors,
they may be exposed to harmful amounts of UV radiation which
increases the risk of skin cancers.
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Air quality – polluted air at home or in the workplace can increase the
risk of a range of cancers.
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Medicare

Australia’s universal health insurance scheme

Provides subsidised treatment from doctors and specialists
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Provides free treatment in public hospitals

Provides subsidised treatment for all ‘clinically necessary’
procedures
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Medicare values

Effective: Under Medicare, patients are able to access a second opinion
which can increase the chance of receiving treatment tailored to their
individual needs.

Continuous: Doctors may be able to claim Medicare payments for
spending time communicating with other health professionals about a
client’s condition. This makes the experience more continuous.

Accessible: Medicare provides subsidised or free treatment regardless
of socioeconomic status which increases access to health care for all
Australians
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Medicare Values

Sustainable: Medicare contributes much of the needed funding for the
health system which assists in it being sustainable.

Responsive: In many cases, Medicare allows consumers to choose their
own health professionals which means that it is more client-orientated.

Efficient: Medicare Online accounts assist consumers in administrative
matters. As this is carried out online, it can save money which is
efficient. Develop personal skills. Community centres could hold
workshops that teach people how to select and prepare healthy meals
which could assist in maintaining a healthy weight.
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Ottawa Charter Principles

Build Healthy Public Policy. Seatbelt laws encourage people to wear
seatbelts and can reduce the severity of injuries that occur as a result of
car crashes.

Create supportive environments. Roads have had barriers installed to
prevent head on collisions.

Strengthen community action. Schools, workplaces and recreational
clubs could work together to reduce the stigma of mental illness and
reduce the rate of self-harm.
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Ottawa Charter principles

Develop personal skills. Education about assertiveness could
be provided to assist secondary school children from taking
risks as a result of peer group pressure which can reduce the
risk of injuries.

Reorient health services. Health professionals could provide
advice online to assist parents in reducing their children’s
risk of being injured in the home.
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Biomedical Model of Health

By applying a plaster cast to allow broken bones to heal.

Stiches can be used to assist in the healing of a laceration.

Surgery can drain fluids that build up as a result of injuries.

Cooling and compression can be used to reduce the impact of
burns.

Medication can reduce the amount of pain experienced as a
result of an injury
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State Govt-Injuries

Public hospitals are run by State Governments which can treat
injuries that occur.

State governments introduce laws relating to speed limits which
can reduce the risk of injuries from car crashes.

State Governments implement school curriculum that focusses
on reducing injuries that occur as a result of risk-taking
behaviours.

State governments provide an ambulance service which can
treat people who experience an injury.
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Local Govt- Injuries

Local governments often provide services such as installing hand rails
in homes to reduce the risk of elderly people being injured as a result
of falls.

Local governments are responsible for maintaining foot paths which
can reduce the risk of falls.

Local governments can implement local by-laws such as those relating
to consumption of alcohol in public places which can reduce the risk of
alcohol-related injuries such as those arising from falls and violence.

Local governments provide parenting advice to residents which can
reduce the risk of children experiencing injuries in the home.
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Nutrition Surveys



Type of milk consumed
Fruit and vegetable consumption
Salt use

Supplements taken

Dietary practices

Food avoidance
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Australian Dietary Guidelines

The Dietary Guidelines advise to limit the intake of foods containing saturated fat,
added salt, added sugars and alcohol. If people avoid these foods, they are more likely
to consume appropriate foods instead.

Guideline number 2 recommends to enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods from the
five groups every day. This can assist individuals in consuming adequate foods.

Guideline 4 states that people should ‘Encourage and support breastfeeding’.
Breastmilk is considered an appropriate food for infants.

The guidelines provide serving number and size recommendations for different age
groups. Following these suggestions could assist in consuming foods from the five food
groups.
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Initiatives of Nutrition Australia

Nutrition Australia developed the Healthy Eating Pyramid. The pyramid
shows the food groups according to four layers which include examples
from each of the five food groups.

Nutrition Australia website: Through the Nutrition Australia website,
recipes that promote health are provided free of charge to the
community. These recipes can promote healthy eating.

Nutrition Australia prepare resources for National Nutrition Week. This
includes information on activities that promote healthy eating in
primary schools such as food tasting stalls.

Menu assessments are carried out by Nutrition Australia. Advice can be
provided relating to including more foods from the five food groups.

Nutrition Australia conducts cooking demonstrations so people can
learn how to cook healthier meals.