Goals
Introduction to Syntax
3. Combining morphemes: c-selection and headedness
study the rules that govern how morphemes are combined into words
introduce tree structures to represent the combination history
Doreen Georgi
introduce relevant concepts that will also be crucial for syntax: c-selection,
headedness, locality
ENS, Paris
October 22, 2015
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
1 / 31
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
2 / 31
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Outline
Creativity and restrictiveness in morphology (and syntax)
Creativity
: Axation can be applied again and again, in principle it is
unbounded.
(1)
1
establish
establish-ment
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
dis-establish-ment
dis-establish-ment-arian
2
dis-establish-ment-arian-ist
Compositionality
dis-establish-ment-arian-ist-s
anti-dis-establish-ment-arian-ist-s
3
4
Compounding
Restrictiveness
(2)
Summary: keywords / what to remember
Combining morphemes
: But morphemes cannot combine freely:
a. hope-ful, *up-ful, *nice-ful
b. profan-ity, *collaps-ity, *brother-ity, *down-ity
The
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
...
October 22, 2015
3 / 31
order
also plays a role:
a.
de-nation-al-ize-ation
b.
*ize-ation-de-nation-al
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
⇒
Combining morphemes
5!=120 possible combinations
only 1 is attested
October 22, 2015
4 / 31
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Restrictiveness
Ax type
bound morphemes: restriction on
Speakers of a language intuitively know regularities about word formation.
to the right):
What are these regularities? What restricts possible combinations of morphemes?
ax type
selection restrictions
(prex, suc, ...)
de
is a prex,
al
where
they attach to the stem (to the left,
is a sux
This rules out many possible combinations!
(3)
a.*al-ation-de-ize-nation
b.*nation-al-ize-ation-de
others, e.g. latinate morpheme present, unaccusativity, level-1- vs.
But not all:
level-2-axation, ...
(4) *de-nation-ize-al-ation
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
6 / 31
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
C-selection
C-selection
Excercise: selection requirements
To elements of which categories can
de- / dé-al
Axes need to attach to other morphemes.
-ize / -ise
Axes require their host to have special properties.
Very often ax are sensitive to the
category
of the stem; linguistis say that
-ation
attach (in French or English)? Provide examples to support your claims!
they c-select (= category-select) / subcategorize for a host with certain
properties.
de-: c-selects Ns
natur-al; *by-al, *speak-al
-al: c-selects Ns
-ize: c-selects As and (certain) Ns
-ation: c-selects V
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
7 / 31
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
8 / 31
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Category changes
Lexicon entry of axes
Axation can inuence the category: After axation, the category of newly
created word can be dierent from the category of the stem.
(5)
a. nation [N] + -al
⇒
b. national [A] + -ize
lexicon includes at least the following information:
national [A]
⇒
nationalize [V]
c. nationalize [V] + ation
C-selection is local
The set of morphosyntactic features associated with an ax in the mental
⇒
nationalization [N]
, i.e. it requires adjacency of the stem and the ax,
c-selection and category changing enforce a certain
order
type of ax
2
c-selection feature / subcategorization feature
3
category of the resulting word
4
...
Convention
of axation:
: C-selection features are represented as [uC] where `C' is a
variable over categories
(6) *nation-ize-al-ation
⇒ -ize
1
cannot combine with an [N]; [N] must rst be turned into an
al -axation
[A] by -
(7)
a. -al: [uN]
b. -ize: [uA]
nation-al-ize-ation
This rules out other combinations of morphemes
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
9 / 31
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
10 / 31
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Tree structures
Tree diagrams: terminology
Morphemes combine with a stem in a certain order.
The step-by-step addition of morphemes is called a derivation and reects
the order of axation:
(8)
nation
→
national
The constituents in a tree are represented by nodes (indicated by their
→
nationalize
→
denationalize
→
denationalization
category feature).
Question:
The nodes in a tree are connected by branches.
de - and -ation c-select a [V]-stem. Hence, both could be attached to the
stem nationalize. Why does de -prexation have to apply before -ation-suxation?
The topmost node in a tree is called the root
Both
The nodes at the bottom of the tree which do not branch any further are
Linguists often represent the derivation in a tree diagram
(9)
called terminal nodes or sometimes leaves.
N
V
(not to be confused with root = non-complex stem!)
When a node A has a branch downwards to another node B, then A is the
mother node of B and B is A's daughter node.
-ation
If a mother has several daughters, the daughters are sister nodes.
A
N
nation
-ize
-al
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
12 / 31
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
Sequential order
Exercise 1
Consider the word
C-selection is local, stem and ax must be adjacent =
Locality of Selection Hypothesis
refundability.
List all the morphemes in the word.
To represent this properly in our trees, branches must not cross!
Say for each morpheme which category it selects and of which category the
The leaves of a tree are sequentially ordered.
resulting word is (in the case of bound morphemes).
More restrictions:
Provide examples that illustrate which categories the bound morphemes
c-select.
A mother never has more than two daughter = binary branching
(evidence later!)
Draw the tree representation of this word.
Every node except for the root node has exactly one mother (to be
linearizable).
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
Compositionality
October 22, 2015
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Compositionality
Computing meaning
Computing meaning
The meaning of a complex word is progressively computed by general rules.
Hence, the order in which morphemes are combined has an inuence on the
Hence, the meaning of a complex word can also help us to decide which
meaning of the complex word.
morpheme attaches when to the stem: the meaning of the inner nodes is
(10)
denationalisation
computed before those of outer nodes.
=
denationaliz
nationaliz
national
nation
a process/result of
ing =
de-nationalizing/undoing
make
Exercise 2
ing =
The adjective
=
1
Principle of compositionality (Frege principle)
the meaning of its atomic parts and
2
the way in which they are combined.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
is ambiguous. It has two dierent readings. This can be
Draw the two possible tree structures for combining the three morphemes
(respecting binary branching).
The meaning of a complex expression is determined by
1
undressed
represented by assigning two dierent structures to it.
property of a
2
Try to gure out on the basis of the trees what the two meanings of this
word are.
October 22, 2015
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Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
16 / 31
Compounding
Compounding
Outline
Compounds
1
Derivation: restrictions on the combination of morphemes
2
Compositionality
So far, we have looked at complex words in which one of the morphemes
that are combined is a bound morpheme.
This process is called derivation.
(not to be confused with derivation = history of the application of processes)
Compounds are words that result from the combination of free morpheme;
3
process = compounding (recursive).
Compounding
(11)
4
a. babysit
b. kitchen towel rack
Summary: keywords / what to remember
c. ouvre-bouteille
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
17 / 31
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Compounding
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Compounding
Headedness
A property of English compounds
:
The morphosyntactic properties of the complex word are determined by the
Free morphemes of dierent categories can be combined:
(12)
right-hand member of the compound.
Examples:
a. [N]+[N]: football
b. [A]+[N]: blackboard
(13)
c. [V]+[N]: breakwater
Category:
→ [N]
→ [V]
a. blackbird: [A] + [N]
d. [P]+[N]: underworld
b. babysit: [N] + [V]
e. [A]+[A]: blue-green
f. ...
(14)
Number:
a. sail boats: [sg] + [pl]
Note: Compounding is not driven by c-selection features because all
b. salesman: [pl] + [sg]
morphemes involved are free!
(15)
→ [pl]
→ [sg]
Gender (e.g. in German):
a. das Tisch|bein: [masc] + [neut]
the table-leg
→
b. die Zimmer|decke: [neut] + [fem]
the ceiling (room ceiling)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
19 / 31
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
[neut]
→
[fem]
October 22, 2015
20 / 31
Compounding
Compounding
Headedness
Headedness
Consequence for complex words that are the result of derivation (as opposed to
compounding):
The element that determines the morphosyntactic properties of the complex
word
as well as its basic semantic properties
1
Suxes determine the properties of the resulting complex word.
2
Prexes never determine the properties of the resulting complex word.
is called the head.
(16)
Hence, (16) holds for English:
a.
V
A
The Right-Hand Head Rule (RHHR, Williams 1981)
N
?
nation
-al
The rightmost element of a compound is the head of the compound.
⇒
The properties of a complex element are predictable from the rightmost
element.
(17)
a.
N
nation
October 22, 2015
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?
P
V
-ize
under
go
b.
V
A
Combining morphemes
V
Suxation obeys the RHHR. This suggests that suxes have a category feature.
The head projects its features to the mother node.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
b.
A
V
-ize
N
V
kill
c.
N
-er
Num
N
tree
Num
-s
-al
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Compounding
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Compounding
Lexical entries
Given the RHHR, we do not have to state in the lexical entry of a morpheme
which category it creates by attaching to a stem; we only need to list its
category (as well as c-selection features, ax type, etc.)
(18)
(19)
er : [sux, N,
b. de : [prex, ?,
a.
Tree structure of
uV]
b.
uV]
d.
Exercise 3
al : [sux, A, uN]
nation: [free, N]
nationalization
1
Where is the head in French compounds? Does French also follow the
RHHR?
with features:
Provide examples that illustrate which element is the head.
N
2
Are French compounds built in the same way as English compounds, i.e. by
simply putting two free stems next to each other? Can you think of other
V
ation
types?
{suf,N,uV}
A
ize
nation
al
{free,N}
{suf,A,uN}
{suf,V,uA}
Note: The ax type is treated like a feature in (18) and (19), although it is
probably not a proper m.-s. feature since it does not project!
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
23 / 31
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
24 / 31
Compounding
Compounding
Exercise 4
Consider the word
classicationist
for someone who thinks that the most
important thing in linguistics is classication.
There are three nouns in this word:
class, classication, classicationist.
1
Draw a tree structure with category labels on all nodes.
2
The plural morpheme -
that any
Suppose the representation for plural nouns in (21) is correct with -s heading the
of the three Ns in
is not the
complex word.
Exercise 5
s selects for a noun. We might thus expect
classicationist can be pluralized. However, this
case, see (20). Can you think of an explanation for the observation that only
1
the whole word can be pluralized?
(20)
trees
is of a dierent category than
a. ok: class -i -cation -ist
(singular,singular,singular)
(singular,singular,plural)
c.*: class -i -cation -s -ist
(singular,plural,singular)
d.*: class -i -cation -s -ist -s
what testable predictions does
2
List two frames where plural nouns but not singular nouns can occur.
(singular,plural,plural)
e.*: class -es -i -cation -ist
(plural,singular,singular)
f.*: class -es -i -cation -ist -s
(plural,singular,plural)
g.*: class -es -i -cation -s -ist
(plural,plural,singular)
h.*: class -es -i -cation -s -ist -s
(plural,plural,plural)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
Compounding
October 22, 2015
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Compounding
Zero morphemes again
The meaning of compounds
The RHHR can actually enforce the postulation of a zero morpheme.
Phenomenon: conversion = word formation without visible/overt morphemes
(21)
tree,
that make?
b. ok: class -i -cation -ist -s
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
If
head is
endocentric
The
also
the basic semantic element
a. (the) butter [N], dry [A]
(24)
b. (to) butter [V], (to) dry [V]
in a compound (=
compounds).
a. kitchen towel
b. writer club
Possible explanation: There is zero verbalizing sux:
→
→
a kind of towel, not a kind of kitchen
a kind of club, not a kind of writer
The non-head adds information about the head. For example, the non-head
(22)
a.
V
V
can modify the head:
N
V
A
V
butter
Ø
dry
Ø
(25)
darkroom
But there are also idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is
Prediction: no ax that attaches only to verb roots can attach to these
not derived by the meaning of its parts / where the head is not the core
zero-derived verbs
semantic element =
(23)
a. steer-age | *dry-age
(26)
b. betray-al | *dry-al
Combining morphemes
compounds / idioms
a. green house (= a house in which you grow vegetables)
b. cutthroat (= killer)
c. forget-ful | *dry-ful
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
exocentric
October 22, 2015
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Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Compounding
Compounding
Exercise 7:
Exercise 6:
Hypothetical languages 1
Hypothetical languages 2
:
Lenglish is a hypothetical language that is exactly like English (same axes, same
c-selection requirements, same pronounciations) except for the folllowing:
following two properties:
Lenglish has the LHHR instead of the RHHR:
(27)
Left-hand head rule:
In any complex word, where X is the head, X is to the
left
:
Yenglish is a hypothetical language which is exactly like English except for the
1
Nouns in Yenglish come in two genders: masculine and feminine
2
Yenglish compounds dier systematically from English compounds: Yenglish
has many many compounds of the following type:
of Y.
Translate the following words into Lenglish (hint: start with the English trees,
(29)
then apply the LHHR consistently, the leaves will lead you to the Lenglish
a. house book (meaning: library, not book for/in the house)
b. house prayer (meaning: church, not prayer performed at home)
translation):
(28)
What is the head of the compounds in (29)? Why?
a. globalization
If
b. reundergo
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Summary: keywords / what to remember
compounding vs. derivation (recursive morphological processes)
derivation: step-by-step representation of the combinations of morphemes
(or other units)
c-selection/subcategorization, locality of selection
principle of compositionality
the head
feature projection
the Right-Hand Head Rule
tree structures (binary branching, relations between nodes e.g. sisterhood,
motherhood)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
house
is feminine and
book
and
prayer
are masculine, what do you expect the
gender of the compound to be?
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris)
Combining morphemes
October 22, 2015
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