A10
Paper #79
Disclaimer—This paper partially fulfills a writing requirement for first year (freshman) engineering students at the University
of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering. This paper is a student, not a professional, paper. This paper is based on publicly
available information and may not provide complete analyses of all relevant data. If this paper is used for any purpose other
than these authors’ partial fulfillment of a writing requirement for first year (freshman) engineering students at the University
of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering, the user does so at his or her own risk.
SUPERBLOCKS: PRIORITIZING HUMANS OVER VEHICLES
William Bodnar, [email protected], Budny 10am, Nathan Farrar, [email protected], Vidic 2pm
Abstract—As the number of people moving to cities continues
to grow at its most rapid rate ever, there has inevitably been a
steady increase in the number of cars taking up space. In cities
particularly, traffic congestion has become part of our daily
lives. Countless hours are lost while we sit in our cars as we
are losing one of the most valuable assets of all: time. With the
idea of making city transportation more efficient for all
citizens, civil engineers have implemented various
technologies into some of the largest cities in the world with
the idea of reducing traffic. Engineers in Europe have created
a grid-like, urban transportation system called Superblocks,
which are aimed towards decreasing automobile traffic and
promoting more pedestrian activity.
Superblocks consist of nine city blocks to create a 3x3 square.
Only residents and/or businesses residing inside the
Superblock have access to the roads within it. The goal of
Superblocks is to reclaim the city streets for people and not
cars. To achieve this goal, engineers have devised a list of
changes and regulations that must be enforced in order for
travel along the grid-system to be as efficient as possible.
Making these adjustments promotes the use of public
transportation with less of a need for individual cars in the
city. Throughout the paper, we will provide further examples
of cities that have adopted this system and thoroughly describe
the social and environmental benefits that Superblocks can
have on cities.
Key Words—Automobile, City, Efficiency, Grid, Pedestrian,
Pollution, Road, Superblock, Traffic
EASING TRAFFIC IN MAJOR CITIES
In a world where the population is always on the rise,
engineers have continuously looked to increase the efficiency
of daily processes and find solutions to a variety of issues in
the world. Cities have been, and continue to be, the epicenter
of human activity with the majority of businesses, trade, and
commerce all operating within them all over the world. Urban
areas are essential for providing employment, homes, and are
a major influence on the global economy as there is a highly
dense number of people living and working close together.
However, with this close proximity comes several problems,
the congestion leads to severe traffic buildup, inhibiting people
University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering 1
03.03.2017
from traveling freely and spending more of their time stuck in
traffic. Civil engineers have been experimenting with different
methods to reduce the time people spend waiting in traffic by
improving the flow of automobiles in urban areas. A logical
step towards lowering traffic buildup and making urban travel
more efficient would be to reduce the number of cars present
on the road. Engineers and urban planners have used this
concept while brainstorming traffic ideas and have developed
a sustainable design for a traffic system that is most notably
and widely being used in Barcelona, Spain, as well as smaller
European cities, known as Superblocks. Superblocks are
typically a three by three square block in which a limited
number of cars are allowed to pass through. Furthermore, the
automobiles that are allowed in the Superblock are under very
strict speed limit and parking regulations [1].
Inside the square grid, pedestrians are free to roam
through green space, shop, and move about their daily lives.
As columnist Winnie Hu states in the 2016 New York Times
article titled, “Barcelona’s Lesson on ‘Superblocks,’” one of
the main ideas behind the project is reclaiming the city streets
for the people, “While those spaces (Superblocks) have carved
out more room for pedestrians in busy corridors, the
superblocks represent a more radical approach that
fundamentally challenges the notion that streets even belong
to cars” [1]. Superblocks promote an abundant amount of
change inside cities such as fewer vehicles on the road which
leads to less air and noise pollution, encouragement of public
transportation, and providing several health benefits for both
residents and tourists. Once the Superblock project in
Barcelona has been further developed and the system begins to
move to other parts of the world at a more rapid rate, city
residents will see urban traffic greatly reduced while streets are
evolving to be pedestrian friendly.
With any project being constructed, it is important to take
into great consideration the impact it will have on the people
in the area and the environment; otherwise known as
sustainability. When an idea or technology is sustainable, it is
something that can last for a long period of time and improve
the quality of life for those using it and those in the area around
it. Superblocks fits said criteria as it provides health benefits to
citizens and improves the city life by reducing traffic buildup.
The idea does not have any constraints that would put a life
William Bodnar
Nathan Farrar
span on Superblocks, meaning that they could last forever once
implemented.
Superblocks are not a traffic solution that can be
implemented in every city, as increased pedestrian activity is a
main feature of the addition. A small city heavily reliant on
automobile transportation would most likely not be suitable for
Superblocks. If Superblocks were to be implemented into a
smaller city that’s reliant on car transportation, Superblocks
would have to be gradually eased into the city to limit the
disturbance of the residents’ daily lives. The ideal conditions
are to have businesses and tourist attractions located in close
quarters to Superblock so they make for easy access by
walking. Barcelona is perhaps the most successful example of
implementing Superblocks, as the Catalan city was also the
place where the idea was developed. In an article from Vox
written by David Roberts titled, “Superblocks: how Barcelona
is taking city streets back from cars,” Roberts discusses how
the main idea was to “reclaim the streets for the people,” as
people are only given sidewalks to enjoy the city. Barcelona is
described as a perfect canvas for the grid because it is filled
with outdoor markets, cafes, and busy attractions [1]. These
characteristics are also shared with a vast number of other
cities throughout the world, especially in Europe. Giving more
space for human activity promotes fitness, opens more space
for businesses—which can lead to more jobs and revenue—,
and reduces the number of cars on the roads. As the number of
cars would be greatly lowered within the nine square block
area that encompasses a Superblock, traffic buildup will
naturally dissipate, creating a more free-flowing pattern within
the area.
The abating of automobiles on urban roads through
Superblocks will not only save people time and provide more
opportunities, but numerous environmental benefits will also
be created. Lowering the usage of cars leads to less exhaust
emitted from vehicles. In short, exhaust contains harmful
pollutants that affect the atmosphere and alter human health.
In addition to this, the current number of cars driving in cities
generates an enormous amount of noise pollution. Noise
pollution can be detrimental to human hearing over time and it
creates a less desirable living environment.
While describing the history of Superblocks in Barcelona
in the Vox article titled, “Superblocks: How Barcelona is
Taking City Streets Back From Cars,” the author mentions the
Urban Mobility Plan; a plan created in 2014 as a solution to air
pollution created from traffic congestion, which ultimately
kick started the Superblocks plan in the city [2]. The fact that
a major city such as Barcelona identified the danger air
pollution had become and then decided to act upon it, signifies
the city cares about the health risk present for citizens because
any change that would be made would be considered beneficial
for the entire city and region around it. Barcelona was known
for being pedestrian friendly before the consideration of
Superblocks. As mentioned previously, the city is renowned
for outdoor markets and cafes, while a city such as New York
City does not have as much emphasis on pedestrian life in the
streets. In New York City, cars are seen everywhere and heavy
traffic is universally associated with the city, raising the
question as to how much pollution New Yorkers are being
exposed to. The implementation of Superblocks, even if it
were only in a small part of the city, would go a long way in
reducing the number of cars on the roads, therefore leading to
less air pollution.
CUTTING DOWN ON TRAFFIC FLOW
No matter what the size of a city, the process of
integrating Superblocks into residents’ lives cannot be done in
one giant step that happens overnight. The transition into
Superblocks must be broken apart and brought into place
slowly. This two-step process will allow adjustments to be
made to the system and let people adapt to the change and
make the changes more suitable to city residents. In the 2016
Vox article previously referenced, the author describes a twophase change currently being carried out by Barcelona. The
main differences between the two phases that will lead to the
visible changes are the speed limit within the Superblock and
FIGURE 1 [1]
Before and after Superblocks
the amount of road available for pedestrian use. In phase one
the author states that, “...the maximum speed on the roads
within the Superblock is limited to 20 km/h (12.5 miles per
hour)” and in phase two, “...the maximum speed will be 10
km/h (6 m/h), allowing people to use the streets for games,
sport, and cultural activities such as outdoor cinema” [2]. As
shown in Figure 1, city driving without Superblocks allows
cars and other automobiles to move freely, with no restrictions.
Once Superblocks are implemented, cars are only allowed to
pass normally on the perimeter. Once inside the grid, vehicles
must obey the speed limit and parking rules in order to keep
traffic flowing smoothly and efficiently. Slower speed limits
lower the risk of collision and also discourages speeding.
Figure 1 also emphasizes that with Superblocks, the main
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priority is to provide for the city residents through reducing the
number of cars and making the block suitable for new
activities.
Over time, lowering the speed limit allows for a more
pedestrian-friendly environment. Creating a controlled
environment within the Superblock grid will greatly reduce the
congestion for the cars that are present. Currently, driving in
most cities can be best described as a nightmare and chaotic as
speed limits and other traffic laws are loosely enforced due to
the extreme number of cars. The traffic within a superblock
will be monitored strictly, which will also improve the
circulation of vehicles. Another important aspect covered in
the article is that the first phase of Superblocks in particular
can be set up at a very affordable cost for a whole city.
Salvador Rueda, the director of the Urban Ecology Agency of
Barcelona, believes that the city will only have to invest
approximately $22 million to implement phase one citywide. Figure 2 illustrates a street layout of the Spanish city
and highlights the regions that currently have Superblocks in
place or are under consideration for the future. If a major world
city such as Barcelona is open to and willing to take this step
to move forward to improve their traffic system, it would be in
the best interest of other cities follow suit and adopt the system
with the well-being of their residents in mind.
creating a healthier living environment, boost the local
economy, and aid businesses in the area. Setting up a plan for
installing Superblocks over two phases creates a low-risk
process to increase the efficiency of traffic flow within cities,
most notably Barcelona.
REPLACING NOISE WITH GREEN SPACE
In addition to cars releasing enormous amounts of
chemicals to pollute the air, the noise generated by the
thousands of cars moving through cities daily can be
detrimental to residents’ health and greatly lower the quality
of life in the area. The constant loud noises associated with the
beeping horns, car engines, and tires skidding on the pavement
are constantly repeated throughout the day, making for
unpleasant living for people living and working along an urban
street. As a result of Superblocks, the reduction of the amount
of cars on roads will reduce the noise associated with it. The
pedestrian zones created within the grid automatically lower
the noise levels due to less automobile traffic, but also provide
the opportunity for natural noise barriers as described in the
article, “An Integrated Methodology to Assess the Benefits of
Urban Green Space” out of the Science of the Total
Environment journal. The author examines, “...the impact of
trees and other vegetation on air quality and microclimate and
also evaluates ways of incorporating natural noise barriers
(e.g., earth berms) and porous noise-absorbing surfaces into
green structures,” all of which could be implemented in the
Superblocks grid [3]. The idea behind this method is that
vegetation would muffle any created sound and provide for an
overall better living experience for people. In most cities,
vegetation and wide open space are scarce as cities are
consumed by concrete and skyscrapers enclosed in tight
quarters. Furthermore, this means that all sounds emitted from
cars are currently being reflected off concrete; amplifying the
noise and carrying it throughout the city. Trees, plants, and
open space would allow the noise to dissipate naturally and
create a more aesthetically pleasing city. In addition to
reducing noise, green spaces promote fitness and other outdoor
activities, drawing both residents and tourists; another aspect
that will improve the health of people living in cities. Lastly,
installing a reduced car or car-free zones creates a safer and
more appealing environment to be a part of and reduces several
health risks associated with vehicles in cities.
FIGURE 2 [1]
Available area in Barcelona for Superblocks
A large city in the United States such as Boston is 90
square miles, in comparison, Barcelona is only about 40 square
miles. This means that it might not be reasonable for a
supersized city such as New York, Boston, or Los Angeles to
have Superblocks city wide. In contrast to this, smaller areas
within these megacities could implement a few Superblocks to
help restore city life at a fairly low price point. In addition to
lowering the speed limit in phase two, cities such as Barcelona
will eliminate curbside parking in favor of underground and
off-street garages. Doing so will open up even more space on
streets for pedestrian use and give cars less incentive to use the
streets within the grid. Rueda believes that after the addition of
phase two, about 60 percent of the city would be either be
mixed-use or completely car free [2]. Assuming this prediction
is accurate would change the way the entire city functions by
A CAR’S EFFECT ON AIR POLLUTION
As frequently discussed, a major issue generated from
the use of cars is the pollutants found in the exhaust released
from burning the fuel. When taking into consideration the
number of cars on roads in an urban environment, the impact
of the chemicals is multiplied compared to a more suburban or
rural area. Also, factoring in the population density of cities
given the sheer number of people that live in an extremely
close proximity presents a very dangerous situation as these
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people are all exposed to the harmful chemicals. Given that the
amount of people moving to cities is higher than ever before
and the world’s population is rising, it is essential that steps be
taken in an effort to lower the vehicle exhaust that people are
susceptible to. Superblocks could be a major step in the right
direction as a direct impact that will be felt on a city once
implemented is a lower amount of cars on the road and a higher
use of public transit [4]. With fewer cars comes less pollution
and less risk for disease and other health effects that could arise
from the exhaust. A peer-reviewed paper written by Jill Kruse
titled, “Remove it and They Will Disappear,” from the
National Transportation Library defends these claims, citing a
British study that was released in March of 1998. Researchers
from the study analyzed road closures worldwide and found
that about 25 percent of traffic was eliminated when a road was
closed and 60 percent of car trips all together were eliminated
[5]. These findings have led engineers and travel specialists to
raise question, “Would less roads actually lower the amount of
traffic?”, despite seeming counterintuitive. Travel specialists
in Barcelona have acted upon these ideas and developed the
Superblock as a solution to the large number of cars on city
roads. Mentioned previously, with the large volume of cars
in 2016 from November to December, the message is clear: air
pollution is present at levels high enough to cause significant
health issues for humans and the pollution is not going away
with the population growing. Reducing the number of cars on
roads is a way to combat air pollution despite the growing
numbers and Superblocks is a way that cities can accomplish
this. Simulations carried out by an EU research project titled,
“Benefits of Urban Green Space” (BUGS), comparing the
areas in cities with and without vegetation and their pollutant
levels, also showed that atmospheric concentrations are lower
in areas with trees [3]. Superblocks create more open areas for
pedestrians and slowly take away the use of roadways for cars.
In these places, vegetation could easily be placed to both lower
the noise pollution and the concentrations of polluting
chemicals detrimental to human health. The BUGS research
and studies have been crucial for the support of Superblocks as
they focus on analyzing green spaces within cities, a product
of Superblocks. Taking cars off the road by increasing the use
of Superblocks and creating more green space is a major step
in the right direction towards reducing the amount of vehicle
exhaust pollution and protecting city residents’ health.
GIVING CITIES BACK TO THE PEOPLE
Another main function of city blocks is to give more
physical space back to the residents of the city by taking away
space from cars. Upon thinking, in most U.S. cities,
pedestrians are trapped on narrow sidewalks mainly connected
to each other via crosswalks. Even cyclists are forced to a bike
lane that’s less than a quarter of the size of a lane for
automobiles. Similar to fish being accustomed to being in
water, Americans are habituated to cars dominating cities. It’s
really a bit surprising that our culture hasn't ever questioned
this and tried to find a solution earlier. A city that has decided
to do something about this is the city of Kajaani in Finland. For
background, throughout the 18th century Kajaani was the
center of cultural and industrial center of its region [7]. As the
twenty-first century came to a close, Kajaani faced a high
amount of traffic congestion, empty properties, and a declining
city population. In order to regenerate activity in the city, the
local support was able to pedestrianize a section of a main
street and city square. Initially, traffic congestion began to
increase but it later started to vanish into thin air. Residents
started to take more pedestrian trips around the city, which
caused an overall result of fewer cars on the road, leading to
less traffic.
As a result of initializing the city square, residents soon
began to have a higher appreciation for their city and wanted
the public space to be expanded even more. In conclusion, it’s
been proven that the decision to create public space for city
residents brought enjoyment and liveliness back to the city and
helped improve the satisfaction of the city residents. In
addition to Kajaani, the city of Wolverhampton, England
shows the benefits of a multi-phase public transportation
integration system. Throughout the 80s, Wolverhampton faced
high unemployment and soon became the city became a hub
FIGURE 3 [6]
Air Pollution levels in Paris
present in major cities all over the world comes a significant
amount of pollution that is released into the air from the
exhaust given off. Research described in the Science of the
Total Environment journal article, “An Integrated
Methodology to Assess the Benefits of Urban Green Space,”
says that benzene concentrations, which is a chemical capable
of causing cancer in humans, are double in urban areas as
opposed to levels measured in rural areas. The author notes that
the reason for the increase is due to the “intense” levels of
traffic in cities, a major issue because of the number of people
that live in these areas affected by large amounts of toxic
chemicals.
Figure 3 notes the air pollution levels in the French
capital of Paris, with it being widely considered that the
majority of air pollution is composed of toxins released from
vehicles. Although the figure only represents a month of time
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for cars to drive through to get other places. This caused high
levels of traffic and an increase in air pollution. To counteract
this issue, the city banned private cars from entering the core
roads into the city. As a result, only buses, cyclists, taxis, etc.,
had access to the inner city. Sure enough, public transportation
use and efficiency increased. This is not a result of
implementing a new system but a result due to less through
traffic taking up space on the roads. Furthermore, as more
public space opened up, increases in the local economy soon
became noticeable. To conclude, both cases studies show a
great amount of benefit- and little drawback- from the
implementation of public space and public transportation
throughout cities.
FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS
A common theme throughout cities all across the world
is enormous amounts of traffic and people. These two variables
go hand in hand as theoretically, more people means more
vehicles owned and therefore more cars on the road. However,
because cities have been growing at such a swift rate, civil
engineers have had to develop traffic systems such as the
Superblock to limit and even lower the number of cars driving,
even as the population of city residents continues to grow.
With the Superblock, multiple issues are solved while
providing several benefits for both the heavy urban commuter
and pedestrians. In the early stages, Superblocks have been
designed to take cars off the road by either restricting their
access from areas within the three by three grid or placing
regulations for their movement inside the square. Doing so
lowers the amount of car travel within a city, lowering two
kinds of pollution levels. Noise pollution generated from
automobiles is dissipated because of the open space created
from Superblocks and green space can be created in the place
of the current roads. Similarly, air pollution emitted from
vehicle exhaust is lessened due to green space absorbing the
carbon emissions. In addition to this, less cars on the road
overall means less pollution. Despite Superblocks solving
many problems in urban areas and accounting for the world’s
population growth, not everyone agrees with the idea [9].
People who are most likely to challenge the project are those
who travel heavily by way of through cities, but even others
have complaints about the traffic regulations within the grid.
In the article referenced previously written by Winnie Hu, she
cites a women Barcelona from who is concerned about the lack
of parking in cities due to curbside parking within the
Superblock being eliminated. This woman, “Visitacion Soria,
78, said the superblock would not be embraced by everyone.
'People like their cars,’ she said. ‘People are already saying
there's a problem finding parking, and this will make it worse’”
[1]. While Soria has a legitimate argument, parking due to
Superblocks is not eliminated completely. Mentioned before,
underground parking facilities will be implemented in phase
two of the project, and cars will be diverted to other parking
lots outside of the grid. Once the idea is fully in action
throughout more neighborhoods in Barcelona or other cities
around the world, it is even possible that parking lots inside the
block could be added, but at the moment the main focus is to
take cars off the roads and promote pedestrian activity.
As Superblocks become a larger part of life in more areas,
people will begin to see the benefits that come as a result of
lowering the number of cars on the road. Expected results will
include waiting in less traffic, having more outdoor
opportunities available in urban areas, and being exposed to
less pollution. When engineers are looking for problems to
solve, they are given major issues with no obvious solution(s)
and have to account for multiple variables, all while improving
the efficiency of the system that’s already been set in place. In
cities, traffic due to the large number of cars on the roads has
IDENTIFYING THE FUNCTION OF
SUPERBLOCKS
With any advancement in technology, there comes a cost
to society; for Superblocks this is no exception. While there is
a large number of benefits in favor of Superblocks, it’s
important to highlight the drawbacks. The New York Times
article explains very clearly what the negative effects are to
businesses and residents. The first thing to take notice of is the
two phase integration method wasn’t enough time for people
to become acclimated to the Superblocks. Business owners
quickly found themselves questioning if they would still be
able to load and unload product from a vehicle within the
Superblock. The idea behind a Superblock is a major culture
shift than the process currently in place [1]. By implementing
Superblocks too quickly without educating and informing
residents how it may benefit them, the city may find itself
quickly removing Superblocks if there’s enough demand.
Next, enforcement also raises a concern. With new, lower
speed limits in place, enforcement needs to occur in order to
ensure public safety from speeding vehicles. Without proper
enforcement, once again residents may demand the removal of
Superblocks if their citizens are not going to follow the laws
that come with them. Perhaps the greatest concern of
Superblocks is the shift of traffic into new areas of a city. The
idea behind this is to limit the usage of cars, but the absolute
removal of cars isn't realistic nor is it the end goal. While areas
where Superblocks exist could benefit, areas and roads where
there are not could end up suffering and end up suffering more
from Superblocks [8]. However, none of these thoughts can be
tested if the plans are never put into action. While considering
the positives and negatives to Superblocks, it must be said that
the apparent positives outweigh the negatives as human health
needs to be a priority and this is factored in through lowering
pollution. One last thing to consider is do cities need
Superblocks? While most research shows them as beneficial,
what makes this a priority for a city? Cities have plenty of
things to improve upon such as reducing crime, upgrading
infrastructure, and so on. A reasonable assumption to make is
only cities that are already highly advanced are the ones that
are going to consider the implementation of Superblocks.
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Nathan Farrar
become a major issue the past few decades. With the
population of both the world and cities currently growing, the
problem was bound to become worse. Cars are immersing
hundreds of millions of people throughout the world to
cancerous toxins in vehicle exhaust and damaging their
hearing and quality of life due to noise pollution.
Working against the trend, the Superblock idea
developed in Barcelona takes all factors into consideration by
both lowering the number of cars and traffic levels, and
creating a system that promotes city growth by presenting
numerous opportunities for businesses—which creates jobs
and revenue—and promoting a healthier, outdoor lifestyle. For
the future, the best thing would be for Superblocks to start
moving at a faster rate to other parts of the world such as the
United States, and continue to expand throughout Barcelona.
Once phase two is in action, the full effects will be seen on the
flow of traffic and car numbers will be noticeably lower within
the city. Looking forward to a more sustainable and efficient
future, Superblocks are a system that should be implemented
in more parts of the world because of the many benefits they
have on both humans and the environment.
[7] D. Dimitrova, A. Dzhambov. “Urban green spaces'
effectiveness as a psychological buffer for the negative health
impact of noise pollution: A systematic review.” Noise &
Health. 2014. Accessed 1. 10. 2017.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthTyp
e=ip,uid&db=aph&AN=96804478&scope=site
[8] A. Cheshmehzangi. “Sustainable Living and Urban
Density: The Choices are Wide Open.” Energy Procedia.
6.1.2016.Accessed1.25.2017.
https://www.engineeringvillage.com/search/doc/abstract.url?
pageType=quickSearch&usageOrigin=searchresults&usageZ
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Mfc01M402dM9cdbMb9c5b849432a&DOCINDEX=6&data
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49432a&referer=%2Fsearch%2Fresults%2Fquick.url
[9]E. Charmes. “Cul-de-sacs, Superblocks and Environmental
Areas as Supports of Residential Territorialization.” Journal of
Urban Design. 08.2010. Accessed 1.10.2017.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthTyp
e=ip,uid&db=aph&AN=52038646&scope=site
SOURCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
[1] H. Winnie. "Barcelona's Lesson on 'Superblocks'." New
York Times. Academic OneFile. 10.2.2016. Accessed
1.10.2017.
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthTyp
e=ip,uid&db=aph&AN=118464181&scope=site
[2] D. Roberts. “Superblocks: How Barcelona is Taking City
Streets Back From Cars.” Vox. 9.27.2016. Accessed 1.10.
2017.
http://www.vox.com/2016/8/4/12342806/barcelonasuperblocks
[3] “An integrated methodology to assess the benefits of urban
green space.” Science of the Total Environment. 12.1.2014.
Accessed 1.10.2017.
https://www.engineeringvillage.com/search/doc/abstract.url?
pageType=quickSearch&usageOrigin=searchresults&usageZ
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McdfdM4360Ma9b6Mf48e0c960d4a&DOCINDEX=4&data
base=1&format=quickSearchAbstractFormat&dedupResultC
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960d4a&referer=%2Fsearch%2Fresults%2Fquick.url
[4]“Reclaiming City Streets for People.” European
Commission. Accessed 1.11.2017.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/pubs/pdf/streets_people.pdf
[5] J. Kruse. “Remove it and They will Disappear.” Bureau of
Transportation Statistics. Accessed 1.11.2017.
http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/1000/1100/1165/00778490.pdf
[6] “Car pollution in cities – do number plate schemes work?”
BBC. 12.7.2016. Accessed 3.2.2017
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-38236926
We would like to thank our co-chair Sara Zahorchak for
helping us with any questions we had and reviewing our
assignments and outline. We would also like to thank Michael
Cornelius for grading our papers and providing feedback and
our chairs Michael Larson-Edwards and Petros Neofotistos for
overseeing our conference group.
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