內政部神衹介紹資料說明（991230更新版）
本部99年度神祇介紹係委由學術團體在史料可考前提
下進行中英文撰寫，內容大抵涵蓋神衹之信仰源起、發展
脈絡，以及在臺之信仰生態。介紹內容除先行公開於本部
民政司網站，並將陸續建置於本部全國宗教資訊系統。
本介紹內容包含常見神祇英文詞條50個，著作權為本
部所有，相關補充之說明如下：
一、 王爺信仰係指受祀主神稱號為王爺、王爺公、千歲、
元帥、王公、大使爺公、主公、大王、公爺、先鋒爺
者，涵蓋姓氏達百餘種，惟其成神模式類同，爰擬併
以「王爺千歲」為介紹項目。
二、 除佛、道與一般民間信仰所屬各類神祇，並列入屬於
一貫道、彌勒大道與天道信仰之明明上帝、天德教所
祀之一氣宗主、夏教奉祀之三一教主。
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內容
1 I-Qi Zongzhu (一氣宗主) ............................................................................................. 4
2 Jiutian Xuannu (九天玄女) ......................................................................................... 6
3 Erlang Shen (二郎神) .................................................................................................. 8
4 Sanyi jiaozhu (三一教主) .......................................................................................... 11
5 Sanshan guowang (三山國王) .................................................................................. 12
6 Sannai Furen (三奶夫人) .......................................................................................... 14
7 Sanguan dadi (三官大帝).......................................................................................... 16
8 Sanqing daozu (三清道祖) ........................................................................................ 18
9 Sanbao fo (三寶佛) ................................................................................................... 19
10 Dashu gong (大樹公) .............................................................................................. 21
11 Nalakūvala (Zhongtan Yuanshuai, 中壇元帥) ........................................................ 22
12 Wufu dadi (五福大帝) ............................................................................................ 24
13 Wuxian dadi (五顯大帝) ......................................................................................... 25
14 Yuanshi tianzun (元始天尊) .................................................................................... 26
15 Mazu (天上聖母) .................................................................................................... 28
16 Taiyi Zhenren (太乙真人)........................................................................................ 30
17 Taishang laojun (太上老君) .................................................................................... 31
18 Wenchang dijun (文昌帝君) ................................................................................... 32
19 Qiaosheng Xianshi (巧聖仙師) ............................................................................... 34
20. Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝) ...................................................................................... 36
21. Fuxi Dadi (伏羲大帝) ............................................................................................. 38
22. Dimu Niangniang (地母娘娘) ................................................................................ 38
23. Youying gong (有應公) ........................................................................................... 40
24. Xifang sansheng (西方三聖) .................................................................................. 41
25. Yuewu muwang (岳武穆王)................................................................................... 42
26. Yanping junwang (延平郡王) ................................................................................. 43
27. Ming Ming Shang Di (明明上帝) ............................................................................ 44
28. Donghua dijun (東華帝君) .................................................................................... 45
29. Dongyue dadi (東嶽大帝) ...................................................................................... 47
30. Tiandou yuanshuai (田都元帥) ............................................................................. 48
31. Amita-buddha (阿彌陀佛) ..................................................................................... 50
32. Baosheng Emperor (保生大帝) ............................................................................. 52
33. Cheng huang ye (城隍爺) ...................................................................................... 54
34. Shen Nong dadi (神農大帝) ................................................................................... 56
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35. Cai shen ye (財神爺) .............................................................................................. 57
36. Guigu Xianshi (鬼谷先師) ...................................................................................... 59
37. Zhang tianshi (張天師)........................................................................................... 60
38. Shuixian zunwang (水仙尊王) ............................................................................... 62
39. Zao shen (灶神) ...................................................................................................... 63
40. Kaizhang Shengwang (開漳聖王) .......................................................................... 65
41. Shuntian shengmu (順天聖母) .............................................................................. 66
42. Bodhidharma (達摩祖師) ...................................................................................... 68
43. Cankui zushi (慚愧祖師) ........................................................................................ 69
44. Yaochi jinmu (瑤池金母)........................................................................................ 70
45. Guangze zunwang (廣澤尊王) ............................................................................... 72
46. Xiqin wangye (西秦王爺) ....................................................................................... 73
47. Maitreya (彌勒佛) .................................................................................................. 74
48. Ji Gong (濟公)......................................................................................................... 76
49. Sakyamuni (釋迦牟尼佛) ....................................................................................... 77
50. Guanyin (觀世音菩薩) ........................................................................................... 79
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1 I-Qi Zongzhu (一氣宗主)
I-Qi Zongzhu (一氣宗主) is Xiao Changming’s (蕭昌明) religious title. Xiao
Changming is the founder of Tian De Jiao (天德教). Qi (氣) is the fundamental
material or vital energy in Chinese cultural. Daoists think that the whole universe
comes from the primal qi. Simply, I-qi is the same as the primal qi. The disciples of
Tian De Jiao said the I-qi Master is equal to the Formless Primal Buddha (無形古佛)
who is not recorded in Chinese Buddhist scriptures. In other words, the I-Qi Master
and the Formless Primal Buddha are folk invented ideas.
According to the very rare records, Xiao Changming was born in 1894, a small
village in Le Zhi county, Si Chuan Province (四川省樂至縣). It is said that when Xiao
Chang-ming was six years old, he had been undergone a near death experience. After
this trauma, he seemed to become another person as if he were an adult. He was
always preaching some moral or profound dogma to people and asking them to save
the world. He left his homeland when he was a teenager at one night and did not
leave any message. Some said that he was conducted by a stranger. He had been
backed to his homeland briefly and enlisted himself in military service after a while.
In the army, he made a friend with a first-degree military scholar (武舉人) whose
name is Zou Yun-long (鄒雲龍). Zou influenced Xiao’s religious idea in some aspect.
However, the detail is unknown. Then Xiao left army and retreated to western Hunan
province (湖南) for years. During this period, he chanted the Scripture of Jade
Emperor’s heart seal (玉皇心印妙經) million times. After that, he was enlightened in
some mystical experience and founded Tian De Jiao. Then Xiao Chang-ming wrote a
moral book, A guide to People’s life (人生指南) and organized some groups and
associations in Nanking, 1930. There he met a secretary serving in the Ministry of
Finance (財政部) whose name is Lee Yu-jie (李玉階). Lee Yu-jie became Xiao’s
disciple later. After 1949, Lee followed KMT government came to Taiwan and became
a Legislator. He kept on preaching Xiao’s teaching in Taiwan and finally he founded a
cult, Tien Ti Jiao (天帝教). After 1937, Tian De Jiao ‘s disciples get their own scripture
by way of spirit writing (扶鸞). Some Scriptures were published such as the De-jiao
Chan-wei (德教闡微), De yan (德言),Fa-yan hui-yao (法言匯要) etc. 1937, Xiao set
Tian De Jiao ‘s headquarter at Mountain Huang (黃山) where he died in 1942.
In Taiwan, there are two cults of Tian De Jiao. One is still keeping the same
name. Another one is Tien Ti Jiao. The head quarter of Tian De Jiao is at Taipei and
has overt ten branches in Taiwan. Tien Ti Jiao has over fifty bracnes and departments
in Taiwan, Japan and The U.S. Both of them claim same slogans and claim on Qi Gong
and the syncretism of world religions.
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Keywords: I-Qi Zongzhu, Xiao Changming, Tian De Jiao, Tien Ti Jiao, religious
syncretism
References:
1.天德教總會。1989。《天德教簡介》。臺北：天德教總會。
Websites:
1.天帝教內關於蕭昌明的研究。2010.10讀取。
網址 http://www.tienti.tw/?q=node/996
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2 Jiutian Xuannu (九天玄女)
Jiutian Xuannu (九天玄女), the Dark lady of the Ninth Heaven, abbreviated
Xuannu, is also called Jiutian niangniang (九天娘娘), Yuannu (元女), Liali ma (連理媽)
etc. The term Jiutian, the Ninth Heaven or the nine Heavens, symbolizes the highest
and means all directions, everywhere. Xuan (玄), dark, means subtle and profound.
Jiutian Xuannu is a legendary figure in the era of the Five Sage rulers of the legendary
Age and a mythical deity of both Daoism and popular religion. It is said that
Sheng-mu Yuan-jun (聖母元君) dispatched Xuannu to help Huang Di (黄帝), the
Yellow Emperor, defeated Chi You (蚩尤) by way of imparting him a talisman. In
another story, it is said that Xuannu was Huang Di’s master who made him lead the
divine soliders to defeat Chi You. It seems that Xuannu played a decisive role in the
war between Huang Di and Chi You.
In the Xuan-he Yi-shi (宣和遺事), a prototype of Shui-hu Zhuan (水滸傳), when Song
Jiang (宋江) committed a murder and fled into Xuannu’s temple. Xuannu presented
him a divine book, ordered him to enlist himself in the army and predicated that he
would be a general and success. Finally, Song Jiang did become a general and make
some important achievements. This story was rewritten into other stories, such as
the Shuihu Zhuan (水滸傳), Pingyao Chuan (平妖傳), Ba-xian Chu-chu Dong-you-ji
(八仙出處東遊記), and Nu-xian Wais-hi (女仙外史) etc.
The origin of Xuannu is vague. There are at least four kinds of speculation. The first is
about a divine bird, Xuan-niao (玄鳥). It is said that one kind of an ancient statue of
Xuannu was in human figure with bird’s head. The second is a new one that Xuannu
been a female demon who could cause drought. However, the concrete evidences of
above two speculations are not found. The third one is she descended to earth as Nu
Wa (女媧). This saying seems only spread in Taiwan. The last one is about Nu-xian (女
仙). In Daoist scriptures and other novels, they revealed that the possibility of
Xuannu as a Nu-xian which is in relation of alchemy and fang-zhong shu (房中術), a
kind of sexual yoga or a practice shared within a couple’s marital bed. That is the
reason why mercury is called Xuannu in scriptures of Daoist alchemy. Besides, the
Daoist temple, Chi-song guan (赤松觀), which is located in Jin-hua (金華) Zhe-jiang
province is regarded as the place where Xuannu finished her alchemy and ascended
to heaven.
Though Xuannu was regarded as a war goddess or Nuxian before, she is a goddess of
fertility and the patron of matchmaker today. She is also an important goddess to
both some Daoists and fashi (法師), a master of religious healing or exorcism rite in
popular religion. There are some fashu (法術) under the name of Xuannu, such as
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Jiutian Xuannu Zao Gao mifa (九天玄女灶告秘法), Xuannu fang-zhong Jing (玄女房
中經) etc. Jiutian Xuannu Zao Gao mi-fa is a ritual about praying for the blessing of
Kitchen god (灶神).
In Taiwan, there are about nineteen to twenty three temples dedicated to Xuannu.
The first one is located in Taichung, named Chao-feng Gong (朝奉宮). It was built in
1821. There are nine statues of Xuannu to represent her title “the nine heavens.”
They are called Lian-li Ma (連理媽). In Chinese , lian-li is a term to describe a tree
whose branches join together and Ma means mother or a courtesy title addressed to
a married woman. Coincidentally, there is a temple which is located in Bei-jing (北京),
main land China, also founded nine statues of Xuannu. Xuannu’s birthday is on
September, 9th by Chinese lunar calendar. The temples of Xuannu would hold some
festivals and rites as a celebration.
Keywords: Jiutian Xuannu, the Dark lady of the Ninth Heaven, Chao-feng temple,
Lian-li Ma, Shuihu Zhuan
References:
1.刑東田。1997.3。〈九天玄女的起源、職能及演變〉。《世界宗教研究》。
2.阮昌銳。1982。《莊嚴的世界》。台北：臺灣文開出版事業股份有限公司。
3.陳雙法。2006。《九天玄女娘娘聖傳》。臺北：祥瑞文化。
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3 Erlang Shen (二郎神)
Erlang Shen (二郎神) is a famous martial god in Chinese popular religion. He is
also called Qingyuan zhenjun (清源真君), Yangfu yuanshuai (楊府元帥), Zhenjun ye
(真君爺) or Shuaiye gong(帥爺公). He is often linked with the Nalakūvala, Zhongtan
Yuanshuai (中壇元帥).
Though Erlang Shen is famous, this title denotes various persons corresponding
to different areas and eras. According to the Fengsu Tongyi (風俗通義), in Eastern
Han dynasty, Erlang Shen are Li Bing (李冰) and his sons in Qin(秦) dynasty or Li
Bing’s second son. Li Bing is famous as the engineer of the Dujiangyan Irrigation
System (都江堰). Regarding to the Sanjiao Yuanliu Soushen daquan (三教源流搜神
大全) in Ming dynasty, Erlang Shen represented Zhao Yu (趙昱), the Commandery
(太守) of Jiazhou (嘉州), in Sui dynasty or Deng Xia (鄧遐) the Commandery of
Xiangyang (襄陽) in Jin (晉) dynasty. Like Li Bing, they also made some achievement
on regulating rivers and watercourses.
In the Buddhist scriptures, Erlang Shen is Vaisravana’s second son, Nalakūvala’s
elder brother, an Indian god. His name is Dujian (獨鍵) in Chinese. Erlang Shen and
Nalakūvala are all martial god. When it was Ming dynasty, Dujian became Erlang
Shen named Yang Jian in the Journey to the West (西遊記) and the Fengshen
Yanyi (封神演義). Dujian as Yang Jian still kept his martial identity.
In Taiwan, Erlang Shen is equal to Yang Jian, the martial character in the Journey to
the West and the Fengshen Yanyi. He is majorly worshiped by Clan Yang. At first, his
temple was established in Fanzai Liao, Tainan by migrants from Xiamen (廈門) ,
Fujian province. Then the worship to Erlang Shen spreaded to Gaoxiong (高雄) as
well. Today, the famous temples dedicated to Erlang Shen are Huitian temple (迴天
宮) in Miaoli (苗栗), Longshen temple (龍神宮) in Taizhong (台中), Baohe temple
and Yingyuan temple in Tainan, and Jitian temple (濟天宮) in Gaoxiong. The day
worshiping to Erlang Shen among those temples are little difference. In Chinese
lunar calendar, the twenty-fourth day in the sixth month and the twelveth day in
the nineth month are the major.
Keywords: Erlang Shenjun, Qingyuan zhenjun, Zhenjun ye, Yang Jian
參考書目
1.不著撰人。1980。
《繪圖三教源流搜神大全．附搜神記》
。台北：聯經（據清宣
統元年長沙葉德輝麗廔叢書本影印）。
2.王秋桂。1983.3。〈二郎神傳說補考〉。《民俗曲藝》，22：1-26，台北：施合鄭
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民俗基金會。
3.仇德哉。1983。《臺灣省之寺廟與神明（四）》。台中：臺灣省文獻委員會。
參考網站
1.台南縣佳里鎮番仔寮應元宮。2010.10.12 讀取。
http://myweb.hinet.net/home12/fanziliao/
台 南 市 安 南 區 新 和 順 保 和 宮 官 方 網 站 。 2007.12.31 讀 取 。
http://shinheshun.myweb.hinet.net/
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4 Sanyi jiaozhu (三一教主)
Sanyi jiaozhu (三一教主) ,the Lord of Three in One, is one of Lin Chaoen’s (林兆
恩) religious titles. Lin Chaoen is the founder of the Three-in-One teaching (三一教)
who was born in 1517, Puitien (莆田), Fujian (福建), a province in southeast China.
His father was Lin Wanren (林萬仞) who was the chief member of the greatest clan
in Puitien. This clan had won many titles in the government examination. This was
why Lin Chaoen’s ambitious was aiming on passing the government examination and
becoming an offical in the Ming government. Lin Chaoen did not let his family down.
He got his xiucai (秀才) degree in 1534 and was ranked first among the local students
by 1540. However, Lin Chaoen’s fate was unfortunate. Lin Chaoen married at
eighteen and lost his wife in just one year. From 1539 to 1546, He lost his grandfather,
father, uncle in eight years. He failed his provincial government examination in 1546
when his family members were all expecting his success. Then Lin Chaoen made a
decision to renounce his official scholar carrier. Because when Lin reflected on
himself and his learning after those strikes, he realized that Confucian education
cannot make a person become moral but practice a matter of literary style. He began
to visit some religious figures elsewhere and tried to search for a religious truth that
could result in personal moral growth. During his religious adventure, he visited all
kinds of religious figures, including Confucians, Buddhists, and Daoists. He even made
a friend with a Daoist whose name is Zhuo Wan-chun (卓晚春).
In 1551, Lin was enlightened by a dream, mystical experience, or an unknown
enlightened master. He began his missionary carrier and founded the Teaching of
Three in One (三一教). The Three in One means a religious teaching mixing or
syncreticing the three major Chinese religions, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism.
His friend Huang Chou (黃州) became his first disciple. Then Lin’s other friends and
relatives became his disciples one after another. Since Lin Chaoen was forbidden by
government to renounce his Confucian identity. He could only mission his teaching to
people as a teacher in some home schools. During 1558 to 1663, the Japanese
pirates invaded Fujian and killed many peoples. Lin Chaoen sold his estates out to
raise some charity found to bury over ten thousands death and to help the lives to be
settled. This was an important contribution which Lin’s and his church, the Three in
One teaching, make. After this event, the Three-in-One teaching became more
popular and well-known. When Lin Chaoen was dead, there were almost
Three-in-One teaching everywhere in the coast county of Fujian province and the
other provinces along the coast of China. There are few churches and disciples in
Fujian and one church of Three-in-One teaching in Taiwan now. This church was
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founded after the Second World war and named itself as Xia chiao (夏教). The name
Xia chiao originates from one of Lin Chaoen’s religious title, the Lord Xia Wu Ni of the
Three in One (三一教主夏午尼). In Chinese, the word xia (夏) means great (大), wu
(午) means just right in the middle, and ni (尼) denotes the Confucius. To the
Three-in-One teaching, Xia (夏) represents the true inheritance of Confucian’s
teaching. Xia chiao regards their members as the carrier of Chinese saints’ teaching.
Lin Chaoen writes many books and essays as the scripture of Three-in-One
teaching, including the Sanchiao chengtsung (三教正宗), Sanchiao hoi tachih (三教
合一大旨) etc. After his death, his disciples collected all the essays and compiled
them as some collections. They are important legacies that Lin Chaoen left to the
world.
Keywords: The Lord of Three in One, Lin Chaoen, Xia chiao, the Three in One
teaching
References:
1.林子本行實錄。1999。
《北京圖書館藏珍本年譜叢刊，第四十九冊》
。北京：北
京圖書館出版社。
2.鄭志明。1998。《台灣民間宗教結社˙台灣夏教的宗教體系(第7章)》，嘉義：南
華管理學院出版。
3.林國平。1992。《林兆恩與三一教》。福州 : 福建人民出版社。
4.Berling, A. Judith(1980). The syncretic religion of Lin Chao-en. IASWR series.
New York, Columbia University Press.
5.Dean, Kenneth (1998). Lord of the three in One. New Jersey: Princeton University
Press.
5 Sanshan guowang (三山國王)
Sanshan guowang (三山國王), Lord of the three mountains, is an important god set
of popular religion in Taiwan. It is estimated that there are about 170 temples
dedicated to Sanshan guowang, in Taiwan, 1996. Lord of the three mountains is a
collection of three mountain gods who originated from Chao zhou (潮州),
Guang-dong privince (廣東省). The three mountains are Mountain Jin (巾山),
Mountain Ming (明山), and Mountain Du (獨山). San-shan is their collective name.
The primary record of Lord of the three mountains is a local history in Yuan dynasty.
It is said that there are three divine human descended to a mountain peak, Yu feng
(玉峰), around the three mountains. They claimed themselves as the gods of the
three mountains and they were sibling. A villager was abducted by them and became
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their tendance. As a result, Lord of the three mountains and the villager were all
worshiped by the other villagers around the three mountains and a temple were
built on the foot of Yu feng.
It is credited that Lord of the three mountains is efficacious. When there is a
drought, flood, or an epidemic disease, the villagers will go to the temple praying for
blessing. In Tang dynasty (唐朝), when the famous Confucian scholar Han Yu (韓愈)
was the staff of Chao zhou, there was a flood. He also went to the temple to pray
Lord of the three mountains. In Song dynasty, Lord of the three mountains assisted
both the first and the last Song Emperors. Lord of the three mountains helped the
first emperor Zhao Kuang-yin (趙匡胤) defeated his major enemy, Liu Chang (劉鋹).
After the war, Zhao Kuang-yin bestowed the title of duke to Lord of the three
mountains. The god of Mt. Ming was named Qing-hua Wei-de bao guo wang (清化威
德報國王). The god of Mt. Jin was named Zhu-zheng Ming-su Ning guo wang (助政
明肅寧國王). The god of Mt. Du was named Hui-gan Hong-ying Feng guo wang (惠感
弘應豐國王). At the end of Song dynasty, when the last emperor Di Bing (帝昺)was
fleeing, Lord of the three mountains was protecting him from the pursuing of
insurgents. Above Lord of the three mountains’ stories in Song dynasties reveals that
Lord of the three mountains’ flourishing seems in relation of the royal house of Song
emperor.
Scholars in Taiwan thought that Lord of the three mountains is the god in
connection with the Hakka Chinese, Chinese who speak the Hakka language at first.
Recently, new evidence reveal that Lord of the three mountains is the god who
originated from Chao zhou only but not dedicated to Hakka people. There is almost
the temple of Lord of the three mountains everywhere in Taiwan. Only in Yi-lan
county (宜蘭), it was estimated about 26 temples dedicated to Lord of the three
mountains.
Keywords: Lord of the three mountains, Mountain Jin, Mountain Ming, Mountain Du,
Hakka Chinese
References:
（元）劉希孟。
〈潮州路明貺三山國王廟記〉
。收入《永樂大典》
〈十三蕭‧潮字‧
潮州府〉5345/18a-19b。
（明）盛端明。
〈三山明貺廟記〉
。收入《中國方志叢書》華南12號，臺北：成文出版社。
邱彥貴。2003。
〈臺灣客屬三山國王信仰淵源新論〉
。收入張珣、江燦騰合編。
《臺
灣本土宗教研究的新視野和新思維》：175-225。臺北：南天書局。
貝聞喜。2007。《潮汕三山國王崇拜》。廣州：廣東人民出版社。
陳春聲。1996。〈三山國王信仰與臺灣移民社會〉，《中研院民族所集刊》，80：
13
61-114。
6 Sannai Furen (三奶夫人)
Sannai furen (三奶夫人), the Three ladies, designate one goddess or three
goddesses. In case of one goddess, it is Chen Jinggu (陳靖姑), the Lady of Linshui (臨
水夫人). In another case, they are Chen Jinggu (陳靖姑), Lin Sha-niang (林紗娘) ,
and Li San-niang (李三娘). As the Lady of Linshui, Chen Jinggu is renown of
protecting pregnant women and children. However the other two ladies’ story is few.
According to very few records, Chen Jinggu, the Lady of Lin, and the Lady of Li were
all disciples of Xu Xun (許遜, 239-374), a Daoist in Jin dynasty. Because Xu Xun was a
Daoist figure in Jin dynasty, the Lady of Linshui was a shaman in Tang dynasy.
Apparently, it is a mystical story not a history.Sannai Furen and Chen’s elder brother
Chen Hai-qing (陳海青)are originally exorcists. Chen Hai-qing failed his mission in
taming a viper demon and was captured by the viper demon. Then Chen Jinggu and
Lin, Li, tried to locate Xu Xun to ask him for help. During this heroines like journey,
they crossed a troubled river, fought with an evil dragon, and defeated a fierce tiger.
Finally, they found Xu Xun lived in Mountain Lu, Lu shan (閭山) and became his
disciples to advance their own exorcising skill. Lu-shan is the holly mountain to the
exorcists in Fujian, Zhe jiang and other provinces around other southeast China.
However, Lushan is a mystical mountain which located in where nobody knows
exactly. AfterSannai Furen learned all the skill from Xu Xun, including Lei Fa (雷法).
They started to trace the viper demon, find its cave and killed it. Chen Hai-qing was
saved by them.Sannai Furen then became the famous demon buster. They even
saved King Min (閩王) and his concubines from another viper demon. So King Min
bestowed them with 36 maids. The 36 maids becameSannai Furen’s follower and
squad.
In Chinese popular religion,Sannai Furen represented the legacy of Lushan Fapai
(閭山法派). Lushan Fapai is a teaching or a school in popular religion which spreads
around Fujian ,jiang xi , and Taiwan. Its rituals were influenced by Daoism and Tantra
Buddhism and mixed with Wu (巫), an ancient tradition in Chinese popular religion.
Under the school of Lushan Fapai, there is a subdivision called Sannai pai (三奶派).
In Taiwan, the exorcists who belong to San-nai pai wear red turban on their head.
They are often called hongtou fashi (紅頭法師), the exorcist with red hair.
Besides,Sannai Furen’s temples are all the same as the Lady of Linshui. People
worship to them for praying children’s and pregnant women’s secure life. San-nai
pai’s stories are also popular in traditional drama.
Keywords: Sannai furen, Chen Jinggu, Xu Xun, Lushan
14
References:
1.Berthier, Brigitte. (2008) The Lady of Linshu: A Chinese female cult. California :
Stanford University Press.
2.李秀娥，1997，
〈鹿港夫人媽成神的傳說與類型〉
，
《思與言》
，35（2）
：187-234。
3.康詩瑀，2007，〈台灣臨水夫人信仰之研究 ─以白河臨水宮、台南臨水夫人媽
廟為例〉（中壢：國立中央大學歷史所論士論文）。
4.陳芳伶，2003，
〈陳靖姑信仰的內容、教派及儀式探討〉
（台南：國立台南大學
鄉土文化研究所碩士論文）。
5.魏永竹，1991，
〈臨水夫人崇祀在台灣〉，《台灣文獻》，42（1）：209-234。
15
7 Sanguan dadi (三官大帝)
Sanguan dadi, Emperors of the Three Offices, are three highest gods who
administrate the world in Chinese popular religion. Sanguan dadi are Tian guan (天
官), Di guan(地官), and Shui guan (水官). Tian (天), di (地) and shui (水) denote the
heaven, earth and water in Chinese individually. Guan means office. Sanguan dadi
are also called Sanjie gong (三界公). The early record about them is a religious
healing ritual named Sanguan shoushu (三官手書). Sanguan dadi are the gods whom
a Daoist confesses ones own sins to in Sanguan shoushu. Sanguan shoushu is a ritual
created by Daoists in Tianshi dao (天師道), a proto Daoist sect. If a devotee
confesses ones own sins by way of Sanguan shoushu, one should write three
confessional documents to Sanguan dadi and place one of them on a mountain, sink
one in the river, and bury one in the earth. Sanguan, Emperors of the Three Offices,
were the gods revealed by Daoists in Eastern Han dynasty to respond a new
cosmology. They were original representing the three primal qi (氣). They became
three offices later.
By Tang dynasty, Sanguan dadi were linked to Sanyuan ri (三元日), three days
of the three Primary. Sanyuan ri are the fifteenth by January, July, and October in
Chinese lunar calendar. Daoists believe that these three days are the days of
judgement belonged to Sanguan dadi separately. January the fifteenth is the day of
Tian quan. July the fifteenth is the day of Di guan and October the fifteenth is the
day of Shui quan. Another version is the three days are the birthdays of Sanguan
dadi individually. People worshiping to Sanguan dadi in Sanyuan ri became a custom
by Tang daynsty. In Taiwan, Sanyuan ri are three important days in popular religion.
January the fifteenth is called Yuanxiao jie (元宵節). It is the last day of Spring
Festival (春節) and is celebrated as the Lantern Festival. Zhongyuan jie (中元節), the
fifteenth day of the seventh month in the lunar calendar, is the day that people take
on a ritual to transform and offer food to the deceased. Xiayuan ri(下元日), the
fifteenth day of the tenth month in the lunar calendar is the day that many temples
invite traditional troupe to perform plays as the offering to the gods.
According to the statics, it is estimated about dozen to twenty-odd temples
dedicated to Sanguan dadi in Taiwan. Most of them are named Sanjie gong temple
(三界公廟), Sanyuan temple (三元宮) or Sanguan dadi temple (三官大帝廟).
Though the number is few, the belief on Sanguan dadi is very popular. There are
many compound houses hung a censer dedicated to Sanguan dadi. The style of
censer hung in the hall of traditional compound building dedicated to Sanguan dadi
is according to the identity of devotees. The devotees of Zhangzhou (漳州) use the
16
censer with three rings. The censer with four rings belongs to the devotees of
Quanzhou (泉州). Some villages also organize a gropus and place a censer dedicated
to Sanguan dadi. The heads of group take the duty of worship to Sanguan dadi in
turn.
Keywords: Association for Lords of Three spheres, Communal Shrine, Three spheres :
Heaven, Earth, and Human, Cosmology
田金昌。2005。
〈北臺灣客家人的三官大帝信仰初探〉
。
《新竹文獻》
，18：92-106。
呂理政。1990。
《天、人、社會：試論中國傳統的宇宙認知模型》
。臺北：中研院
民族所
林美容。1990。
〈族群關係與文化分立〉
。
《中央研究院民族學研究所集刊 》
，69：
93-106。（http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ioe/chinese/staff/r2602/etb069-005.pdf）
馬永金。1995。《三官大帝傳》。臺中：金玉堂。
黃榮洛。1996。〈臺灣客家人和三官大帝廟〉。《客家雜誌》，75：8-61。
黎志添。2002。
〈天地水三官信仰與早期天師道治病解罪儀式〉
。
《臺灣宗教研究》
，
2（1）：1-30。
17
8 Sanqing daozu (三清道祖)
Sanqing daozu (三清道祖), Three Pure Ones, are the three highest gods in Daoism.
Daoist thought that the creation of universe is the result of their works. In Six
dynasties, Sanqing (三清) originally denoted the place where Three Pure Ones live in.
They are three places in the heaven. According to Daoist cosmology, there are more
than 30 levels in Heaven. The highest one is Yuqing jing (玉清境) , the second is
Shangqing jing (上清境), the third is Taiqing jing (太清境). Sanqing dao zu are
Yuanshi tianzun (元始天尊), Lingbao tianzun (靈寶天尊), and Daode tianzun (道德天
尊). Yuanshi tianzun dwells in Yu-qing jing, Lingbao tianzun and Daode tianzun lives in
Shang-qing jing and Tai-qing jing separately.
Yuanshi tianzun is Pan gu (盤古). He lives in Yu-qing jing, the jade pure, where a
purple cloud is around his palace. The cloud with bright green color is surrounded
the palace as the wall. All of the Daoist immortal in heaven should periodically have
an audience with Yuanshi tianzun on schedule.
Lingbao tianzun is the hua shen (化身), the “avatar” , of Yuanshi tianzun. Though his
title and dwelling place was recorded, his statue was rare before Tang dynasty. It
seems his character was not very clear in early Daoism. Daode tianzun is Lao Zi (老
子). However, he is not the philosophical Lao Zi but the religious one who is not very
well known today. At first, early Daoists regarded Lao Zi as the symbol of the natural
of Dao. He was born before nothing and rose up when the very primitive universe
had not begun. The famous Daoists, such as Zhang Daoling (張道陵), Kou Qianzhi (寇
謙之) all claimed that their teaching of Daoist imparted by Lao Zi directly. However,
when Tao Hong-jing (陶弘景) compiled the Zhenling weiye tu (真靈位業圖), he
dropped Lao Zi down to the fourth place. Until Tang dynasty, because the royal
house’s surname is also Li, emperor recovered Lao Zi to the third place. The hierarchy
of Sanqing daozu was settled down then.
Besides Sanqing daozu’s arrangement in heaven represents the cosmology of Daoism.
In Daoist, they are separately represented the major three schools of Daoism.
Yuanshi tianzun represents the Shang-qing school, Lingbao tianzun and Daode
tianzun represent the Ling-bao school and the Tianshi dao (天師道) separately.
Sanqing daozu are also the symbol of Dao (道), scripture (經) and Master (師).
Because the Yuanshi tianzun is the very first, he represents the essence or natural of
Dao. Lingbao tianzun is the avatar of Yuanshi tianzun, Dao. He represents the Way
which is equal to the scripture or the teaching of Dao. Daode tianzun, as Lao Zi,
imparted the teaching directly to mortal human. His meaning is the Daoist, who is
the master of people.
18
All of the Daoist temples dedicated to Sanqing daozu. On the arrangement of Sanqing
daozu’s statue, Yuanshi tianzun is situated in the middle. He often holds a crystal ball
on right hand. The crystal ball, hun-yuan zhu (混元珠), means the chaos before the
universe started. Lingbao tianzun is situated on the left side with a ruyi (如意), a
decorative object symbolized as you wish, or a diagram of Tai-ji (太極圖). Ruyi or the
Tai-ji means the chaos is becoming clear. Daode tianzun hand a Tai-ji fan with him
and situates on the right side. The Tai-ji fan means the Yin (陰) and Yang (陰) being
on the right position of universe.
Keywords: Sanqing daozu, Sanqing, Yuanshi tianzun, Lingbao tianzun, Daode tianzun
References:
1.李龢書。2009。〈早期道教中的道與至尊神〉，（台北：台灣大學歷史研究所碩
士論文）
2.李龢書。2008。〈從老君到天尊：對北朝天師道教團發展史的幾點觀察〉。《政
大史粹》， 15：1-52）。
3.卿希泰主編。1994。《中國道教》（上海：新華）。
9 Sanbao fo (三寶佛)
Sanbao fo (三寶佛) are three Buddhas. They are Sakyamuni, Amitaba, and
Bhaisajyaguru, the healing and medicine Buddha. Sometimes, people confused them
with the three bodies of Budddha, the trikaya, a buddhist teaching about the nature
and the reality of Buddha. Sanbao, the three treasures, orignially means Buddha,
Sakaymuni, dharma, the teaching of Buddhism and sangha, Buddhist monks and
nuns. Apparently, Sanbao fo is a term invented in Chinese popular religion. In the
light of Buddhism, the relation between these three Buddhas is based on the
cosmology of mahayana Buddhism. As we know, Sakyamuni is the Buddha in our era
and on our earth. Both Amitaba and Bhaisajyaguru are the celestial Buddhas. They are
in the "west" pure land (西方淨土( and the "east" pure land (東方淨土) individually.
In other words, Sanbao fo corresponds to the spatial relationship between the three
Buddhas’ land.
In the arrangement of Sanbao fo’s statues, Sakyamuni’s statue is on the middle,
Amitaba’s is on the right side and Bhaisajyaguru's is on the left side.
Since Sakyamuni and Amitaba are introduced elsewhere in this web site, only
Bhaisajyaguru is illustrated here. Bhaisajyaguru is called Yaoshi fo (藥師佛) in
Chinese, the medicine Buddha. According to Buddhist scriptures, Bhaisajyaguru's
land called Jing Liu-li (淨琉璃), the pure lazurite, is far away from our world. His
19
body is transparent like the lazurite. He vows to heal all living from the sickness and
cure all the dsiabled. Besides, he vows to save all the people from catastrophes and
accidents. That is why Bhaisajyaguru is also called Xiaozai Yanshou Yaoshi fo (消災
延壽藥師佛). Xiaozai means preventing accidents and Yanshou meands extending
ones live.
Chinese Buddhists did not set Sakyamuni, Amitaba, and Bhaisajyaguru together
as Sanbao fo until Qing dynasty (清朝). Sanbao fo is a term not found in Chinese
Buddhist scriptures. On speculation, Sanbao fo is a popular term in Chinese religions.
Maybe Sanbao fo is a term invented in relation of Buddhist ritual. In all kinds of
Buddhist ritual, Buddhists not only worship to Bhaisajyaguru for the living to keep
them from accident and sickness but also to Amitaba for the dead to ascent their soul
to the pure land. Maybe when the ritual process was shaped, Chinese Buddhist
temples set Sanbao fo together as a custom. Then the term Sanbao fo also cames out
as we know today.
Keywords: Sanbao fo, Sakyamuni, Amitaba, Bhaisajyaguru
References:
《佛說藥師如來本願經》
《佛門必備課誦本》
20
10 Dashu gong (大樹公)
Dashu gong (大樹公) means the god of tree. Dashu gong’s names are various.
There are Shu wang gong (樹王公), Shu Zai gong (樹仔公)or Wangu shenggong (萬
古聖公) etc. Sometimes, it was named by the species of a tree. For example, if the
tree is a kind of Urostigma, rong shu (榕樹) in Chinese, it is called Rongshu gong (榕
樹公). The word gong is their common title. In Chinese, it means grandfather. In
other words, Dashu gong is a result of worship to old tree. The idea of Dashu gong is
people thought that if a tree is old, there must a spirit dwells in it. People should
respect and worship the tree. If a tree is over hundred years old and its height is
about tens meters. It will be a Dashu gong. In Taiwan, it is easy to locate Dashu gong.
If a tree is rounded with a red cloth strip and a small shrine is by its side, it must be a
Dashu gong. Occassionally, there are few Dashu gong becoming the main local
temples. At that time, its title will be changed to wang (王), the king.
Dashu gong originated from the worship of plants. Ancient people believed that
the plants are living like . There are spirits in them. That is the same reason why there
was also the god of grain and the god of flower. They are two explaninations of the
old trees having spirits. One is they are possessed by spirits. Another is they are long
life.
Chinese believed that the old trees maybe possessed by spirits because of
ancient custom. The custom was when a dead was buried, the living often plant a
tree by ones grave. The tree is not only a mark of the grave but also an index of the
dead’s situation. If the tree were withered, the dead was not well in another world. It
supposes that this idea is extended as a spirit possessing a tree. Anoth idea about the
tree being possessed is that a tree is a temporary dwelling place of spirit. Once the
dwelling spirit of a tree left, the tree will be withered in five days and was totally
finised in seven days.
It is easy that humen found a tree’s life is longer than them. Especially ancient
people were more closed to natural world than us. By daily life, they could realize
easily that the tree is fertile and durable. Then the trees became a symbol of long life
and fertility. Worshiping to old tree was a result.
One more reson of worship to old tree is fear. When a tree is old enough, its
branches sometimes is like a human hand or other part of body. People cut a tree’s
branced or trunk will make it bled sap out. Those image and response will make
human associate an old tree with human ourselves. Human was afraid of if a tree
would take a revenge on their hurt and lose in case of hurting an old tree. Namely,
worshiping to an old tree is a safe strategy.
21
Dashu gong is almost everywhere in Taiwan. Most of them are a small shrine or
with a small tablet. Then they would not be recorded. Only few of them became the
main local temples and be recorded. It is estimated that there are ten to thirteen
Dashu gong’s temples recorded in 2003. Comparing to the investigation in the end of
1800s, when Japanese regind Taiwan. The number is ten. Aooarently, the number of
temples dedictated to Dashu gong is not increasing too many. However, a custom in
relation of Dashu gong is growing up. The custom is parents let their children and
teenager under sixteen become Dashu gong’s foster son by ritual. The custom
increasing maybe is the result of the nuclear family’s number is increasing and raising
a child be not easy task in Taiwan. The hard parents want to get blessing and vitality
from Dashu gong.
Keywords: Dashu gong (大樹公), shu wang gong, Shu Zai gong, angu shenggong, the
god of tree
References:
1.李春子。2003.06。〈東亞地區「大樹公」信仰與實踐--臺灣、日本、韓國之比
較研究〉。《臺灣文獻》54：2。頁49-96。
2.蘇瑞展。2006。高雄縣「大樹公」信仰之研究。國立臺南大學台灣文化研究所
碩士論文。
11 Nalakūvala (Zhongtan Yuanshuai, 中壇元帥)
Zhongtan Yuanshuai (中壇元帥), the marshal of Central altar, is Nazha San Taizi
(哪咤三太子) who is an Indo deity named Nalakūvala. Nazha is the third son of
divine king Li Jin (李靖) in Chinese legend. Zhongtan Yuanshuai is Nazha’s divine
official title in Chinese popular religion. Nazha is the leader of five divine battalions
which guard a temple of popular religion in Taiwan. The name of these five divine
battalions in Taiwan is called Wu-ying (五營), the Five Camps. The Five Camps or
battalions are named in directions, including the East (東營), the West (西營), the
South (南營), the North (北營), and the Central (中營). The Central altar is the same
as the Central Camps which is more specific to designate the place where Nazha
dwells in. In short, Zhong-tan, the Central altar is Nazha’s office. In Taiwan, every
temple of popular religion is quartered with the Five Camps. In other words, every
temple enshrines Nazha as well. There is only one exception. Since Nazha is too
popular to be the major god in some temples. When a temple is dedicated to Nazha,
the devotees often claim that the marshal of Central altar is not Nazha but another
one whose surname coincidentally is Li.
22
Originally, Nazha was the third son or grandson of Vaisravana, the Heavenly
king of the North. He was introduced to Chinese in Buddhist scripture as a literature
metaphor which expresses when King Suddhodana, Gautama Buddha’s father, got his
new born son, Siddhārtha Gautama, his feeling is so joyful. After Tantra Buddhism
was introduced into China, Nazha became more vivid. Still as the third son or
grandson of Heavenly king, he held a tower or trident as his weapon. Nazha was a
guardian deity of Buddhism. When it was Ming dynasty, Nazha became a major
character in popular novel. In the Fengshen Yanyi (封神演義), he was a trouble
maker of Heavenly king, Li Jin. Nazha killed the son of Dragon King, Long Wang (龍
王), quarreled to Jade Emperor. Eventually, he committed suicide and returned his
body to his parents. However, his kind-hearted mother and the master, Taiyi Zhen-ren
(太乙真人) helped him to reborn in a lotus and enhanced his spiritual power. As a
result, Nazha became a powerful general who assisted Jiang Ziya (羌子牙) to defeat
Shang king in the mystical battle between Shang and Zhou kingdom. As a result,
Nazha’s image spread in China with the Fengshen Yanyi’s popularity.
As San Taizi, the third prince, Nazha is very popular in Taiwan. San Taizi’s image
is a muscular teenager who steps on a ‘wind and fire wheel’, fenghuo lun (風火輪).
The wind and fire wheel is a powerful vehicle which can carry San Taizi swiftly to any
place wherever he want go. He holds a trident in his right hand and a large golden
ring in left hand as his arms. This magical ring is called qian kun quan (乾坤圈), which
can change its size freely as San Taizi wishes. On the one hand, San Taizi is so cute
that he always smile and young. On another hand, he is a power guardian god and
moves quickly and smoothly. As a result, he is so popular in the drivers who drive
vehicle as occupation. Most often, the drivers put a small statue of Nazha behind the
front shield glass as a guardian god and worship to him for blessing a safe drive.
According to the statistics, there are about forty temples dedicated to Nazha, of
which the Taizi temple (太子宮)in Xinying (新營), Tainan county (台南縣) is the most
famous. Besides, there are some organizations concerning Nazha in Taiwan. For
example, an association in Kaoshung is named Zhongtan Yuanshuai Lian-yi-hui (中壇
元帥聯誼會) that claimed more than 100 temples enrolled as members. Recently,
Nazha’s image is even represented as an electro version and showed off in some
major occasions. Nazha is an important cultural icon in Taiwan now.
Keywords: the marshal of Central altar, Nazha, Nalakūvala, the Five Camps
References:
《北方毘沙門天王隨軍護法儀軌》
《毘沙門儀軌》
23
明初文獻《三教源流搜神大全》（台北，聯經，1980年8月）
二階堂善弘。1996。〈哪吒太子考〉。《1996年佛學研究論文集》台北：佛光出版
社，286-323。
柳存仁。1958。
〈毘沙門天王父子與中國小說之關係〉
。原刊載《新亞學報》第三
卷第二期，收入《和風堂文集》卷中。上海：古籍出版社，1991年，
頁1045-1094。文字略有改動。
蔡清旭。2007。
〈台灣中壇元帥聯誼會研究〉
。新竹：玄奘大學宗教學系碩士在職
專班。
李豐楙。2003。〈五營信仰中的中壇元帥，其原始及衍變〉。《第一屆哪吒學術研
討論文集》，（高雄：中山大學清代學術研究中心）。
許宇承。2009。《臺灣民間信仰中的五營兵將》。台北：蘭臺。
,
12 Wufu dadi (五福大帝)
Wufu dadi (五福大帝) originate from five Confucian student sacrificing
themselves for saving the people lived in Fuzhou (福州) during Yuan dynasty. Their
names were Liu Yuan-da (劉元達), Zhang Yuan-bo (張元伯), Shi Wen-ye (史文業),
Zhao Gong-ming (趙公明), and Zhong Shi-xiu (鍾士秀) individually. These five
students met each other when they were on the way home after they failed their
imperial examination. After they had a nice talk in an inn, they decided to become
the sworn brothers (義結金蘭) and took a journey together. One day, they arrived at
Fu-zhou and stayed in an inn. When they were going to go to bed, in a trance, they
individually heard that the Jade emperor (玉帝), the mighty god, would send five
plague demons to spread disease in all wells in Fu-zhou as a punishment. The reason
was that the people in Fu-zhou either acted unrighteous or committed crime. When
they woke up, they aggregated and had a meeting. They were shocked about the
dream what they had. Maybe they though it was hard to persuade the people and
make them believed in their dream experience. They decided to jump into five wells
separately to warn the people in Fu-zhou. It was said when people found their body
and pulled them out. Their faces turned into five different colors, including black,
white, green, yellow, and red. People thought it was weird and found the wells were
all poisoned by bacteria. Then they realized that the five Confucian students
sacrificed their own lives to save them. People in Fu-zhou then decided to enshrine
them and built a temple to memorize them. Their noble deed was praised officially.
In Ming dynasty, they were decreed as Wufu dadi.
Coincidently, Wufu dadi’ name are the same as the name of Five Plague gods
24
(五瘟神). Scholars thought that Wufu dadi were the Five Plague gods. Somehow,
they were transformed into the gods which originated from Fu-zhou and linked with
a Confucian version story.
In Taiwan, including Wuwen gong (五瘟宮), Xilai an (西來庵), and Bailong an
(白龍庵), most of early temples which dedicated to Wufu dadi were originated from
Bailong an (白龍庵),the White Dragon nunnery, Fuzhou. Wufu dadi are in relation of
Ba Jiajiang (八家將), eight retainer deities of Wufu dadi. In southern Taiwan, Ba
Jiajiang is an important formation, Zhentou (陣頭), in a parading procession of
popular relgion . Ba Jiajiang originated from some soldiers in Qian dynasty dreamed
of Wufu dadi came and cured their sickness when they were infected with plague.
After they were cured, they went to Fuzhou to invite the statue of Wufu dadi back
and enshrined them in Tainan. As a result, the soldiers organized Ba Jia-jiang as the
retainer of Wufu dadi to serve them.
Keywords：Wufu dadi, Fuzhou, Ba Jiajiang, the White Dragon nunnery
References:
宋怡明（Michael A. Szonyi）編。2006。
《明清福建五帝信仰資料彙編》香港：香
港科技大學華南研究中心。
陳文洲。2006。
〈臺灣家將陣頭之研究─以東港迎王平安祭典為例〉
。台南：國立
臺南大學台灣文化研究所。
賴亮郡。2007.06。〈家將「四季大神」初探〉。《興大歷史學報》，18：315-350。
13 Wuxian dadi (五顯大帝)
Wuxian dadi is also called Wutong (五通) who is a god originated from the
boarder between Jiang xi (江西), Zhejiang (浙江) and Anhui (安徽) province. It is the
place named Wuyuan (婺源) in Tang dynasty. Regarding to a record in the Daoist
canon, the first time Wutong appeared was during Guangqi period(光啟, 885-888).
The five deities claimed they were dispatched by the mighty god to here as the
administration god. They ordered a man named Wang Yu (王瑜) to establish a temple
named Wutong dedicated to them. When it was the reign of Song Huizong (宋徽宗),
the Wutong temple was titled by official, named Lingshun (靈順). As Wutong’s
official position got higher, their titles got longer. When it came to the reign of Song
Lizong (宋理宗), there were eight character denoting Witong’s title. They became
Wuxian. Their titles are Xiancong Zhaoying Lingge Guangjiwang (顯聰昭應靈格廣濟
王), Xianming Zhaolie Linghu Guangyou wang (顯明昭列靈護廣祐王), Xianzheng
25
Zhaoshun Lingwei Guanghuiwang (顯正昭順靈衛廣惠王), Xianzhi Zhaoyou
Lingkuang Guangzewang (顯直昭佑靈貺廣澤王), and Xiande Zhaoli Lingzhu
Guangchengwang (顯德昭利靈助廣成王) separately. Since Wuxian were recognized
by official, people began to believe that Wuxian originated from very ancient. People
thought that they represented the Five Elements (五行). Wuxian are the gods
managing the five elements in the universe.
There is still another story about Wuxian. It is said that they are not five gods
but one god has five avata at five phases separately. The first one was Miaojixiang (妙
吉祥). The second was Sanyan Lingguang Tianwang Ma Zizhen (三眼靈光天王馬子
貞). The third was Lingyao (三眼靈光天王靈耀). At The fourth generation, they
became five gods descented in Wuyuan as above story in the first paragraph. Finally,
the five gods became a Daoist-Buddhist mixture. His name was Huaguang Tianwang
Fo (華光天王佛) in Buddhism and Wuxian Lingguan Mayuanshuai (五顯靈官馬元帥)
in Daoism. It was said that after Wuxian took refuge in Buddhism and Daoism, they
or he became more powerful in spirital.
Scholars thought that Wuxian or Wutong actually was a mountaion god
originally. He was also called Muke (木客).
Wuxian was very popular in Song dynasty. In Taiwan, the temples dedicated to
Wuxian are either titled with Wuxian or Wudi. There are some assoiciations
established as the guild among different temples. Wuxian’s birthday is on
September, twenty eighth in Chinese lunar calendar.
Key words：Wutong, Wuxian, Wuxian dadi, Wuyuan, Muke
Reference
朱昌榮、程廣媛。2006.10。〈論五通神與五顯神〉。《新亞論叢》，8：57-70。
Von Glahn, Richard. (2004) The Sinister Way. California: University of California
Press.
14 Yuanshi tianzun (元始天尊)
Yuanshi tianzun (元始天尊) is Pan Gu (盤古), the highest god in Daoism. In the light
of Ge hong’s (葛洪) Zhen-zhong shu (枕中書), the Book in the Pillow, before the
universe was created, heaven and earth were a mixture like an egg. At that time, Pan
Gu was already there, inside the unhatched cosmic egg. He titled himself as Yuan-shi
tian-wang (元始天王), the Primal Divine King. After he got out from the cosmic egg,
he met the saint lady Tai-yuan (聖女太元) and transformed himself as a light into
her stomach to make her pregnant. After twelve years, Pan Gu was born as a flesh
26
human. No matter where he went to, there is a colorful cloud above him as a
protection.
According to the Zhenling weiye tu (真靈位業圖) written by Tao Hongjing’s (陶
弘景), Yuanshi tianzun is in the first place above all immortals dwells in the Yuqing
jing (玉清境), the Jade clarity.
In light of the most Daoist scriptures, Yuanshi tianzun is represented a personal
god and in relation of Pan Gu. However, in the Du-ren jing (度人經),there is also
another image of Yuanshi tianzun. It is said that he is named Le Jing-xin (樂靜信)
who is the avatar of Dao (道). Whenever a new eon is coming, he will present to the
world and impart the secret of Dao to human. Apparently, this image is integrated
the idea of kappa, jie (劫), in Buddhism.
In Taiwan, there are about five temples dedicated to Pan Gu, including Kaitian
temple (開天宮) in Xindian (新店), Xinzhu (新竹) separately, and Dawang gong (大王
宮), Pangu temple (盤古殿), Pangu wang miao (盤古王廟) in Tainan (台南). As
Yuanshi tianzun, most often he is enshrined with Ling bao tianzun and dao de
tianzun in Daoist temoples.
Keywords：Yuanshi tianzun, Pan Gu gong
27
15 Mazu (天上聖母)
Mazu(媽祖) is one of the most popular goddess in Taiwan. Tianshang shengmu
(天上聖母) is one of her religious title. Mazu was a woman named Lin Mo (林默)
originally in Song dynasty. She was born in an island closed to Putian, Fujian province
named Meizhou(湄洲). Her father is Lin Yuan (林愿) and mother’s surname is Wang.
It is believed that Mazu was a medium and had talents on thaumaturgical ritual.
When she was alive, people believed that she saved sailors when they were in
shipwreck. After she was dead, people worship to her for blessing. By 1123, Lin
Moniang as a goddess in popular religion was titled officially. The last time she got an
official title which is the longest among all of her titles in 1857. There are sixty four
characters in the title. The title is Huguo Bimin Miaoling Zhaoying Hongren Puji Fuyou
Qunsheng Chenggan Xianfu Xianshen Zanshun Chuici Youan Lanli Yunze Qinhaiyu
Tianpo Xuanhui Daoliuyan Qingjing Yangxizhi Enzhou Depu Weicao Baotai Zhenwu
Suijiang Tianhou zhi Shen (護國庇民妙靈昭應宏仁普濟福佑群生誠感咸孚顯神贊
順垂慈篤祐安瀾利運澤覃海宇恬波宣惠道流衍慶靖洋錫祉恩周德溥衛漕保泰振
武綏疆天后之神). Most of these sixty four characters are prasing Mazu’s benevolent
blessing.
The belief on Mazu propagated to Taiwan by Ming dynasty. The first temple
dedicated to Mazu was established on the Penghu islands (澎湖). Later, during the
period of 1623 to 1661, there were about four Mazu temples established in Yanshui
(鹽水), Budai (布袋), Lugang (鹿港) and Xinzhu (新竹) along the west coast of Taiwan.
When Taiwan was under the reign of Qing, the palace of Ningjing wang (寧靖王府)
was refurniturated as a Mazu temple, now as Great Queen of Heaven Temple (大天
后宮). There were established more Mazu temples than before. Today, among those
Mazu temples, the Guandu templ (關渡宮) in Taipei, the Nanyao temple (南瑤宮) in
Zhanghua (彰化), the Zhenlan temple (鎮瀾宮) in Taichung (台中) and the Gongtian
temple (拱天宮) in Miaoli are important regional Mazu temples. The temples of
Mazu established by official were mainly called Tianhou gong (天后宮), Temple of
Divine Empress. Today, all of the Mazu temples are non-government established and
managed. However, the title Tianhou gong is remained. There are also some groups
or associations devoted to Mazu without establishing any temple. For example, the
Liufang ma (六房媽) in Yunlin (雲林), the Jiuzhuang ma (九庄媽) around Xinshe (新
社) are these kinds of devotion group.
The figure of Mazu’s statue is often in a style of empress who wears a Chinese
crown and sits. She has two servant named Qianli yan (千里眼) and Shunfeng er (順
風耳). A statue in the Tianhou temple of Lugang is believed to be the oldest one.
Because the smoke of incense influence for years, her face becomes dark. Now she is
28
called Heimian Ma (黑面媽), the Madam with dark face. Mazu’s statue also has some
Doppelgänger, the tangible double of her statue, in some areas. The number is three,
six or eight. Often it is three or six.
Mazu’s title are various. She is also called Tianhou (天后), Tianfei (天妃) or
Shengmu (聖母). The devotees call her Mazu po (媽祖婆) intimately. The devotees
whose surname is Lin call her Zugu po (祖姑婆)or Gupo zu (姑婆祖), meaning the
Great Grandaunt.
At first, Mazu was as a sea goddess worshiped by people and sailor. In Taiwan,
early migrants from Fujian also worshiped to Mazu for blessing them on crossing the
Taiwan strait. When they settled from the coast area to the inner land of Taiwan,
Mazu was still as a goddess blessing their farm work. Apparently, Mazu transformed
from a sea goddess to a farm goddess. As a farm goddess, she also plays a role in
preventing the farm from flood and the damaging of insect pest.
Keywords: female deity，sea god，magical power，pilgrim tour，regional cult
石萬壽。2000。《臺灣的媽祖信仰》。臺北：臺原出版社。
林美容。2006。《媽祖信仰與台灣社會》。臺北：博揚文化。
張珣。2003。
《文化媽祖：臺灣媽祖信仰研究論文集》
。臺北：中央研究院民族學
研究所。
徐曉望。 2007。《媽祖信仰史研究》。福州：海風出版社。
Sangren, P. Steven.1987. “History and magical power in a Chinese community”
Sanford, Calif. Stanford University Press
29
16 Taiyi Zhenren (太乙真人)
Taiyi Zhenren (太乙真人)is the abbreviation of Taiyi Jiuku tianzun (太乙救苦天
尊) who is also called Xunsheng Jiuku tianzun (尋聲救苦天尊) or Shifang Jiuku
tianzun (十方救苦天尊) etc. Jiuku tianzun could be translated to the Celestial Worthy
who Relieves Suffering. This title means that he plays the role of savior in Daoism as
the combination of Guan-yin (觀音) and Di-zang (地藏) in Buddhism.
Taiyi Zhenren is an important god in Daoist scriptures. Almost all kind liturgies
for salvation should held in his name. Regarding to the Taiyi jiuku hushen miaojing
(太一救苦護身妙經), Taiyi Zhenren is a god who lived in Dongfang changle shijie (東
方長樂世界), a wonderland in the east. He has all kinds of avatar who can respond
to all of the people. Any one in suffering who calls him will meet his avatar. The
avatar’s figure will be determinded by how people name it. There is a term specific
for the character of Taiyi Zhenren’s avatar that is ‘wusui shengying’ (物隨聲應),
object formed responding to the voice accordingly. Not only Taiyi Zhenren’s avatar is
various but also his dwelling place. Taiyi Zhenren lives everywhere. He lives in
heaven, the mortal world and the hell. The dwelling is up to his devotees where live
in. He also has many titles which are the presentation of manifold savoir. In another
aspect, Taiyi Zhenren is like Di-zang or Dongyue dadi (東嶽大帝). He manages the
registeration of soul and determines if a soul will ascent to heaven or fall into the hell.
Regarding to the Taiyi jiuku hushen miaojing, if someone wants to salvate his or her
ancestors, classmates, spouse, one can visualize Taiyi Zhenren’s image and chant his
title.
In Daoist scriptures, the image of Taiyi Zhenren is a youth with halo, steping on
a lotus, and holding a willow branch and a bottle of water in his hand. There are nine
lions as his attendances. However, Taiyi Zhenren also got his image in Chinese
popular religion. In the Yijian zhi (夷堅志), his image is an officer. In the feng shen
yan yi, he is Nazha San Taizi (哪咤三太子)’s master who makes him rebirth and
enhances his spiritual power. The most popular image of Taiyi Zhenren is he as the
ten kings of hell who save the hungry ghost. It is said that a liturgy for salvation
named Xie hu (血湖) is invented by Taiyi Zhenren. Apparently, the savior of suffering
and unfortunates in the underworld is the most popular image of Taiyi Zhenren.
Keywords: Taiyi Zhenren, Taiyi Jiuku tianzun, Daoism, the liturgy for salvation
References:
1.《太一救苦護身妙經》
30
2.《太上洞玄靈寶救苦妙經》
3.《靈寶無量度人上品妙經》
4.Mollier, Christine. (2008) Guanyin in Taoist Guise, in Buddhism and Taoism Face
to Face. Honolulu: University of Hawai’I Press.
5.蕭登福。2006。《道教地獄教主 : 太乙救苦天尊》。臺北:新文豐。
17 Taishang laojun (太上老君)
Taishang laojun (太上老君)is abberviated to Laojun. He is also called Daode
tianzun (道德天尊), as one of Sanqing daozu (三清道祖). In the arrangement of
Sanqing daozu’s status, Taishang laojun’s status is on the right side, hold a fan on his
hand. Taishang laojun is Laozi’s avatar whose surname is Li. Li is right the surname of
Tang dynasty’s royal house. When China was under Emperor Tang gaozong (唐高宗)
reigned (628～683), he decred that named Laozi as Xuanyuan huangdi, the Emperor
Xuanyuan. Till the reign of Wu Zetian (武則天), the only empress in Chinese history,
she changed the title to Laojun. In Song dynaty, Laozi was called Taishang laojun
which is we known today.
Laozi, in history, was a mystical hermit. His life was ambiguous. His name is Li Er
(李耳). When he was born, his hair had already been white. Then He was called Laozi,
a mister borned in an old appearance. It is said that Coufucious had been consulted
him some question about rite. Finally, he rided a Chinese buffalo out of Hangu Pass
(函谷關) and left no trace. The only thing he left to us is the Daode jing (道德經), a
worldwide known Chinese book.
In Daoism, Laozi was neither dead nor disappeared. At first, he was the symbol
of Dao, the nature or essence of our cosmos. He was born before there is formless
and rose up before the very beginning. Zhang Daoling (張道陵) and Kou Qianzhi (寇
謙之) all claimed that their teaching were imparted the Dao by Laozi, as an
immortal who descented to this world from Heaven. However, when Tao Hong-jing
(陶弘景) compiled the Zhenling weiye tu (真靈位業圖), he dropped Lao Zi down to
the fourth place. Above is Laozi in Daoism, as a religious one.
Besides, in some popular and classical novels of Chinese literature, Taishang
laojun also has his place to stand. For example, in the Journey to the West (西遊記),
Taishang laojun, as an immortal who is busy in alchemy, live in Doushuai tian (兜率
天). Unfortunally, the Mokey King, Sun Wukong (孫悟空) steals all of Taishang
laojun’s magical pills and takes them to enhanced his own spiritual power. As a noble
immortal, Taishang laojun is made a fool by Sun Wukong.
31
There are about nine temples dedicated to Taishang Laojun. Comparing to the
popularity of Laozi and Daode jing, this figure is very low. Apparently, phiolosophical
Laozi has more influence on Taiwan then religious Laozi, Taishang Laojun.
Keywords: Taishang laojun, laojun, Daode tianzun
Reference:
《真靈位業圖》
18 Wenchang dijun (文昌帝君)
Wenchang dijun is called Zitong dijun, Wenchang jun, or Wenchang gung also.
His major function is blessing Confucian student to get the official rank in civil
examination. Wenchang is origins from Sichuan province (四川省). It is said that he
was beginning in Han dynasty. Regarding to a unofficial historical record, Shiliu guo
chunqiu (十六國春秋), Wenchang’s name was Zhang E-zi (張惡子) before. E-zi
means viper in Sichuan dialect. It is suppose that Wenchang was a god in relation to
snake or a mountain god before. The first time Wenchang getting promotion was in
Tang dynasty. Tang Xuan-zong (唐玄宗, 712-756) did this because of Wenchang
assisting him during the An Shi Rebellion (安史之亂, 755-763). Tang Xuan zong
decreed Zhang E-zi as the Left Minister (左丞相). Zhang E-zi showed off once again
when it was Tang Xizong (唐僖宗) reined in Jiboting, Li county, Si-chuan (四川利縣佶
伯亭). Then Zhang E-zi was promoted to be the wang (王) whose title was Jishun (濟
順). In 1004, Song dynasty ,Zhang E-zi helped authority suppress the riot in Sichuan
and was decreed as Ying-xian wang (英顯王). In 1316, Yuan dynasty, Wenchang got
his longest title from Yuan ren-zong (元仁宗) that was Fuyuan Kaihua Wenchang Silu
Hongren dijun (輔元開化文昌司祿宏仁帝君). At that time, Wenchang was totally
liberated from his viper god identity and became a person god. After Zhang E-zi
changed his title, people call it shortly as Wenchang dijun.
Another one important thread about Wenchang was combined with predicating the
civil examination from 11 to 12 century. People who wanted to take the civil
examination believe that Wenchang could manifest the omen or the hint about the
examination’s question to them by way of climate changes, dream experience,
incarnation as someone etc. Because of Wenchang’s efficacious, ling yan (靈驗),
Wenchang was majorly worshiped by Confucian student. Wenchang even created its
32
own scripture by means of spirit writing (鸞書). The scripture’s title is Zitong dijun
Huashu (梓潼帝君化書). In this scripture, Wenchang incarnated many times as as a
role model of Confucian scholar and officers. Apparently, its target reader is
Confucian students. Besides scriptures, the cult of Wenchang also created its own
new religious practice. It is xi zi (惜字) or jing zi (敬字). Its basic rule is embedded
with Buddhist kama theory and combined with the idea of respecting and cherishing
words and paper. The practice of xi zi is when people deal with the paper which
words is on it, people should deposit the paper into a specific sacred place, a pagoda
called xi zi ting (惜字亭)or jing zi ting (敬字亭), and burn it. Wenchang also
developed his own hierarchy. There are five Wenchang gods, including Zitong dijun
(梓潼帝君), Fuyou dijun (孚佑帝君), Wenheng dijun (文衡帝君) , Zhuyi shen jun (朱
衣神君), and Kuidou xing jun (魁斗星君) and it own two servant gods, Tianlong (天
聾), Diya (地啞).
In early Taiwan, most of Wenchang temples were founded by local Confucian officers,
scholars and merchandise. They raised fund for the Wenchang temple and
established it with shu yuan (書院), a kind of private school, in order to promote the
studying of Confucianism. That is the reason why there are some Wehchang temples
located in public school or named with shu yuan now. For example, in Nantou county
(南投縣), the Mingxin shu yuan (明新書院), a Wenchang temple, is located in a
elementary school.
Because of the need of praying for passing the examination, almost all kind of
temples set the statue or image of Wenchang. When the civil examination or joint
admission examination of university is going to held on, people will offer some food
or flowers with auspice, such as celery, Chinese radish (daikon), or osmanthus to pray
to Wenchang for themselves or their family members.
Keywords: Wenchang dijun, Zitong, Zitong dijun Huashu
References:
Kleeman, Terry F . (1994) A God's own Tale: The Book of Transformations of
Wenchang: the Divine Lord o f Zitong. Albany: SUNY.
Kleeman, Terry F . (1988) Wenchang and the viper : the creation of a Chinese
nationaI God. Berkeley : Universityof California .
高梧。2008。《文昌信仰習俗研究》。四川：巴蜀出版社。
梁其姿。1994。〈清代的惜字會〉。《新史學》，5 ( 2 ) : 83－115。
33
19 Qiaosheng Xianshi (巧聖仙師)
Qiaosheng Xianshi is Lu Ban (510-440 BC.) who was a famous carpenter or
engineer, a contemporary of Mozi. He is also called Lu Ban gong (魯班公). However,
his true name is various. There are his names, including Gongshu Ban (公輸班),
Gongshu Ben (公輸般), and Gongshu Pan (公輸盤). Lu Ban is his commonly known
name.
As a historical figure, Lu Ban’s life stories are recorded majorly in the Mozi, a
book whose title is the same as Mozi (479-381 BC). At first, Lu Ban is a carpertar who
constructed siege weapons for the king of Chu state (楚國) in the Warring states
period (403-221 BC). After he met Mozi and had a conversation with him, he changed
his mind and became an anti-war person. He began to create tools and machines to
benefit people.
Since Lu Ban’s craftsmanship is outstanding, there are many legned about his
work. For example, it is said that he made a wooden bird which could fly and stay in
the air for three days without power system. Once the Eight Immortals (八仙) were
going to cross a bridge carring on all of the water in the world, Lu Ban as the
abutment to support them. Lu Ban even played the decisive role in creating the
world. It is said that Lu Ban was the disciple of Master Pu An (普安老祖) who
intended to creat the world without reporting to the Jade Emperor. Lu Ban helped his
master to accomplish this project. However, it is not clear whether Lu Ban got
punishment or not. One thing can be sure. Because his magical and powerful
craftsmanship, he is the patron god of all kind of craftman.
The worship of Lu Ban can be dated back to Tang dynasty. In Ming dynasty, the
guild of craftman held the major liturgies in the spring and autumn. In Taiwan, the
major occasion of Lu Ban is his birthday which is May, seventh in Chinese lunar
calendar. Besids, Lu Ban also influences the carpenter and construction work. There
is a ruler called Wen Gong chi (文公尺), Wen Gong’s ruler. A basic meter on Wen
Gong’s ruler is about fourty eight centimeters. When the craftman is designing a new
work, the measure should follow the lucky calibration on the ruler.
There are about thirty temples dedicated to Qiaosheng Xianshi. Most of them
were founded after 1961, except the Xianshi temple in Dongshi (東勢), Taizhong (台
中) city, which is founded in 1833. Dongshi used to be a chief lamber town in Taiwan.
That is the reason why the temple is constructed. Besides, there are about 195
associations in relation of the worship of Lu Ban. The famous one is in Lu Gang (鹿港)
named Jinsenxing Lu Ban Gonghui (錦森興魯班公會). The association has been
organized over one hundred years. Its new goal is to found a temple dedicated to
Qiaosheng Xianshi. Apparently, Lu Ban, as Qiaosheng Xianshi is still vivid in people’s
live.
34
Keywords: Qiaosheng Xianshi, Lu Ban, Wen Gong chi
References:
劉飛白。1987。《中國工藝傳奇》臺北：星光出版社。
劉文政。2007。
〈台灣地區魯班信仰之研究〉
。台南：國立台南大學台灣文化研究
所碩論。
張軒哲。2003。〈魯班公會與地方產業發展關係：以鹿港錦森興魯班公會與東勢
巧聖仙師會為比較研究〉雲林：雲林科技大學文化資產維護系碩士班。
鄧傑銘。2008。〈公廟、地方菁英與地方社會－以東勢巧聖仙師廟為例
（1775-1895）〉南投：暨南國際大學歷史學系碩士論文。
35
20. Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝)
The Jade Emperor, Yuhuang dadi (玉皇大帝), is the highest god in the popular
religion of Han Chinese. He is also called Tian gong (天公), the Heavenly Grandfather.
To Han Chinese, the heaven is vast and unlimited which is hard to determine its form.
During early stage, unlike other belief on gods in Chinese popular religion, the belief
on Jade Emperor is rare in setting statue, only placing a censer or a tablet with the
name of Yuhuang dadi (玉皇大帝), Yuhuang datianzun (玉皇大天尊), or Shang cang
(上蒼) instead. If a satute is placed, the image is in the figure of a Emperor.
From those old days up to now, people hung a censer under the beam of hall or
on the wall faced outside. Jade Emperor is the first object of whorshiping in the
moring and evening. There is also a huge censer dedicated to Jade Emperor in each
temple called Tiangong Lu. The first step in the process of worship any god should be
worshiping to Jade Emperor. People burning a joss stick and place it in the censer
dedicated to Jade Emperor.
It is said that the birthday of Jade Emperor is the nineth, the first month in
Chinese lunar calendar. On this day, people often prepare some noodle, vegetarian
foods and fruit as offering to worship Jade Emperor.
There are some worships association named shenming hui (神明會)dedicated to
Jade Emperor also. They are called Tiangong hui (天公會) often. It was estimated
about thirties Tiangong hui in Taiwan when it was in the reign of Japan. The famous
Tiangong hui in Taiwan are in Fenyuan village(芬園), Street Jinhexing (金和興) and
Jinchangxing (金長興) in Lugang, Zhanghua (彰化).
In Ming dynasty, there was already a templed dedicated Jade Emperor in Taiwan.
At first, a temple named Yuhuang taizi gong, the Fourth Princes of Jade Emperor
temple was established in Tainan. When it was rebuilt by 1800, it was renamed to
Yuhuang gong (玉皇宮), the Jade Emperor temple. On spectulation, it was dedicated
to Jade Emperor at that time. In Taiwan, it was estimated about twenty one temples
dedicated to Jade Emperor in Japan reign. There are about 145 temples dedicated to
Jade Emperor in 2010. Comparing with the popularity of worshiping to Jade Emperor,
the number is not much. It was because of two reasons. One is Jade Emperor was the
highest god only worshiped by emperor, a common people was not allowed to
worship by imperial period. Another reason is people worship to Jade Emperor by
their own house, it is not necessary to establish a temple dedicated to Jade Emperor
before.
The major temples are Tiantan (天壇), Yuhuang gong in Tainan, and Yuqing guan
(玉清觀) in Zhanghua, and Tiangong miao (天公廟) in Gaoxiong (天公廟), Qingyun
gong (慶雲宮) and Yuzun gong (玉尊宮) in Yilan (宜蘭). In 2006, there was also a
36
fraternity of Jade Emperor temple organized.
Keywords：Jade Emperor, Tiangong, Tiangong hui
參考書目
王見川。1996。
〈臺灣「關帝當玉皇」傳說的由來〉
。
《臺北文獻直字》
，118：213-232。
吳嘉燕。2010。
〈臺灣天公（玉皇）信仰之探究－以台南市天壇為考察中心〉
。台
南：台南大學文化研究所碩士論文。
林秀幸。1998。
〈鹿港戴天臺儀式的社會與宗教意義〉
。
《臺灣文獻》
，49（1）
：21-45。
陳建憲。1999。《華夏諸神：玉皇大帝》。「雲龍叢刊」43。臺北：雲龍。
姜義鎮。2005。〈玉皇大帝信仰〉。《新竹文獻》，18：6-35。
參考網站
臺灣首廟天壇。2009 年 5 月 20 日讀取。http://www.tiantan.org.tw。
草嶺慶雲宮。2009 年 5 月 20 日讀取。http://www.digarts.com.tw/daw。
推薦書目
周濯街。2002。《玉皇大帝》。「中國民間神祇故事系列」6。臺北：國家。
渡邊欣雄。1991。天公祭祀の比較研究----中國‧臺灣を中心とした玉皇上帝誕
生祭をめぐって。 植松明石編。環中國海の民俗と文化に。頁 312-334。東京：
凱風社。
37
21. Fuxi Dadi (伏羲大帝)
Fuxi Da-di is a cultural hero in Chinese early history. He is credited that he founded
the kingly rule of China and cultural inventor and founder. His invention are fishing,
the rite or the law of marriage, and bagua (八卦: eight trigrams) which is a meaning
system concerning the philosophy of Taichi (太極). Because he invented the eight
trigrams, Fuxi Da-di is also called Bagua zushi (八卦祖師), the patriarch of bagua.
There is no any ancient record concerning Fuxi Da-di’s achievement but his name and
title until Han dynasty. Because of the teaching of chan wei (讖緯) spreading, Fuxi’s
mystical biography and achievement began to flourishing and Fuxi became a saint
ruler. It is said that Fu-xi’s mother stepped on a saint’s trace and was pregnant with
Fu-xi. When Fu-xi was an adult, he was revealed by Chinese Mighty God to create the
eight trigrams. When he was to be crown by god, a divine turtle carry He tu (河圖) , a
mystical diagram, out from the Yellow River to him. After he read the diagram, he
knew the Way of Yin and Yang (陰陽). Between Jin and tang dynasty, it is credited
that Fuxi was the first one who worshiped to all god. That is the reason why he is also
called Pao xi (庖犧). Pao means work, things, and events concerning kitchen. Its
derived meaning is festive or worship. According to the archaeological evidence, Fuxi
was in relation with Nu Wa (女媧), an ancient Chinese goddess. The real connection
between them is not clear. Scholar speculated that they are a couple or siblings.
Since Fuxi is a cultural hero in Chinese religion. There are some popular sects of
Chinese popular religion regarding Fuxi as their saint and patriarch. For example, In IKuan Tao’s (一貫道) teaching, Fuxi is the first patriarch. There are few temples
dedicated to Fuxi in Taiwan. However, the precise number is not clear.
Keywords: Fuxi, Bagua zushi, eight trigrams
References:
劉惠萍。2005。《伏羲神話傳說與信仰硏究》。臺北：文津。
賴悅珊。2005。
〈中國古代英雄神話研究〉中壢：國立中央大學中國文學研究所。
22. Dimu Niangniang (地母娘娘)
Dimu Niangniang, a goddess of earth, is only in Taiwan. She is also called Dimu
Zunshen (地母尊神). Regarding to the record of Dimu temple in Puli (埔里), it seems
originated from a devotee of Luantang (鸞堂), phoenix hall, a term referring to the
place where a kind of spiritual writing ritual is held in. The devotee’s name is Liang
38
Zhuanxing (梁傳興).He was the people in the period of Japan reign. At first, he got a
book, named Dimu zhenjing (地母真經), the Genuine scripture of Dimu. It is said that
the scripture was originated from Shanxi province (陝西), mainland China. After he
got the Dimu zhenjing, he devoted himself in chanting it. In August, 1916, there was
a huge earthquake striking in Puli. Fortunately, before it occured, Liang and his family
member got a message from the goddess Dimu Niangniang. She made inside of
Liang’s censer burning without reason as a warning. All of Liang’s family escaped
from the catastroph. After this event, Liang established a shrine of Dimu Niangniang
in his house. In 1937, his son Liang Rensheng (梁任生) moved Liang’s house and the
temple to Baohu Ku (寶湖堀) where the temple is located in. The statue of Dimu
Niangniang was also set. In 1945, a medium named Zhang Jinying (張金英) was
possessed by Dimu Niangniang. She ordered the devotees should expand the temple
and open to the public. In 1947, the location was chosen and the temple was rebuilt.
The new temple was named Tiandi Tang, the Heaven and Earth Hall. Dimu
Niangniang’s birthday is October, eighteenth in Chinese lunar calendar.
Some people thought that Dimu Niangniang is originated from another ancient
Chinese earth goddess, Hou Tu (后土). It is also said that she is Jiutian Xuannu (九天
玄女). However, the evidence is not strong enough. According to the content of Dimu
zhenjing, the religious ideas of it are closed to Wuji Laomu (無極老母). Besides, the
ethical codes in it are Confuian. It is an important character among Luantang in
Taiwan. The only difference between Dimu temple and Luantang is the dedicated god.
Almost all of the Luantang in Taiwan is dedicated to Enzhu Gong (恩主公), Guan yu
(關羽). In other words, Dimu Niangniang would be originated from Luantang, a
popular sect in Chinese popular religion.
Today, Dimu temple is flourishing in Taiwan. There are various temples dedicated to
Dimu Niangniang. Maybe the reason is in relation of the electronic industry. The
most famous devotee of Dimu Niangniang is Stan Shih (施振榮), the founder of Acer
company. He became the devotee of Dimu Niangniang because of his mother, a
single mum raising him up. When the company was just founded, a huge bunchs of IC
chips were lost. Shih’s mother and all the family prayed to Dimu Niangniang. Finally,
the IC chips were got back. As a result, Shih and some of the company member
became the devotees of Dimu Niangniang. This is a famous story about Dimu
Niangniang in Taiwan.
Keywords: Dimu Niangniang, the Goddess of Earth, Dimu zhenjing
References:
Websites:
39
1.《地母真經》
http://www.jnk.org.tw/w02-14.htm
2.南投埔里寶湖宮天地堂地母廟
http://www.5ch.com.tw/30000/dimu/dimu.htm
23. Youying gong (有應公)
Youying gong (有應公) is a category of god in Chinese popular religion rather a
specific god. Moreover, they are the spirits or ghosts but not gods to whom are
dedicated in Youying gong temple. During early period in Taiwan, there were plagues
and field battles. Many people were dead and buried hurriedly without any religious
ritual. Then the bon of dead body were scatterd and looked fright. People then
eatablished Youying gong temples to enshrine and pacify them. That is Youying gong
originated from.
The idea of worship Youying gong comes from Chinese thought that everyone
should be worship and memorized after they are dead in religious way, or they will
become an evil spirit or a hungury ghost. Youying gong’s idea is specific to those who
are dead without their family members to care about or the dead body is hard to
identify.
Youying gong’s name is various. There are Jindou gong (金斗公), Baixing gong (百姓
公), Wanxing gong (萬姓公), Wanshan gong (萬善公),Yiyong ye (義勇爺), Shuiliu
gong (水流公), Shuiliu ma (水流媽),Dazhong ye (大眾爺), Dazhong ma (大眾媽), and
Damu gong (大墓公) etc. Youying gong is also included in the hierarchy of god in
Chinese religion. They also got promotion by local official god, Chenghuang (城隍),
the city god. Then the title will be changed to jiangjun (將軍) or qiansui (千歲), the
general or the duke.
Youying gong temple is almost everywhere in Taiwan. Most of them are in small scale.
There is neither door nor the patron god of door. Above the gate, there is a strip of
red cloth hung on. Four character, Youqiu biying (有求必應), every request should be
responded, are written on the cloth. The temple’s outlook is plain without too many
decorations.
The timing about worshiping Youying gong are in Qingming (清明), about the fifth or
forth, April, and on July in Chinese lunar calendar, the ghost month. The offering are
prepared meat mainly and burning spirit money (銀紙).
Keywords: Youying gong, Dazhong ye, Youqiu biying
References:
1.戴文鋒。2008.11。〈臺灣民間有應公信仰考實〉。《道教月刊》，35：50-52。
40
2.戴文鋒。2008.10。〈臺灣民間有應公信仰考實〉。《道教月刊》，34：44-45。
3.戴文鋒。2008.09。〈臺灣民間有應公信仰考實〉。《道教月刊》，33：44-45。
4.黃文博。1991。
〈臺灣民間「有應公信仰」類型分析〉
。
《民俗曲藝》
，71：212-223。
5.高賢治。1989。〈臺灣幽冥界特殊的神祇﹣﹣大眾爺､有應公､崩敗爺及池頭婦
人〉。《臺灣風物》，39（3）：125-150。
24. Xifang sansheng (西方三聖)
Xifang sansheng means three saints in the west. They are Amituo fo (阿彌陀
佛: Amitabha), Dashizhi (大勢至菩薩: Mahāsthāmaprāpta) , and Guanyin (觀音:
Avalokiteśvara). The west means the Pure Land of Amitabha. Xifang sansheng are
mainly worshiped by the devotees of Buddhist Pure Land sect. In the arrangement of
their statues, Amitabha is situated in the middle. The left one is Avalokiteśvara. The
right one is Mahāsthāmaprāpta.
In Chinese Buddhism, Amitābha is also called Wuliangshou fo (無量壽佛), the
Buddha of Infinite lifespan, or Wuliangguang fo (無量光佛), the Buddha of Infinite
Light. Avalokiteśvara is an important bodhisattva in Chinese Buddhism who often be
depicted as a goddess. Dashizhi means great strength. It is translated literally by the
meaning of Mahāsthāmaprāpta.
Among Xifang sansheng, the trinity of Amitabha’s Pure Land,
Mahāsthāmaprāpta is the one been lesser known. Though he is mentioned often, his
stories and rold is not clear. Comparing to a saying that there are Amitābha and
Avalokiteśvara enshrined in each and every family (家家彌陀，戶戶觀音),
Mahāsthāmaprāpta is apparently neglected.
Reagarding to the Wuliangshou jing (無量壽經), The Infinite Life Sutra,
Amitābha has two bodhisattvas as his assistants. They are bodhisattva
Mahāsthāmaprāpta, and Avalokiteśvara. According to another sutra, the Beihua jing
(悲華經), Karuṇā-puṇḍarīka-sūtra in Sanskrit, when Amitābha used to be a king
named Wuzheng Nian (無諍念) eones before, Mahāsthāmaprāpta was his second
son named Nimo (尼摩). He followed King Wuzheng Nian taking refuge in Buddhism.
When King Wuzheng Nian by eones efforts became Amitābha, Nimo became
Mahāsthāmaprāpta to assist Amitābha.
Sometimes it is hard to tell the difference between statues of
Mahāsthāmaprāpta and Avalokiteśvara. A simple was is that there is a standing
statue of Buddha in the crest of Avalokiteśvara. There is a bottle in
Mahāsthāmaprāpta’s coiffure with a topknot.
In Taiwan, the temples dedicated to Xifang sansheng are often belong to the
Pure Land Buddhism. According to the doctrine of Pure Land Buddhism, a dying
person or a dead will be guided by Amitabha, Mahāsthāmaprāpta, and
41
Avalokiteśvara to the Pure Land, if the dead oneself or ones family chant Amitābha’s
name or visualize Amitābha’s image at that time. For this reason, in the hospice of
hospital, there is hung the image of them of place their statues sometimes, especially
Buddhist founded hospital. In the funeral, the dead’s family members chant
Amitābha as a way to help the deat ascenting to the Pure Land. In other words,
Xifang sansheng are important in hospice care today.
Keywords: Xifang sansheng, the Pure Land sect, Amitabha, Mahāsthāmaprāpta,
Avalokiteśvara
References:
《觀無量壽佛經》
《悲華經》
25. Yuewu muwang (岳武穆王)
Yuewu muwang (岳武穆王) is Yue Fei (岳飛, 1103-1142). He is also called the
General Yue Fei (岳飛元帥). Yue Fei was a great general in Southern Song dynasty. It
is said that when he was born, there was a roc flying above his house. By the omen,
he was named Fei (飛), flying. When he was just born, the Yellow River was in flood.
His mother held him in arm and sat in a huge tub to take a refuge. They kept alive
fourtnatly in this catastrophy and people believed that it was an auspicious. As a kid,
Yue Fei’s strength was bigger than any others and had talent in martial art. When he
was a teenager, he attended army during Emperor Hui Zong (徽宗). He got many
achievement during the war against the Jin state (金). He got promotion and
became the chief of the general staff, tai yu (太尉). Defeating the army of Jin in
Henan province (河南) was his illustrious military exploits. He even claimed to fight
Jin state back and recoverd the northern Song reigning territory. However, this idea
was in conflict with Emperor Gao zong’s (高宗) and the Prime Minister Qin Kuai’s
(秦檜) policy. Prime Minister Qin Kuai summoned Yue Fei back to the capital city
from the frontier and sentenced him to death without reason. Yue Fei was dead
tragically on thirty-nine years old and buried by the West Lake, Hang zhou (杭州) .
After twenty years of his death, his miscarriage of justice was recoverd in 1162.
Yue Fei’s life story is so dramatical and his passion on nation and loyality to royal
house. He became a god and cultural hero almost as soon as he was dead. However,
as a god, his statues and position was also changed regarding the race of the royal
house. In Yuan (元) and Qing (清) dynasty, the royal house belonged to the
Mongolian and Jurchen people separately. They were not the Han Chinese which Yue
Fei belonged to. In order to maintain the reign stably, they suppressed the cult or
42
worship of Yue Fei and upheld the worship of Guan Yu (關羽) instead. Only in Ming
dynasty, Ming Tai Zu (明太祖) who drove Mongolian royal house away, decreed Yue
Fei’s religious title as Jingmo dadi (靖魔大帝), Exorcising demon the Great Emperor.
Until the imperial system in China is crashed, the competiting of religious position
between Guan Yu and Yue Fei is end. However, Yue Fei is still as a foil god, pei si shen
(陪祀神), to Guan Yu in general.
It is estimated about eleven temples dedicated to Yue Fei in Taiwan. There are
six located in Tainan where is the most one county.
Keywords: Yuewu muwang, Yue Fei, Guan Yu
References:
1.孫江、黃東蘭。200412。〈岳飛敘述、公共記憶與國族認同〉。《二十一世紀》，
86：88-100。
2.張清發。200403。〈岳飛研究述評〉。《中國文化月刊》，279：31-57。
26. Yanping junwang (延平郡王)
Yanping junwang is Zheng Chenggong’s (鄭成功,1624～1662) title which was
imparted by the emperop Yongli in Ming dynasty. Zheng Chenggong was a general in
Ming daynsty. He is also know as Guoxing ye (國姓爺). Zheng Chenggong got his title
Guoxing ye because of his loyal to Ming royal house when Ming was invaded by Qing
(清). He got the surname Zhu (朱) which is Ming royal house’s surname imparted by
Ming emperor.
Zheng Chenggong is an important figure in the development of Taiwan. He
chased away Netherlander from Taiwan and founded the stepstone for Chinese
settler. So he also is titled Kaishan wang (開山王) or Kaitai shengwang (開台聖王)
and there are many legends about his reclaiming in Taiwan. However, Zheng
Chenggong occupied Taiwas as the base in order to recover Ming dynasty from Qing
state but he was dead soon in Taiwan after he defeated Netherlander. In other words,
Zheng Chenggong actually stayed in Taiwan no more than six months, but his temples
and devotees flourishing in Taiwasn as soon as his death.
All of Zheng Chenggong’s legend in Taiwan are regarding to his will to defeat the
new born Qing empire and to recover his mother country, Ming empire in Mainland
China. It is said that he had to find three treasures in Taiwan or he would not succeed
in combating with Qing army. These three treasures were a jade seal, grains, and
lumber. However, he failed this mission. Another story is about he shooting a kite
demon and a parrot demon who transformed from stones at Yingge (鶯歌), Taipei
43
county. As a result, the two demons became the stone again. Besids, there are many
name of places in relation of Zheng Chenggong’s legend.
The temples dedicated to Zheng Chenggong were steming from two points. The first
one was by his son Zheng Jing (鄭經). Zheng Jing founded the first temple either as
Zheng clan’s ancestral temple or dedicated to Zheng Chenggong in 1663, the year
after Zheng Chenggong was dead. When Qingempire took over Taiwan, Qing
government did not abolish the temple but order Zheng’s family to change the
temple’s title to Zhaoge Tang (昭格堂). When the Japan ended Qing’s reign in Taiwan,
the temple’s title was changed again. It named Zhengshi jiamiao (鄭氏家廟), the
temple of Zheng clan. Another one starting point was people worshoping Zheng
Chenggong spontaneously after he was dead. From 1663 to 1883, there were many
temples dedicated to Zheng Chenggong flourishing in Taiwan. Chinese in Taiwan
worshiped Zheng Chenggong as memorizing and praying for blessing from him. Even
after the Qing empire took the reign in Taiwan, in order to prevent arousing rebellion,
official still permitted the worship of Zheng Chenggong. After 19895, when Taiwain
was under Japan’s reign, the temples dedicated to Zheng Chenggong were keeping
the same. It is because of Zheng Chenggong’s maternal linkage to Japan.
It is estimated there were 36 temples dedicated to Zheng Chenggong in 1875. In
the reign of Japan, the number rose to 57. It is about 60 in Taiwan now. Apparently,
as a god, Yanping junwang, Zheng Chenggong’s influence is still developing in Taiwan.
Keywords: Yanping junwang, Zheng Chenggong, Guoxing ye
References:
1.翁佳音。2002。
〈諸神讓位：鄭成功廟多現象之探討〉
。
《歷史月刊》
，179：108-113。
2.高致華。2006。《鄭成功信仰》。合肥：黃山書社出版。
3.王見川。2004。
〈光復前台灣的鄭成功信仰〉
。
《道統之美》
（桃園：中華道統文
化學會）。
27. Ming Ming Shang Di (明明上帝)
Ming Ming Shang Di is the highest god in I-Kuan Dao (一貫道). Originally, this
Chinese term, Ming-Ming-Shang-Di, is often used in some ancient literature or poetry
for praying god or addressing religious emotion to denote the Chinese almighty God.
However, Ming-Ming-Shang-Di is not used in any religion tradition. Ming-ming (明
明) means luminous and wise in Chinese to express that ShangDi, the Chinese
almighty God is powerful and knows this world well without any misunderstanding.
44
Until recently, I-Kuan Dao and some other similar popular sectarian regard
Ming-Ming-Shang-Di as the highest God. To I-Kuan Dao, Ming Ming Shang Di is equal
to the Wuji Laomu (無極老母) or Wusheng laomu (無生老母)who is the
transcendent above all being. Wuji Laomu’s nature has two aspects. One is personal,
another one is impersonal. On the personal one she is the creator or the mother of
all being. On the impersonal, she is the symbol of the natural law and phenomena’s
rules. Now, I-Kuan Dao has been claimed that Ming Ming Shang Di is equal to the
almighty God of Confucian, the Golden mother of Daoist, the Mahāvairocana of
Buddhist, the God of Christian, and the Allah of Muslim. In I-Kuan Dao ‘s
announcement, The full name of Ming Ming Shang Di is the Bright Illustrious
Almighty, the Eternal Pure Tranquil Void, the Utmost Sacred and Revered, and the
Lord of all beings in the entire Universe (明明上帝、無量清虛、至尊至聖、三界十
方、萬靈真宰). Surely, it is a step of the syncretism sect of Chinese religion’s idea that
moves forward to the world religions.
When the disciples of I-Kuan Dao arrange their shrine, they will place one lamp
on the table that represents Ming Ming Shang Di and enshrine a tablet with the
name of The Bright Illustrious Almighty Eternal Pure Tranquil Void Utmost Sacred and
Revered, the Lord of all beings in the entire Universe.
Keywords: Ming Ming Shang Di, I-Kuan Dao, Wuji Laomu
References:
李湘杰。2000。〈明清寶卷中無生老母神話之研究〉。文化大學碩士論文。
28. Donghua dijun (東華帝君)
Donghua dijun (東華帝君) is Dong Wang gong (東王公), an ancient god
originated in Han dynasty. Regarding to the Shen Yi jing (神異經), a scripture in Han
dynasty, Donghua dijun was a god with human figure, bird-like head, and tiger’s tail.
He lived in a cave by Mountain Dong-huang (東荒山) . There were also many
material or places inscriped both Dong Wang gong and Xi Wang mu (西王母)
paralelly, including bronze mirrors, in coffin chambers, and painted bricks. Most of
them are painted in human figure with wings. In summary, early image of Donghua
dijun is a therianthropic god.
Besides, there are manifold portrayal of Donghua dijun in various Daoist
scriptures, including the Zhen gao (真誥), Zhenling Weiye tu (真靈位業圖), Zhenjiao
Yuanfu jing (真教元符經), Chenwai ji (塵外記), Liexian chuan (列仙傳), Shenyi jing
(神異經), Donghuang jing (東荒經),Zhonghuang jing (中荒經), Hainei Shizhou ji (海
45
內十洲記)etc. So many Daoist writers wanted to define who Donghua dijun is in
their own understanding. That is the reson why there is no consistent description and
explanination of Donghua dijun.
Some scholars thought that Donghua dijun as Dong Wang gong is the god of sun
originaly. In contrast to Xi wang mu, Donghua dijun symbolize the sun rising, and Xi
wang mu symbolizes the sun setting. Other students argue that Donghua dijun and Xi
wang mu represent the yin and yang separately. Few scholars thought Donghua dijun
is in relation of Five mountains. He was the elder brother of mountain Tai. Above all,
Donghua dijun was apparently in relation of natural world.
In Song dynasty, Donghua dijun was not a natural god anymore. This
transformation was done by Song-Yuan Daoist. He was named Wang Xuanfu (王玄甫)
and regarded as a immortal who ascents from this world . He got the religious title
Donghua dijun and became the first patriarch of Quanzhen school (全真教). Finally,
Donghua dijun is the chief of all new immortal who just ascent to heaven and
manage them to register in the immortal name list.
In Taiwan, the Daoist idea about Donghua dijun is not accepted. People still
thought Donghua dijun represented the east and the vital energy yang qi (陽氣). He
nursing all kind of creatures.
Though Donghua dijun is accompanied with Xi Wang Mu, the temples which is
dedicated to Donghua dijun are few. There are about nine temples of Donghua dijun.
Comparing with the number of Xi Wang Mu or Wang Mu’s temples, it is few. There
are about thousands of Wang Mu’s temple in Taiwan. Referencing the fact that most
of the temples dedicated to Donghua dijun are founded after the Second World War,
the arising of Donghua dijun is a following worship after Wang Mu in Taiwan.
Keywords: Donghua dijun, Dong Wang gong, Xi Wang mu
References:
1.李錦山。2002.12。〈西王母神話與西王母圖像(5)--關於東王公〉。《故宮文物月
刊》，20（9）：94-97。
2.國立臺中技術學院應用中文系、苗栗後龍無極聖宮合編。2008。《海峽兩岸東
王公西王母信仰學術硏討會論文集》臺中：國立臺中技術學院應用中文系。
3.張秀君。1991.12。〈淺論紹興出土漢代畫像鏡之主神及其反映之神仙思想--試
以東王公與西王母來探討〉。《道教學探索》，5：1-66。
4.葛洪。《枕中書》，於《正統道藏》洞真部。
5.蕭登福。2009.06。
〈男仙之首、元陽祖氣、日君神格的東王公及其神格轉變〉。
《世界宗教學刊》，13：23-49。
46
29. Dongyue dadi (東嶽大帝)
Dongyue dadi (東嶽大帝) is also called the god of Mountain Tai, Taishan Fujun
(泰山府君) , Dongyue Taishan Tianqi Rensheng dadi (東嶽泰山天齊仁聖大帝) or
Tianqi wang (天齊王) who is a very old god in Chinese popular religion. He is
thoroughly absorbed and integrated by both Daoism and Buddhism. At the beginning,
Dongyue dadi was the first grade god above the five Mountain gods in China before
Han dynasty. Emperor, the divine son, should worship to the god of Mountain Tai as a
claiming of the supreme legitimacy. The worshiping to the god of Mountain Tai is the
ritual called feng (封) which is held on the summit peak of Mountain Tai and
monopoly by emperor. Before or Under Han dynasty, Taishan Fujun was also
regarded as the god who decided the destiny of dead person’s soul. He was a somber
god.
In the eastern Han dynasty, under the influences of Daoism and Buddhism, the god
of Mountain Tai began to transform from a god of mountain to a personal god. In
Daoism, the god of Mountain Tai was seen as the ancient saints or their descents. It
was said that the god of Mountain Tai was Fuxi (伏羲), a ancient mysterious saint in
China. According to the Shen-yi jing (神異經), the god of Mountain Tai was the son of
Pan Gu (盤古)’s descent who was also called Jin-hong shi (金虹氏) or Dong-yue di-jun
(東岳帝君) . Then Fuxi titled him as Tai-hua zhen ren (太華真人). Basically, the
development of Dongyue dadi in Daoism was base on his title but transferred to be a
immortal, a xian ren (仙人) and ranked him in the hierarchy of Daoist immortal.
Another development about Dongyue dadi is in Chinese Buddhism. It is based on his
role as the judge of dead person’s soul in the Underground. This transformation
began in Six dynasty. In Buddhist scriptures, his title is Tai-shan fu-jun (泰山府君)
which is incorporated with the Buddhist hell, diyu (地獄). As a result, Tai-shan fu-jun
is one of the ten kings of hell or a prince of the seventh king of hell.
Basically, the god of Mountain Tai is called Dongyue dadi in Daoism and Chinese
popular religion. However, Taishan fujun is the god of Mountain Tai’s only title in
Buddhism scriptures.
Since Dongyue dadi reigns over the hell, there is ritual about him. The ritual is called
da-cheng (打城), storming the city wall. Regarding the hell as a city, it is an
imitational ritual that storms the city wall and rescues a deceased’s soul by a ritual
specialist who is a Daoist or a master in popular religion. There are ten processes of
da-cheng ritual, including inviting Dongyue dadi (請神), summoning the soul of
decease (召魂), asking the soul or making someone substitute for the soul to confess
the soul’s sin (拜懺), starting the journey to leave the hell (行路), practicing
47
divination to ask if the soul’s sin was pardoned (卜赦旨), leaving the hell (出城),
letting the soul taking medicine (吃藥), offering a bowl of rice (拜飯), guiding the
soul crossing the bridge (過橋), making the soul to rebirth in a better place (送亡).
The attending members in the ritual are including the decease’s family members and
the Daoist or the master of popular religion.
There are about seven temples dedicated to Dongyue dadi in Taiwan. The famous
one is Dongyue temple (東嶽殿) in Tainan city where is outstanding in Da-cheng
ritual.
Keywords: Dongyue dadi, Taishan Fujun, Mountain Tai,Dongyue temple, storming the
city wall rituall
References:
1.《神異經》
2.增田福太郎。1999。
《臺灣漢民族的司法神－城隍信仰的體系》
。台北：古亭書
屋。
30. Tiandou yuanshuai (田都元帥)
Tiandou yuanshuai, the marshal Tiandou, is also called Tian xiang gong (田相公).
Tiandou yuanshuai is the Muse of China. However, Tiandou yuanshuai is a god not a
goddess. It is said that Tiandou yuanshuai is Lei Haiqing (雷海青), an official in Tang
dynasty who administed the band and opera in the court. Lei Haiqing’s mother was a
virgin pregnant woman. She was impregnate by a god of star, Yixiu xingjun (翼宿星
君) . However, a woman yet married but pregnant was a shame in ancient society. He
was born in the field in order to hide this secret. As a result, he was adoped by a
farmer. When Lei Haiqing was a kid, he had talent on music and opera and got
reputation. He was selected to the court to serve the royal house. It was in Tang
Xuanzong’s (唐玄宗) reign. Then the An Shi Rebellion (安史之亂, 755-763) took
place. Lei Haiqing was loyal to Tang court and did not want to serve for An Lushan. He
got killed by the rebellion. After the Tang court was recovered, the emperor
decreeded the title Tianxia Liyuan dazongguan (天下梨園大總管), the first chief of
band and opera in China, to him. There is still one problem. How did his title Tiandou
yuanshuai come? After he was dead, it seemed that his spirit had been manifested
when the Tang royal house met some crises. Once his spirist showed off, the charater
Lei (雷) on his flag was covered by cloud. Only the lower part was seen by the
emperor. The emperor took Tian (田), the lower half of Lei (雷), as his surname. Then
he was titled as Tiandou yuanshuai.
48
Regarding to the literature Sanjiao soushen daquan (三教源流搜神大全) , some
scholars thought that Tiandou yuanshuai originated from a Daoist deity,
Fenghuoyuan Tian yuanshuai (風火院田元帥), the Marshal Tian in the Wind and
Fire department. Fenghuoyuan Tian yuanshuai was also a god who administrates the
affair about medical, dancing, music, opera and drama. Maybe the life story of Lei
Haiqing was attached to his.
Above all, maybe the story of Lei Haiqing and the description of Fenghuoyuan
Tian yuanshuai are all parts of Tiandou yuanshuai’s origin. What we know taday is a
mixed entity.
There is a characteristic of Tiandou yuanshuai’s image. There is crab painted on
his mouth. It is said that he was raised by crab. Another story is about Yang Guifei (楊
貴妃, 719-756), the beloved consort of Emperor Tang Xuanzong. It is said that once
Lei Haiqing was drunk in the court. Yang Guifei drew a crab on his face jokingly. As a
result, the taboo of Tiandou yuanshuai’s devotees is banned on eating crab or taking
the crad as the offering to Tiandou yuanshuai. It is said that if someone is in the
bottleneck of learning Chinese music instruement, vows not to eat crab before the
image of Tiandou yuanshuai will be helpful.
There are some temples dedicated to Tiandou yuanshuai in Taiwan. The first
one, Jingan temple (靜安宮) in Tainan was established in 1716. Tiandou yuanshuai’s
birthday is on twenty-third, June in Chinese lunar calendar.
Keywords: the marshal Tiandou, Lei Haiqing, the Marshal Tian in the Wind and Fire
department
References:
1.徐亞湘。1993。
〈臺灣地區戲神：田都元帥與西秦王爺之研究〉
。台北：私立中
國文化大學藝術研究所碩士論文。
2.高賢治。1988。
〈現存萬華被遣忘的北管戲神：西秦王爺與田都元帥 〉
。
《臺灣
風物》，38 ( 3 )：111－125。
3.陳慧蓉。1989.12。〈臺灣民間的戲神--田都元帥和西秦王爺〉。《臺灣博物》，8
（4）：54-57。
4.鄭正浩。1983.05。
〈樂神一考：臺灣的田都元帥與西秦王爺信仰〉
《民俗曲藝》，
23/24：118-140。
5.楊榕。 2000 。
〈莆田市瑞雲祖廟之田公信仰、祭儀與戲劇〉
。
《民俗曲藝》
，121/23 :
7－100。
49
31. Amita-buddha (阿彌陀佛)
Amituo fo (阿彌陀佛), Amitābha, is the Buddha in the West Pure Land (西方淨
土). In Chinese Buddhism, Amitābha is also called Wuliangshou fo (無量壽佛), the
Buddha of Infinite lifespan, or Wuliangguang fo (無量光佛), the Buddha of Infinite
Light.
Reagarding to the Wuliangshou jing (無量壽經), The Infinite Life Sutra, eons ago,
there was a king who met Guan Zizaiwang rulai (觀自在王如來), Lokeśvararāja in
Sanskrit, and learned his teaching. Then the king became a monk named Dharmakara
(法藏) and practiced Buddhist teaching. After he got enlightenment, he made
forty-eight vows to saving all of the sentimental being. He sought to creat a world
without dying and suffering and anyone who shares his vows will reborn in his
wonderland, the West Pure Land. Amitābha’s wonderand is far from our world. He
also has two bodhisattvas as his assistants. They are bodhisattva Dashizhi (大勢至菩
薩), Mahāsthāmaprāpta, and bodhisattva Guanyin (觀音菩薩), Avalokiteśvara.
According to another sutra, the Beihua jing (悲華經), Karuṇā-puṇḍarīka-sūtra in
Sanskrit, Amitābha used to be a king named Wuzheng Nian (無諍念), and he had two
princes. The elder one was named Buxuan (不眴). The younger was named Nimo (尼
摩). King Wuzheng Nian had a minister named Baohai (寶海). Baohai’s son became a
monk and got enlightenment, named Baozang fo (寶藏佛), the Treasure Buddha.
King Wuzheng Nian and his two sons were encouraged by Baozang fo and made vows
to become a Buddha. As a result, by eones efforts, King Wuzheng Nian became
Amitābha. The Princes Buxuan and Nimo became Avalokiteśvara and
Mahāsthāmaprāpta individually.
In Chinese Buddhism, various Pure Land sects are the major groups who devote
to Amitābha. The first Pure Land sect was established in Eastern Jin dynasty. The
devotees of Amitābha mainly visualize the image of or chant the name of Amitābha
in order to reborn in the Pure Land after death.
The practice and idea of Amitābha are very important in Chinese religion and
cultural. In Taiwan’s Buddhist monastery, the devotees say the name of Amitābha to
each other as a greeting. When a person is dying or dead, sometimes ones family
member and other volunteers will around the person chanting Amitābha and praying
for him or her.
No doubt Amitābha and his Pure Land are very important religious
phenomenom in Taiwan.
50
Keywords: Amitābha, the Pure Land
References:
51
32. Baosheng Emperor (保生大帝)
Baosheng Emperor(保生大帝) is Wu Tao(吳夲) (979-1036). He is also called Wu
Zhenren (吳真人), Wu Zhenjun (吳真君), Huaqiao gong (花橋公), etc. He was born
on the 15th day of the third moon in Chinese lunar calendar and dead or ascended
to heaven on the second day of the fifth month in Chinese calendar. It was said that
he was born as a smart child. He had a good memory and talent on traditional
Chinese medicine. He was an official for a while. Finally, he was a famous doctor and
helped many suffering persons. The major area where he was a practicioner doctor
were in Baijiao (白礁), Qingjiao (青礁), Shimen (石門), in Tongan (同安) and Anxi (安
溪) county, Fujian province. He kept unmarried and as a vegetarian all his lifetime. As
a famous doctor with many miracles, he was worshiped by people and had a temple
dedicated to him. He was titled as Dadao zhenren (大道真人) in Song dynasty. In
Ming dynasty, Chengzu decreed that he was titled of “Imperial Inspector at Heavenly
Gate, Miracle Doctor of Compassion Relief, Great Taoist Immortal, and the
Long-lived, Unbounded, Life-guarding Emperor” (恩主昊天金闕御史慈濟醫靈妙道
真君萬壽無極保生大帝).
During his lifetime, Baosheng Emperor (Dadi) was known to have some miracles.
For instance, he had been cured a tiger. The tiger ate many humen. The last time it
ate a woman and its throat was wedged by her hairpin. Then the tiger ask help to
Baosheng Emperor. Baosheng Emperor helped him and forbidded him to eat any
living thing. The tiger then became his mount named Heihu jiangjun (黑虎將軍), the
Black Tiger Marshal. Besides of the Black Tiger Marshal, Baosheng Emperor had
other marshals as his subordinates. The squad of his marshal are including the four
major marshals with surname Wen, Kang, Ma and Zhao individually, Divine Officer
Jiang (江仙官), The Saint Zhang (張聖者) and The Thirty-six marshals.
It is estimated about three hundreds temples dedicated to Baosheng Emperor in
Taiwan. Most of them are in Tainan, Gaoxiong. The first temple was established in
Xinhua (新化) , Tainan during the reign of Netherlands. Most of the temples stemed
from Ciji temple (慈濟宮) in Xuejia, Tainan that is also famous in southern Taiwan. In
northern Taiwan, Baoan temple in Taipei is the most famous. For Baoan temple’s
successfully restoring constructions, it won The UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards
for Culture Conservation. There are also some worship associations (神明會)
dedicated to Baosheng Emperor who do not belongs to any temples.
Keywords: god of medicine, Tongan County , Ciji Temple , Baoan Temple
52
參考資料
1.林美容。 2005 。
〈臺灣保生大帝信仰及其廟宇相關書目＞” 《 臺灣文獻 》 ，
56 ( 2 > : 15 手 1 78 。南投：國史館臺灣文獻館。
2.范正義。2006 。《 保生大帝信仰與間臺社會 》 ”「臺海研究叢書」。福州：
福建人民“
辜神徹。 2006 。 〈 臺北盆地與姓氏相關的輪祀組織研究＞”《臺灣文獻》 ，
57 ( 3 > : 38 一 94 ”南投：國史館臺灣文獻館”
53
33. Cheng huang ye (城隍爺)
Cheng huang (城隍), the city god, which means a guardian god of city literally.
However, the function of city god is judicial. The city god is in charge of judging
people’s moral behavior and the disputes between people. If someone did not obey
the doctrine of filial piety, the city god will dispatch some ghosts or lower level gods
chasing him or her to be punished. If someone cheated, stole, robbed, or hectored,
the city god will get him or her to be punished. How could the city god know people
well? There are many ghosts and gods belong to the subordinate of city god. The city
god is not just a representative of one god, but a bureaucratic system of gods. There
are various gods in cheng huang temple (城隍廟), including the lower level judge
gods, bailiffs gods and captain of ghost army etc. Their duties are organized as the
police and judicial system, including inspecting, detecting, chasing, trialing, and
punishing process.
Though the function of city god is clear, the origin of city god is vague. Some scholars
thought that the city god originates from a natural god. The evidence is in the Book
of Rite (禮記). According to this scripture, there are eight kinds of god which the
emperor, the son of heaven, should enshrine. The god closed to cheng huang is the
god of dike or moat. Its name is shui yong (水庸). After a long period of time, it
transformed to cheng huang. However, this evidence is not direct and strong enough.
Firstly, the spread area of city god is mainly around the Yangtze River basin which is
different from the Yellow River basin. The Book of Rite is about the Yellow River basin.
Secondly, as the direct evidence reveals, the most direct record about the city god is
in the record of Tang dynasty. The closed literature evidence is about Six dynasty (六
朝) and Sui (隋) dynasty which is recorded or rewritten in Tang dynasty. Above all,
one thing can be sure is that the city god appeared in Tang dynasty.
Another aspect of city god is its legend. Most of the stories are related to the
historical figures, such as Xiao He (蕭何, 257-193 B.C.), Chun Shen Jun (春申君, ?-238
B.C.), Gnuan Ying (灌嬰, ?-176 B.C.), or Pang Yu (龐玉, ?), a marshal in Han dynasty.
The others are about some local people or a dragon king, such as Ying Zhi-xu (應智
頊)in Yunzhou (筠州) , You Mao-hong (游茂洪) in Jingzhou (靖州), the dragon king in
Taizhou (台州). Regarding to those stories, the city gods not only become a universal
god but also localize in relation to local history.
When city god spreads to Taiwan, he developed his own stories also. According
to a report in 1935, Kaohsiung City (高雄市), a father asked an artisan to carve a city
god’s status for his son who drowned eighteen years ago. The reason is the son’s soul
came to his father’s dream and told him that he was be promoted by Jade Emperor
54
(玉皇大帝) to be a city god. The dead son asked his father to carve a city god’s status
and held on a parade for him. Then he could be enshrined by citizens. The above is
one of city god’s stories in Taiwan.
The city god became an official representative god is Ming dynasty. The Hongwu
Emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang (朱元璋), who decreed that all of the subprefecture (州),
county (縣) goverment should found the city god temple, then the city god will
monitor citizen doing right and wrong and punish the bad person. The city god’s cult
became more flourishing and popular than before.
There are about fifty to ninety city god’s temple in Taiwan, including Kingman
(金門), Penghu (澎湖). There are some special religious practices about Cheng huang
because of his judicial function. When there is dispute which is hard to solve, some
people will come to the city god temple to ask the city god solve it. If someone’s
integrity were misunderstood or in question, he or she will come to the city god
temple to vow. It is said that there are times when a criminal case is hard to solve or
on bottleneck, some policemen or prosecutors go to the city god temple praying for
help also. The Taipei Xiahai city god temple (台北霞海城隍廟) even develops a
character like a matchmaker to help people find a right person. What a fancy one is.
Keywords: the city god
References:
1.Johnson, David. (1985)"The City-God Cults of T'ang and Sung China," Harvard
Journal of Asiatic Studies 45(2): 363-457.
2.賴亮郡。2006。〈唐五代的城隍信仰〉。《興大歷史學報》17期。
3.黃柏芸。2006。《臺灣的城隍廟》。臺北：遠足文化。
4.增田福太郎。1999。
《臺灣漢民族的司法神－城隍信仰的體系》
。台北：古亭書
屋。
55
34. Shen Nong dadi (神農大帝)
Shen Nong dadi (神農大帝) is also called Shen Nong shi (神農氏), Wugu Xiandi
(五穀先帝), Xiandi (先帝), Yaowang (藥王), Tianzu (田祖) and Shen Nong etc. He was
listed as one of the high gods in the court of Han dynasty. It is said that Shen Nong
taught ancient Chinese practicing the agriculture. That is why he is called Shen Nong,
the Divine Farmer. However, Shen Nong who is regarded as an important cultural
hero in Chinese history, just left only one achievement is impossible. It is said that
Shen Nong is the first to taste various kinds of herbs to discriminate between
beneficial and harmful ones. Besides, he founded the market to make the ancient
Chinese trade goods, and multiplied the Eight Trigrams (八卦) to the Sixty-four
Trigrams (六十四卦). Summarily, Shen Nong is not only the cultural but also the
agricultural god and the medical god.
From Zhou dynasty, the worship to Shen Nong dadi was regarded as a national
rite. The worship to Shen Nong is called Xian-se (先嗇).
The temple of Shen Nong was founded quite early in Taiwan. In 1646, the
settlers from Fujian province had already built a temple of Shen Nong which is
named with Kaiji Yaowang miao (開基藥王廟), the First founded temple of Yaowang,
located in one end of Shen Nong street, Tainan city, today. According to statistics, in
1918, there were about sixty temples dedicated to Shen-nong dadi. In 1981, there
are 112 Shen Nong dadi ‘s temples. Today, it is estimated about 150 temples even
Taiwan being not an agriculture society anymore. Apparently, Shen Nong is not
confined by his agriculture character and still as an important and popular god today.
It is because of there are still many traditional Chinese medicine merchants regarded
Shen Nong as patron god of trade. When it is the birthday of Shen Nong, the guilds of
traditional Chinese medicine in elsewhere often hold a festival for Shen Nong dadi.
The temple of Shen Nong dadi is also an important association in society. In Jia-yi
county (嘉義縣), most of the campus of Zhong-zheng university (中正大學)is
donated by the Wugu wang miao (五谷王廟) located in Minxiong (民雄).
The outlook of the statue of Shen Nong dadi is very special. Most often, the Chinese
popular gods are dressed up in ancient official clothing. One kind statue of Shen
Nong dadi is like a farmer. He has a high forehead and big eyes. His upper body and
feet are naked and he wears a garland made of leaves on his neck and a skirt or grass
skirt, hands spikes of rice or herb medicines. One of three kinds of color is painted on
his face. They are red, black, and green. They are all in relation to the legend of his
tasting various kinds of herb medicine. Another kind of his statue is a general one
that is closed to an emperor who wears a dragon robe (龍袍) and a Chinese crown.
56
In Chinese lunar calendar, the April, 26th is the birthday of Shen-nong dadi. Shen
Nong dadi’s birthday celebration became a local festival in some places. For example,
the temple of Shen Nong dadi named Xianse temple (先嗇宮) in Sanchong (三重)
takes place a festival every year becomes a local major occasion called ‘Sanchong da
bai bai’ (三重大拜拜). There is also an association of Shen Nong dadi named
Zhonghua Shen Nong dadi Xiejinhui (中華神農大帝協進會) which is an association
to maintain or to create the relationship between different temples of Shen Nong
dadi. Comparing to mainland china, where the worship and temple of Shen-nong
dadi is rare, in Taiwan, the worship of Shen Nong dadi seems more popular and
flourishing.
Keywords: Shen Nong dadi, Xianse, Yaowang, herb medicines
References:
1.司馬貞。＜三皇本紀＞。收於《史記會注考證》。台北：樂天出版社。1972。
2.余光弘。1982。
〈台灣地區民間宗教的發展〉
。
《中央研究院民族學所集刊》
，53：
67-105。
3.范咸纂輯。1961。
《重修臺灣府志》
。台北：臺灣銀行經濟研究室，頁249-266。
4.謝貴文。2009。
〈臺灣的神農大帝信仰──兼談後勁鳳屏宮〉于《高雄民間信仰
與傳說故事論集》台北：秀威資訊。
5.鍾宗憲。1994。《炎帝、神農信仰 》北京：學苑出版社。
35. Cai shen ye (財神爺)
Cai shen ye (財神爺)is called Cai shen (財神) also. Cai shen, the Chinese god of
prosperity, according to its function, is a category or a set of god rather than a
specific god. The function of Cai shen is deciding everyone’s fortunate and interest in
one’s destiny. There are various kinds of Cai shen’s classification. The most general
one is Zheng Cai shen (正財神) and Pian Cai shen (偏財神). Most often, ‘Zheng’ (正)
in Chinese means correct, or right in the middle and ‘Pian’ (偏) means stray from the
right. In Cai shen’s case, Zheng’s meaning is closed to static. On the contrary, Pian
means random, opportunity or chance. In other words, Zheng Cai shen blesses
people’s fortunate according to ones destiny. Pian Cai shen provides some chance or
speed up people to get wealth. Under the Zheng Cai shen class, there are two
branches, one is Wu Cai shen (武財神), another is wen Cai shen (文財神). In Chinese,
wu means martial or of the martial art and wen means literate or gentle. Wu Cai
shen are Zhao Gongming (趙公明), Guan Yu (關羽, 162–219), and Duowen tianwang
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(多聞天王: Vaiśravaṇa ). Under Wen Cai shen’s class, there are Fan Li (范蠡), Bi Gan
(比干). Unlike Zheng Cai shen, most of the pian Cai shen are between the ghost and
divine spirit figure.
Zhao Gongming is well known as a Cai shen, however, he was a god of plague also. As
a divine general, he was responsible to come to earth to take people’s lives in Jin
dynasty (晉朝). Until Yuan dynasty, he became a Cai shen. Guan Yu is a genuine
historical figure who was a general before. He was serving under the warlord Liu Bei
(劉備, 161-223) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. The reason why Guan Yu
became Cai shen is not clear. Maybe he was deified pretty early and popular. When
the belief on Guan Yu became popular, people worship to him to pray for fortune
more frequently and made Guan Yu become Cai shen naturally. Bi Gan was his
nephew King Zhou of Shang’s (商王紂) minister, however, he was executed by King
Zhou and pulled out his heart crucially. Because he has no heart anymore, people
believe that he will be fair in making judge of trades as a god. Then he became Cai
shen also. Fan Li was a minister of the state Yue (越國) in the Spring and Autumn
Period. After he assisted the king of Yue recovered the state, he escaped from the
court of Yue for good. Because Fan Li anticipated that the king of Yue would execute
the state men who helped him after he got his kingdom back. Fan Li was success in
running business. Each time he ran a new business, the business began to expand
and to be successful. Since he is a talent in anticipated the business trend,
businessman worship him as a Cai shen.
Most of the pian Cai shen are not a person with a great achievement or as a moral
role model before he was deified. There are various versions of pian cai she. For
example, Wutung (五通), is a Cai shen flourishing from Song dynasty up to now. He
was original a mountain god though. Wu lu Cai shen is a set of Cai shen which is
included Zhao Gongming and his four subordinator captain. They are original as the
Taoist divine generals.
Recently, Wu lu Cai shen is very popular in Taiwan now. Maybe it is because the
economic crisis happened some other times and social life becomes more
commercialization. There are also many famous Tudi gongs (土地公) regarded as Cai
shen also. For example, around Zhonghe (中和), Taipei county, there is a temple
named Hongludi (烘爐地) , a well known Cai shen temple. In Nantou county (南投
縣), a temple named Zinan gong (紫南宮) is another famous Tudi gong. It is so
popular that can raise fund for the public schools neighbored to it, providing the free
lunch to the pupils of the schools.
Besides, almost everywhere it is easy to find the statue of Maitray. Maitreay is
also regarded as a Cai shen. In Taipei, there is also a Thai-Indo god regarded as a Cai
shen. It is Simian fo (四面佛), Phra Phrom. Phra Phrom is original the Indo god
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Bhrama which is in Thai fashion represented as a four faces statue with four faces.
People often offer flowers, candles, or foods to Cai shen. A special practice is
invented by people in Taiwan. The practice is that people change with or borrow
from temple and god the money. It is said that the money got from temple is blessed
by Cai shen. People believe the money can make them be in luck. It is a popular
practice in Taiwan now.
Keywords: Cai shen ye, Zhao Gongming, Zheng Cai shen, Pian Cai shen
References:
呂威。1996。《財神信仰》。台北：漢揚。
36. Guigu Xianshi (鬼谷先師)
Guigu Xianshi (鬼谷先師) is also called Guiguzi (鬼谷子), known as a mystical
thinker of the Spring and Autumn period. It is said that he was a hermit who was a
disciple of Laozi. He lived at ghost vally, Guigu, so he was named Guiguzi. His
surname actually is Wang (王) and name Xu (詡) in Jin (晉) state. He had been to
Mountain Yun Meng (雲夢山), and got the medicine which could last a person’s live
forever. He is regarded as a Daoist divine immortal.
Guigu Xianshi had four famous disciples. Su Qin (蘇秦) and Zhang Yi (張儀) were
his disciples before they became the prime minister of Yan (燕) and Qin (秦). Guiguzi
predicated that they were ambitious of profane carrier and not suitable to cultivated
themselves to Dao. However, they would become the Prime Minister in any state of
the six in the Warring state period. As the predication, both of them became a prime
minister eventually. There were other famous disciples among Guiguzi’s . They are
Sun Bin (孫臏) and Pang Juan (龐涓). Sun and Pang learned the warcraft from Guigu
Xianshi and became excellent general in Wei (魏) and Qi (齊) separately. However,
Pang had been trap Sun in Wei state because of his jealous of Sun’s talent on warcraft.
He accused Sun falsely and made his feet cut as punishment by King of Wei. As a
result, Sun fled to Qi state and became a general. Finally, Sun defeated Pang and
made him committed suicide.
Summing up above legends about Guigu Xianshi, Guigu Xianshi is supposed to
be a fangshi (方士) alike figure who is specialized in the teaching of Huang Di and
Laozi which is the prototype of philosophical Daoism.
Another famous story is also in relation of Guigu Xianshi. It is said that Qin shi
huang (秦始皇), the first emperor who unified China, enslaved people to construct a
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grand palace for him. However, the construction work was so heavy and many people
died. Some birds held a magical herb with the mouth and put them on the dead
bodies’ face. Those dead person surprisingly got rebirth. Then Qin shi huang sent
messenger to ask Guigu Xianshi about what the magical herbal is. Guigu Xianshi told
Qin shi huang that the herb is Yang-shen zhi (養神芝), the ganoderma named
Yang-shen. It was grown on an island, Fu zhou (福洲) , at East China Sea. In order to
last his life and empire forever, Qin shi huang dispatched Xu Fu (徐福) to get the herb
back. However, Xu Fu never came back and Qin shi huang was dead. Only Guigu
Xianshi got the herb and became a Daoist immortal. It is said that he lived in Hua
shan (華山), Mountain Hua. Guigu Xianshi is also enlisted in Tao Hongjing’s Zhenling
weiye tu (真靈位業圖). In other words, Guigu Xianshi is regarded as an important
immortal in Daoist pantheon.
In Taiwan, there is only one temple dedicated to Guigu Xianshi which is named
the Memorial hall of Guigu Xianshi. Guigu Xianshi is also regarded as the trade god of
diviner or fortune-teller.
Keywords: Guigu Xianshi, Guiguzi
References:
1.《歷世真仙體道通鑑》
2.《錄異記》
37. Zhang tianshi (張天師)
Zhang tianshi (張天師), the celestial master Zhang, represents Zhang Daoling
(34-165) and his inheritages. Zhang Daoling was one of the founders of religious
Daoism in Han dynasty. His inheritages now is the sixty fifth generation.
Before Zhang Daoling became a Daoist, he was an official scholar. He had been
the chief in Jiangzhou (江州). It is said that he was a descendent grandson of Zhang
Liang (張良). Zhang Daoling abandoned his official carrier later. He escaped to
Mountain Beimang (北邙山) and devoted himself in Daoist practices. The
government failed in summoning him to be an official in central government many
times. Finally, he went to Sichuan (四川) province and founded Wudoumi dao (五斗
米道), an early religious Taosit school. He also claimed that Laozi descented to earth
and imparted all the knowledge and skill of Daoism. Laozi also titled him as Santian
fashi Zhengyi zhenren (三天法師正一真人), the master among three heavens and
Orthodox Unity true man. He wrote twenty four books on Daoism and a commentary
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of the Laozi, named Laozi Xiang Er Zhu (老子想爾注). Early Daoist church was also
founded by him. After he ascented to heaven and became immortal, his teaching was
inherited by his son Zhang Lu (張魯) and grandson Zhang Heng (張衡). Zhang Lu later
led his Daoist churches and disciples moved to Henan (河南) under the reign of Cao
Cao (曹操) and. It is said that the fourth generation of Zhang tianshi, Zhang Sheng
(張盛) did not follow Cao Cao anymore and escaped to Long Hu shan(龍虎山),
Mountain Dragan and Tiger in Jiangxi (江西). Zhang tianshi’s school and teaching
dwelled in there from that time until 1949.
At the beginning, Zhang tianshi’s school is one of various Daoist school in
Chinese religion. Until Five dynasties and Song dynasty, Zhang tianshi started to
flourish and became the icon of Daoism. It was because of the royal house’s
supporting. In the Yijian zhi (夷堅志), written by Hong Mai (洪邁), there are numbers
of stories about Zhang tianshi. Zhang tianshi as an exorcist was presented in the
stories. It is crediable that there were some devotees at that time. The title Zhang
tianshi was not official recognized until Yuan dynasty. Then the descendents of Zhang
Daoling becaming the official chief of Daoist group in Jiangnan (江南). As a result, the
legacy of Zhang tianshi was mixed with other school and became the Zhengyi school
(正一道), one of two major Daoist schools.
In Taiwan, the belief of Zhang tianshi started from Qing dynasty. Some Zhengyi
Daoist held ritual in Taiwan and made it spread. In 1919, it was estimated about eight
temples dedicated to Zhang tianshi. People also took the imgae or talisman of Zhang
tianshi as a protection to devil. After the Second World War, the sixty-third
generation of Zhang tianshi moved to Taiwan and became the official representation
of Daoism in Taiwan. Then the belief of Zhang tianshi was in relation with
government. However, the legacy of Zhang tianshi still keeps the connetion with
those Daoists whose surname is not Zhang, those Zhengyi school Daoists. Besides,
there are also some temples dedicated to Zhang tianshi by mediumship. Summarily,
there are about over ten temples dedicated to Zhang tianshi in Taiwan now.
Keywords: the celestial master Zhang, Zhang tianshi, Zhang Daoling, Zhengyi school
References:
1.《歷世真仙體道通鑑》
2.王見川。2003。〈張天師研究序說：成果回顧與相關史料辨正〉。《臺灣宗教研
究通訊》，5：165-206。
3.王見川。2004。〈龍虎山張天師的興起與其在宋代的發展〉。《光武通識學報》，
1：243-283。
4.王見川。2003。《張天師之研究：以龍虎山一系為考察中心》嘉義：中正大學
61
歷史所博士論文。
38. Shuixian zunwang (水仙尊王)
Shuixian zunwang are five gods of water. Regarding to the Chongxiu Shuixian
miao shu (重修水仙廟疏, The Essay of Rebuilding Shuixian temple), written by Liu
Kezhuang (劉克莊) in Song dynasty, they were father and sons titled Jiaying Huili hou
(嘉應惠利候父子), the Duke of Jiaying Huili at first. Their name was lost. In Yuan
dynasty, the identity of Shuixian zunwang was changed. Shuixian zunwang were five
persons. They were Feng Xuan (馮璿)and his brother , Ding Zhongxiu (丁仲修), a
surname Cai person, and a certain person. Feng Xuan brothers and Ding Zhongxiu
were Confucian scholars. When they were alive, they made some achievement on
the canal transport. They were enshrined as the god of water transport by people
after they were dead.
By unclear reason, Shuixian zunwang’s combinations was changed again in Qing
(清) dynasty. There are various kinds of combination. Among these combinations,
Day U (大禹), Wu Yuan (伍員) and Qu Yuan (屈原)are the same elements. The
different elements are Xiang Yu (項羽), Lu Ban (魯班), Li Bai (李白), Bo Yi (伯益), Ao
Wang (奡王), and Wang Bo (王勃). These six persons are alternatively enlisted in the
combination depended on the location where the temple is situated in.
It seems that there are two kind of combination in Taiwan. About the
combination, a saying is mentioned. It is “one emperoe, two king and two senior
officials in imperial China (一帝、二王、二大夫)”. No doubt the emperor is Day U who
regulated the watercourses of Yellow River to control the great flood in ancient China.
As a result, he became an emperor with the appellation “the Great”. Two kings are
Ao and Xiang Yu or Lu Ban and Xiang Yu. Ao was a legendary figure in Xia dynasty. It
is said that he invented the boat and he was a Hercules who could sailing on the land.
He was executed by Shao kang (少康), a emperor reviving the state in Xia dynasty. Lu
Ban was an outstanding craftman. It was credited that he made a wooden bird which
could fly and stay in the air for three days without power system. Xiang Yu was failed
in combating with Liu Bang (劉邦) and committed suicide by the side of Wu River (烏
江). Two senior officials denote either two of Wu Yuan, Qu Yuan, Li Bai and Wang Bo.
Wu Yuan was called Wu Zixu (伍子胥) also. He was the senior official of Wu state in
the Spring and Autumn era (722 BC - 481 BC). Because King of Wu state did not trust
him, he committed suicide and sweared to see the end of the Wu by the side of
Qiantang river (錢塘江) after he was dead. As a result, he became the “god of
Waves”. Qu Yuan was also a senior official of Chu (楚) in the Spring and Autumn era
and committed suicide by drown himself because of monarch’s untrust. Li Bai and
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Wang Bo were famous poets in Tang dynasty. They were drowned to death by
accident. Apparently, most of above figures are in relation of water. Their lifes are all
in connetion with a catastrophe or a tragedy except Lu Ban. Regarding them as
Shuixian zunwang, the gods of water, is standing on an idea of Chinese popular
religion. The idea is “zhen sha” (鎮煞), to calm an evil spirit. Chinese believed
enshrining a tragic soul not only pacifying them but also guarding against the evil
spirit. All of the temples dedicated to Shuixian zunwang established closed to the
port, riverside, and seaside is to prevent people from floods and shipwreck.
The worship to Shuixian zunwang in Taiwan is in relation with early migrating
and trading history. Because sailing on the Taiwan straits was risky at early stage, all
the sailors and passengers would pray to the water god for blessing them. Regarding
to the Cailiu riji (采硫日記), the Journal of Gathering Sulfur by Yu Yonghe (郁永河,
1645-?), when it was happened to typhoon or billows on sailing across the Taiwan
straits, there was a ritul named hua shuixian (划水仙) would be held by the sailors
and passengers on the boat. The ritual is took place by all of the people in the boad
handing chopsticks in both hands and imitating to movement of paddling boat. At
the same time, they had to mimic the sound of bronze drum and drum.
There are some temples dedicated to Shuixian zunwang and most of them are
named Shuixian temple (水仙宮). The Shuixian temple in Tainan has a feature. The
doors of the temple is not painted with the patron god like most of the temples in
Taiwan but decorated with nail like decoration , men ding (門釘) . Men ding is a
decoration specific to emperor during the imperial era. The reson is Day U as the
main god in Shuixian temple who was one of the thress emperors in Ancient China.
On tenth, October, in Chinese lunar calendar, Worshiping to Shuixian zunwang is
taken place.
Keywords: Shuixian zunwang, Shuixian temple, Day U, Xiang Yu, Ao Wang, Qu
Yuan ,Wu Zixu
References:
1.不著撰人。《三教源流搜神大全》
2.蔡相煇。1993。《台灣的祠祀與宗教》。台北：臺原。
39. Zao shen (灶神)
Zao shen, the kitchen god, or the stove god, is also called Zao jun (灶君),
Dongchu Siming Zaojun (東廚司命竃君), or Siming Zaojun (司命竃君). The worship
of stove god has lasted for a long period of time since Shang dynasty (商朝) up to
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now. In Analects, Wang Sun Jia (王孫賈) asked Confucius what a saying’s means. The
saying is “it is better to pay obsequious to the stove god than to the highest family
god.” Original, this dialogue is about inquiring the strategy of adulatory in relation to
the officialdom. However, it shows a hint which the ancient religious practice of
kitchen god does exist. Besides, regarding to the record on bamboo slips during the
Warring States Period (475 - 221 BC.) in Chu state (楚國), the worship of kitchen god
was very important and popular practice in royal house and folk family.
People thought that the origin of kitchen god is in relation of fire. It is said that
Yan di (炎帝), became the kitchen of god after he was dead. According to the Book of
Rite (禮記), Li (黎), the son of Zhu rong (祝融), became the kitchen god. There are
still some other ideas about the kitchen god’s identity. Regarding to the Wu jing
zheng-yi (五經正義), a book in Eastern Han dynasty, Zao shen was a man living on
earth whose name was Zhang Dan (張單), courtesy name (字) was Ziguo (子郭).
Zhang Dan was a married man. His wife’s name was Wang Bo-jia (王搏頰).
Besides, the kitchen god is a man with woman like face, and he is gorgeous.
There is also other ideas about Huang di (黃帝) became the kitchen god and the
gender of kitchen god is female.
Though the kitchen god’s identity and gender have some noises, the function of
kitchen god is consistency. The kitchen god is always in charge of reporting people’s
right and wrong doing to Jade Emperor (玉帝). The differences between various
records are about the frequency and the affect of kitchen god’s report. It is said that
the kitchen god report to the heaven once a year, once a month, or once in a man’s
whole life. Jade Emperor will punish a person respectively according to this report. If
a person’s sin is minor, a person will be depraved his live three days. If the sin is major,
he or she will be depraved three hundred days of his or her live.
There are various versions stories about the kitchen god. The differences
between them are in some details. Their common character is tragedy. Kitchen god’s
story is about a married man whose first name is Zhang. He and his wife is an
affectionate couple. But they are too poor, they had to be separated. It is said his
wife remarried or be sold to a rich man. Coincidently, Zhang begged for a living
elsewhere and met his ex-wife. His ex-wife was doing charity that provides food to
the poor. Poor Zhang lined up and wanted to get some food. However, Zhang was too
late to get a food and starved. His ex-wife was heartbroken and committed suicide.
Finally, Jade Emperor commiserated them and edicted them to be the kitchen god. In
another version of story, the kitchen god is never been a person but a god. However,
he is handsome but lustful and lazy. Jade Emperor sees him as courtier and loves him.
Because he transgressed the divine rule, jade emperor punished him became the
kitchen god to watch women doing kitchen affairs.
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Because the kitchen god is a spy in family, the goal of worship kitchen god is to
disturb his mission in a soft way. People offer him some candies or cakes to please
him. In Tang dynasty, it is said people offer distillers' grains as offering to make him
drunk.
In Taiwan, there are about three temples dedicated to the kitchen god. They are
located in Yilan (宜蘭), Xinzhu (新竹) , and Pingdong (屏東) separately. Since the
kitchen god is a family god, the number of kitchen god’s temple is few. Besides, the
kitchen god is cook’s god of trade. Some cooks become disciples would take place a
ritual in front of the statue of kitchen god. The kitchen god will be the witness and
bless those new cooks and their masters.
Keywords: the kitchen god, Zhang Dan, Dongchu Siming Zaojun
References:
1.江燦騰。1995。〈臺灣灶神信仰瑣談〉。《歷史月刊》，85：55-58。
2.徐麗霞。2000。〈灶神（上、下）〉。《中國語文》，87（4-5）：105-114。
3.鄒濬智。2007。
〈西漢以前家宅五祀及其相關信仰研究--以楚地簡帛文獻資料為
討論焦〉。台北：國立臺灣師範大學國文學系博士論文。
4.蔡伊達。2004。
〈灶神民間故事類型與灶神形象研究〉
。花蓮：花蓮師範學院民
間文學研究所碩士論文。
40. Kaizhang Shengwang (開漳聖王)
Kaizhang Shengwang (開漳聖王) is the parton god of Zhangzhou (漳州), a
county in Fujian province. His name was Chen Yuanguang (陳元光) the son of Chen
Zheng (陳政), original as chaoyi daifu (朝議大夫), a senior official in Tang dynasty. In
669, he was dispatched by Tang Gao Zong (唐高宗) to reclaim Minnan (閩南), the
southern part of Fujian province. Chen Zheng led his clan members and family
including Chen Yuanguang and three thousand soliders to accomplish this emigrant
mission. After they had some fierce battles with the natives in Zhejiang (浙江) , Chen
Yuanguang lost his two elder brothers and some other relatives. Finally, they settled
at Huotian village (火田村), a village near Zhangzhou. In 677, Chen Zheng was dead.
His position was succeeded by Chen Yuanguang. During his administration, he had
suppressed times of local rebellion. He also set schools, police system and maped out
the administrative division. As a result, Zhangzhou was prosperity. In 708, Chen
Yuanguang was dead in a battle. His administration was ended. However, his son and
grandson succeeded his duty. There were almost one hundred years that Zhangzhou
was under the clan Chen’s reign.
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Because of Chen Yuanguang and his marshals’s merit, people established many
temples dedicated to them as memorial shrine. Chen Yuanguang was also ecreeded
the title Weihui shengwang (威惠聖王) by government. As a result, the worship of
Chen Yuanguang is spread.
In Taiwan, the spread of Kaizhang Shengwang’s temple is also in relation to the
migrants of Zhangzhou. It is estimated about twenty temples of Kaizhang Shengwang
in Yilan (宜蘭)county where early migrants from Zhangzhou majorly settled. Besides,
there are many famous temples of Kaizhang Shengwang located in elsewhere. For
example, the Kaizhang Shengwang temple in Neihu (內湖), the Huiji temple (惠濟
宮)in Shilin (士林) and guang ji temple in Zhonghe (中和) were also the famous ones.
Those areas were also majorly early migrants of Zhangzhou settled. The famous night
market in Jilong (基隆)is also by the side of Kaizhang Shengwang temple (開漳聖王
廟).
Keywords: Kaizhang Shengwang, Chen Yuanguang, Zhangzhou
References:
1.俞兆鵬。1998。〈開漳聖王--陳元光的生平事蹟〉。《歷史月刊》，127：96-100。
2.姚漢秋。1979。〈開漳聖王考〉。《中原文獻》，11（12）：6-9。
3.徐麗霞。199910。
〈開漳聖王與臺北縣板橋、中和開漳聖王信仰〉
。
《中國語文》，
85(4)： 104-113。
41. Shuntian shengmu (順天聖母)
Shuntian shengmu is Chen Jinggu (陳靖姑), also known as the "Lady of Linshui"
(臨水夫人). Chen Jinggu has many titles. Shuntian shengmu (順天聖母) is one of
them whom was named by Lin Tianling (林天齡), a citizen in Gaoxiong (高雄). He
asked authourity to title Chen Jinggu as Shuntian shengmu.
Regarding to the Bamin tongzhi (八閩通志), Chen Jinggu was a medium in Tang
dynasty. She was born in 767. It is said that she had the talent to predicate future
events and is also good at Daoist and popular religion rituals. When she was adult,
she was married with a man named Liu Qi (劉杞). Not long after she was preganant,
there was a harsh drought. Because Chen Jinggu was well known as a kind and
powerful medium among villagers, she was asked for help by them. In order to
accomplish this mission, she induced abortion by herself without noticing anyone
and held on a ritual. Finally, it was rained. However, Chen Jinggu was too exhausted
to be dead. Before she was dead, she vowed that she would protect pregrant women,
baby and children forever as her last wish.
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After she was dead, it is said that in Linsui, she was seen by villagers who
witnessed her spirit killed a white snake demon. After that, she left a mysterious
message as the hint of her homeland. When the villagers found her homeland, they
realized she was Chen Jinggu’s iphany. People began to worhip her to pray for
pretection and blessing. The temple dedicated to Chen Jinggu was established.
In Song dynasty, about 1241-1252, Chen Jinggu were be titled as Ciji furen (慈濟
夫人), the Lady Ciji. A banner inscribed Shunyi furen (順懿夫人) was also hung in the
temple.
However, above content were not recorded in the comtempory literatures. They
were be recorded by later generations. On speculation, Chen Jinggu was a deity in
popular religion at first. The worship of Chen Jinggu originated from the boarder
between Zhejiang (浙江) and Fujian (福建) in Tang or Song dynasty.
Chen Jinggu is not only regarded as the patron goddess of women and children,
but also a patriarch enlisted in a school of popular religion. The school is Lushan
Fapai (閭山法派) which is a ritual school in popular religion spreading around Fujian
(福建), Jiangxi (江西), and Taiwan. Its rituals were influenced by Daoism and Tantra
Buddhism and mixed with Wu (巫), an ancient tradition in Chinese popular religion.
In this school, besides Chen Jinggu, there are still two important ladies. They are Lin
Sha-niang (林紗娘) and Li San-niang (李三娘). Chen Jinggu, Sha-niang (林紗娘) and
Li San-niang (李三娘) are called Sannai Furen (三奶夫人).
Chen Jinggu is also an important character in tradition drama. In some plays,
such as the Hai You ji (海遊記), Linshui Pingyao zhi (臨水平妖志) and Furen chuan
(夫人傳), Chen Jinggu’s life stories are the themes. Those plays are in relation with
Chen Jinggu scarifying her own unborn baby and herself to save villagers, killing the
demon white snake, and Sannai Furen searching for the great Master Xu Xun (許遜,
239-374). Apparently, Chen Jinggu is very popular goddess.
In Taiwan, early temple dedicated to Chen Jinggu was established in 1707,
Gaoxiong (高雄). However, the evidence is not concret. Regarding to official
investigation during Japan reign, the first temple is Linshui temple (臨水宮) in Tainan
(台南). Besides, there are still many temples dedicated to Chen Jinggu , titled
Shuntian shengmu elsewhere in Taiwan. It is estimated about twenty seven temples.
Keywords: Shuntian shengmu, Chen Jinggu, Lady of Linshui
References:
1.Berthier, Brigitte. (2008) The Lady of Linshu: A Chinese female cult. California :
Stanford University Press.
2.李秀娥。1997。
〈鹿港夫人媽成神的傳說與類型〉
。
《思與言》
，35（2）
：187-234。
67
3.康詩瑀。2007。〈台灣臨水夫人信仰之研究 ─以白河臨水宮、台南臨水夫人媽
廟為例〉中壢：國立中央大學歷史所論士論文。
4.陳芳伶。2003。〈陳靖姑信仰的內容、教派及儀式探討〉台南：國立台南大學
鄉土文化研究所碩士論文。
5.魏永竹。1991。〈臨水夫人崇祀在台灣〉。《台灣文獻》，42（1）：209-234。
42. Bodhidharma (達摩祖師)
Damo Zushi (達摩祖師), Bodhidharma, an Indio monk came to China in Liang
dynasty. Before he became a Buddhist monk, he was a prince in an Indian kingdom.
It is said that he had met Liang Wu Di (梁武帝, 464-549) but they had no rapport
with each other. Then Bodhidharma crossed the Yellow River and headed north to
Shaolin temple (少林寺), Henan province (河南). This journey left us a legend that
he crossed the river on one reed. Bodhidharma meditated in a cave about nine years
until a Chinese monk Hui-ke (慧可, 487-593) came to visit him. Hui-ke asked
Bodhidharma to be his master but Bodhidharma refused. It is said that in order to
exam Hui-ke’s determination, Bodhidharma did not accept Hui-ke as his disciple at
first until he cut one of his arms. Bodhidharma imparted the core teaching of
Buddhist dharma, xin fa (心法), to Hui-ke and gave him some material as pledge,
such as scripture, monk’s robe and bowl. After Bodhidharma was dead, it was said
that he was not dead but returned to India for good. Someone even claimed meeting
him on the Pamirs and he held just one shoe in his hand. Above are the popular
stories of Bodhidharma.
The pattern of Bodhidharma’s life story became an important element in
Chinese cultural after Zen Buddhism was popular. As a result, Bodhidharma is not
only the first patriarch of Chinese Zen Buddhism but also the founder of Buddhist
martial art, Shao-lin gong fu (少林功夫) . He even becomes an inventor of palmistry.
Chinese and other Asian artists regard him as an important subject matter. The
process which he accepted Hui-ke as disciple even transformed into a Confucian
scholar’s life story in Song dynasty. His big eyes, heavy eyebrows, beard, and wearing
light rob, handing a stick are constructed as a Daoist xian-ren (仙人). His image even
became tumbler doll’s image in Japan and is regarded as a mascot. Bodhidharm’s
imgage is vivid in Aisa.
Though Bodhidharm is very popular in Asia, there are few temples dedicated
to Bodhidharm in Taiwan’s popular religion. In most of the Buddhist temple, there is
few Bodhidharm’s image for worshiping. His name is written on a memorial tablet
with the other Zen Buddhism patriarchs as a worshiping object.
68
Keywords: Bodhidharm, Zen Buddhism, patriarch of Zen
References:
1.McRae, John R.(2003) Seeing through the zen, California. University of California
Press.
2.張火慶。2006。《小說中的達摩及相關人物硏究》。臺北：秀威資訊科技出版。
43. Cankui zushi (慚愧祖師)
Cankui zushi was a monk whose name was Pan Liaoquan (潘了拳). The term
cankui (慚愧) means shame and conscience-stricken in Chinese. Cankui was Pan
Liaoquan's fa hao (法號), the religious title in Buddhism. Cankui zushi is also called
Yinna shan (陰那山) Cankui zushi. Yinna shan is the mountain where Cankui zushi
lived in before.
Cankui zushi, Pan Liaoquan was born in 817, Tang dynasty and dead in 865. It is
said that when he was a newborn baby, his left hand was always making fist and not
opening. His parents then named him quan (拳), fist. When his age was a month, a
mysterious monk came and wrote a character liao (了) on his fist. Then his left hand
was not always making fist anymore. His name was changed to Liaoquan (了拳), the
making fist ended. The mysterys also predictated that Liaoquan will be an honorable
monk in the future.
Pan Liaoquan became an orphan when he was twelve. So he lived with his uncle
and aunt. He made a living by pasturing cattles. It seems that he had magical power.
The cattle which were pastured by him would stay in a circle drawn by him. The
cooked fish would reborn when he put them back to the river. He often meditated on
a huge rock. After he was adult, he started to roam about. Finally, he arrived at Yinna
shan, Mountain Yinna. He was sheltered by the Huang’s family as a servant. One day,
the madam Huang was going to a temple visiting a monk to pray for having a baby.
He was following her with. Strangely, it seems that the monk knew Pan Liaoquan well.
The monk asked Huang’s family taking refuge (皈依) to Pan Liaoquan and seeing him
as their great master. After a while, he left to Mountain Yinna and stayed there until
he was dead. Pan Liaoquan stayed at Mountain Yinna for about thirty years. He
established a Buddhist temple named Ling Guang temple (靈光寺) and accepted
persons as his disciples. When he was dying, he asked his disciples titled him as
“cankui”. He felt ashamed on not preaching Buddhism well and sorry to Buddha. He
also ordered the disciples obeying the discipline of Buddhism.
In Taiwan, it is estimated about twenty nine to forty temples dedicated to
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Cankui zushi. Most of them are situated in Lugu (鹿谷) and Zhongliao (中寮) in
Nantou (南投) county. There are also many clans and families worshiping Cankui
zushi. In Taiwan, Cankui zushi is almost a god specific to Nantou.
關鍵詞：慚愧祖師、潘了拳、陰那山、南投
Keywords: Cankui zushi, Pan Liaoquan, Yinna shan, Nantou
References:
1.林翠鳳。2010。〈臺灣慚愧祖師神格論〉。《東海大學圖書館訊》，109。網址：
http://www.lib.thu.edu.tw/newsletter/109-201010/page07.1.htm。於2010.10
點閱。
2.張志相。2008。〈慚愧祖師生卒年、名號與本籍考論〉。《逢甲人文社會學報》，
16： 159-181。
3.張志相。2009。〈閩粵志書所見慚愧祖師寺廟與信仰探考〉。《逢甲人文社會學
報》，中18：119-148。
4.謝 佳 玲。 2008。〈從開山防蕃到保境安民 --南投縣慚愧祖師信仰研究〉。
台 北：臺北大學民俗藝術 研究所碩士論文。
5.謝佳玲。2009。
〈南投縣慚愧祖師信仰的形成〉
。
《臺灣民俗藝術彙刊》
，5：87-106。
44. Yaochi jinmu (瑤池金母)
Yaochi jinmu (瑤池金母) is an important goddess in Taiwan after the Second World
War. There are two threads about Yaochi jinmu’s origin. One is about the sects of
Chinese popular religions in Taiwan before the Second World War. Another one is
about the government sponsors Daoist association developing after the Second
World War. The propagation of the belief on Yaochi jinmu is very closed to the sect,
Cihui tang (慈惠堂). When people want to make sense of Yaochi jinmu’s origin, it is
hard to separate Yaochi jinmu from the developing of Cihui tang.
Before the Second World War, there are various sects of Chinese popular
religion in Taiwan. One common character of these sects’ teaching is the belief on
Mu niang (母娘) or Lao mu (老母), a goddess who is benevolent and help all people.
Within the belief on Mu niang, there is an eschatology originating Buddhism. This
eschatology is called Sanqi mojie (三期末劫). In Chinese Buddhism, jie is the word
meaning the Sanskrit word kalpa. According to the eschatology, from the beginning
of the universe up to now, this span can be divided to three periods. Each period is
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called hui (會). Lao mu will dispatch a Buddha to this world to save people on each
hui. There is a term dedicated to Buddha’s saving plan. It is Zhang Tian-pan (掌天盤),
steering the wheel of the universe. The first hui is Qing Yang hui (青陽會). There are
nine kalpas (eon) during Qing Yang hui and the Buddha is Dīpaṃkara (燃燈佛). The
second one is Hong Yang hui (紅陽會), and the dispatched Buddha is Sakyamuni.
Hong Yang hui has eighteen kalpas. The third hui is Bai Yang hui (白陽會). The
Buddha is Maitreya. There are eighty kalpas. It is said that the beginning of Bai Yang
hui is exactly on the beginning of 20th century. However, it is suspicious because the
invention of San-qi-mo-jie is in Ming dynasty. Above all, regarding to early scriptures
of Ci Hui tang, San-qi-mo-jie is the dominant idea and the image of Yaochi jinmu is
closed to Wuji Laomu (無極老母). It is the first thread.
Secondly, however, after the Second World War, KMT government reigned over
Taiwan and forbidden I-kuan Dao. When Ci Hui tang is flourishing all over Taiwan, the
leader of Ci Hui tang considered on the religious teachings similarities between
I-kuan Dao and wanted making Ci Hui tang being a legal religious organization. Ci Hui
Tang applied for a membership to Taoist society of R. O. C. (中華民國道教會). Then
Ci Hui tang changed its teaching about Mu Niang to Yaochi jinmu, a goddess from
ancient China. Yaochi jinmu is Xi Wangmu (西王母) which can be traced back to
oracle bone inscriptions of the fifteenth century BCE. Yao-Chi jin-mu is Xi Wangmu’s
official Taoist title. Yao means the precious jade. Yao-Chi is the place where Xi
Wangmu lives in. It is said that Yao-Chi is on the Kunlun Mountains. After Ci Hui Tang
joined Taoist society, Ci Hui Tang’s Mu niang became equal to Yaochi jinmu.
According to the statics in 2003, in Taiwan, there are 900 Ci Hui Tang’s branching halls
at least. If it is added the other sects that regard Wuji Laomu or Wusheng laomu as
the highest deity, then the number of jin-mu or mu-nian’ disciples will be a huge one.
Keywords: Yaochi jinmu, Ci Hui Tang, Sanqi mojie, Mu niang
References:
1.國立臺中技術學院應用中文系、苗栗後龍無極聖宮合編。2008。《海峽兩岸東
王公西王母信仰學術硏討會論文集》臺中：國立臺中技術學院應用中文系。
2.陳立斌。2004。〈台灣慈惠堂的鸞書硏究〉台北：輔仁大學宗教學硏究所碩士
論文。
3.蔡秀鳳。2009。〈臺灣慈惠堂瑤池金母信仰研究〉台北：國立師範大學台灣文
化及語言文學研究所碩士論文。
71
45. Guangze zunwang (廣澤尊王)
Guangze zunwang originated from Quanzhou (泉州), Fujian province (福建). He
is the patron god of Quanzhou. Most of Guangze zunwang’s images are painted or
carved in a children or a youth face. It is in relation with his story.
Guangze zunwang’s name was Guo Zhongfu (郭忠福) and born in Five dynasty.
He was the descendent of Guo Ziyi (郭子儀), the genernal who defeted the An-Shi
rebellions. However, he was a poor orphan. He shepherded for a richman whose
surname was Chen (陳) to make a living. Guo Zhongfu was benevolent by god. The
goats he shepherded were always kept in prosperity. Each time some of them were
sold. The number of the goat would be kept as the same spontaneously. As a result,
Chen was getting rich. However, Chen was stingy and mean.
ON one day, Chen invited a master of feng shui (風水師) came to help him. After
the work was done, Chen treated the feng shui master a meal and offered some meat
from a goat which drowned in a manure pit. The master was angry but presented
silence and peace.
When the master was going to leave, he took a chance to told Guo Zhongfu the
secret of feng shui on Chen’s land. The secret was that the auspicious place of Chen’s
land was around the goatfold. The master advised Guo Zhongfu reburied his parents’
bones around there and warned him that if there was a disaster, he should run away
as fast as he could. The master left a riddle as a hint of the indication to the shelter
place. The riddle was the brozen straw hat, a cow riding on a person, and the fish
climbing on the tree.
Guo Zhongfu followed the master’s instruction. As soon as he buried the bones
of his parents, a crowd of killer bee aroused. They attacked the richman and killed
him. Guo Zhongfu rememberd the master’s warning and ran away as fast as he could.
Then it rained heavily. He was keeping on running. Suddenly, he glimpsed a monk
hand a brozen mirror as an umbrella. By the roadside, there was a shepered boy
hiding behind a standing buffallo’s stomach as taking shelter from the heavy rain. Not
far away, there was a fishman carring a bunch of fish and climbing on the tree. He
realized that it was the right place.
He found a huge flat rock and meditated on it. Then he ascented to heaven and
became an immortal. The villagers around there came and found his sitting body.
They thought that he was an epiphany. So they established a temple dedicated to
him. The temple was named Fengshan temple (鳳山寺). Guo Zhongfu was titled as
Baoan zunwang (保安尊王). Later, he was titled as Guangze zunwang because he was
efficacious on rain making when people prayed to him.
In Taiwan, early temples dedicated to Guangze zunwang were established by the
people from Quanzhou. It is estimated about seventy. Most of them are located at
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Tainan. Taizhong and Pingdong are in the second and third place.
Keywords: Guangze zunwang, Quanzhou, Guo Zhongfu, Fengshan temple, Baoan
zunwang
References:
姜義鎮，《廣澤尊王信仰》，新竹文獻20期，200509頁134-150
卓克華，鹿港鳳山寺--牧童化成神，信仰遍臺閩，新世紀宗教研究卷期:2卷2期，
200312，頁232-272。
陳梅卿，說聖王.道信仰 透視臺灣廣澤尊王，臺南市 臺灣建築與文化資產 2000。
46. Xiqin wangye (西秦王爺)
Xiqin wangye (西秦王爺) is a deity of popular religion only in Tainwan. It is said
that he is Tang Xuanzong (唐玄宗, 685-762). Because Tang Xuanzong was famous of
establishing schools for music, dancing, and acting in Liyuan (梨園), the Pear Garden.
The Pear Garden was in the palace city of roysl house. In Liyuan, there is gathering
with all of the outstanding persons in music, dancing and action. Tang Xuanzong was
the pioneer in the world who founded this kind of school. As a result, he was
regarded as the patron god of Chinese tradition music and drama.
Though Xiqin Wangye is regarded as the god transformed from Tang Xuanzong,
scholars found the positive evidences are not strong enough. The negative evidences
were various. The first is self-evident, left Taiwan there is no other Chinese area
where the god Xiqin Wangye was found. The second evidence is the term Xiqin. It
denoted the west side of Shanxi (陝西), the area in Gansu (甘肅). But Changan (長
安), now Xian (西安), was the capital city of Tang imperial which is located in Shanxi.
The third evidence is that the devotees of Xiqin wangye in Taiwan are belong to the
Luantan (亂彈) musical tradition. Luantan musical tradition originates from Gansu
where is right the place the term Xiqin indicated. Apparently, Xiqin Wangye were not
represented Tang Xuanzong originally. There are also some other saying can explain
that. It is said that Xiqin Wangye’s surname is Zhuang (莊). However, Tang Xuanzong’s
surname is Li (李). The surname Zhuang (莊) is conform to another saying that Xiqin
Wangye is the King Zhuang (後唐莊宗)of Later Tang Dynasty (923-937). In summary,
Xiqin is a term denoting where the musical tradition origins from and Wangye is not
in relation with royal house. Wangye is a general title of god in Chinese popular
religion.
There are also some tabooed activities about Xiqin Wangye. Before the actors,
actress, and musican mount a platform to perform, they are forbidden to say a word,
73
dog. Dog is the servant of Xiqin Wangye. In order to avoid having stage fright or
cuting a poor or sorry figure, sometimes they also drink the tea offered to Xiqin
Wangye.
It is estimated that there are about six to eleven temples dedicated to Xiqin Wangye.
The first one was Shengan temple (聖安宮) in Zhanghua (彰化) which was
established in 1833. The last one is Fuanshe temple (復安社宮) in Yilan (宜蘭). It was
established in 1991 by a local traditionl Chinese music band. The area where most
temples located at is Ruifang (瑞芳). There are four temples. There was a temple of
Xiqin Wangye in Taipei also. However, it was ruined and reconstructed as a clinic.
The birthday of Xiqin Wangye is June, 24th in Chinese lunar calendar. The deovtees
would hold a play or musical performance as the worshiping.
Keywords: Xiqin wangye, Tang Xuanzong, the Pear Garden
References:
高賢治，
〈現存萬華被遣忘的北管戲神：西秦王爺與田都元帥 〉 《臺灣風物》，
1988，38 ( 3 ) :，頁111－125。
阮昌銳，《莊嚴的世界》 (台北：文開出版事業，1992)，頁5-103。
徐亞湘，
〈臺灣地區戲神：田都元帥與西秦王爺之研究〉
， (台北：文化大學碩士
論文，1993)。
47. Maitreya (彌勒佛)
Mile Fo (彌勒佛), Maitreya, is a Chinese popular deity which originates from
Buddhism. His surname Mile is a transliteration of the Sanskrit word Maitreya which
is derived from the word maitrī meaning loving and kindness. Though Fo (佛) means
Buddha in Chinese, Maitreya is not a Buddha at present but a bodhisattva who will
be the successor of Śākyamuni (釋迦牟尼), the founder of Buddhism. In Chinese, Mi
le Fo is called the Future Buddha (未來佛), or the Will-Be-Venerable Buddha Mile (當
來下生彌勒尊佛) also.
One important aspect of Mile Fo’s idea is about the eschatology. Regarding to
some Buddhist scriptures, once Maitreya comes to this world and enlighten as a
Buddha, this world will be a wonder land or a paradise. All the people are long-lived,
tall, and handsome or beautiful. There is no any disease and famine. It is a brand new
era. Maitreya will preach the dharma three times and enlighten billions of people.
This new era’s image is so brilliant and attractive to Chinese in Six Dynasties and the
following dynasties. As a result, the belief on Maitreya’s coming becomes very
popular in China from that time. Both the men of political ambition and the leaders
74
of various cults took the image of Maitreya and his new world as an important
ideology on propagating their ideas about their new world and promises to people.
Many rebellions aroused in the name of Maitreya’s coming. Then the cult of
Maitreya’s became an archetype of political-religious rebellion. The Whit-lotus cult
(白蓮教) in Yuan dynasty (元朝, 1271-1368) is a typical example. All the imperial
authority keeps an eye on this kind of cult.
However, there is still another thread about Maitreya in Chinese popular
religions and Buddhism. According to Mahayana Buddhism, all live include
bodhisattva will reincarnate in saṃsāra forever until become a Buddha. In other
words, as a bodhisattva, even Maitreya incarnates as well. Chinese Buddhists believe
that one incarnation of Maitreya is Fu Xi (傅翕, 497～569) who is a friend of emperor
Lian Wu (梁武帝, 464?-549) . Another one is more famous than Fu Xi. He is a monk
whose religious title is Qici (契此) in Five dynasties (五代, 907-960). He traveled
around the Zhejiang (浙江) province, carried a sack all the time, and begged for a
living. Qici’s words were few and each time when he was speaking, he was going to
die. Strangely, every time people thought he was dead already, they would find he
was still alive elsewhere. Qici was a thaumaturgical monk. Chinese thought that he is
Maitreya’s incarnation and call him monk Budai (布袋)and set statue for him. Budai
means cloth sacks in Chinese. As it mentions above, he always carried a sack. Besides,
some Chinese popular sectarian thought their masters were Maitreya’s incarnation
too. Such as I-Kuan Dao (一貫道), it’s members thought that Lu Zhongyi (路中一,
1849-1925), the seventeenth Patriarch of I-Kuan Dao, was the last Maitreya’s
incarnation.
As the incarnation of Maitreya, Monk Bu-Dai’s image influences profoundly
Maitreya’s image in China. Originally, the status of Maitreya was Greek style.
Referencing to Greek aesthetics and myth, the status is slender and wears a corolla. It
is because of Alexander the Great invading India and founding some Indo-Greek
kingdoms. However, in China, Maitreya’s image was changed during Song Dynasty.
Maitreya’s image became having a fat face with smile and a big stomach. These new
image’s elements means he is open-minded and tolerance. As a result, Maitreya
becomes a Cai shen (財神),a fortune god, now. In Taiwan, there are many shops or
stores enshrining Maitreya. However, there are few Buddhist temples enshrining
Maitreya. Most of the huge Maitreya statuses are settled by I-Kuan Dao, and
Maitreya is majorly enshrined by the disciples of Yi-guan Dao. People even forget his
Inido identity sometimes. Maitreya is one of the Buddhists figures who really come
to term with Chinese culture.
Keywords: Maitreya, the Future Buddha, Monk Bu-Dai
75
References:
1.何勁松主編。2003。《布袋和尚與彌勒文化》北京市：宗教文化出版社。
2.汪娟。1990。〈唐代彌勒信仰硏究〉中國文化大學中國文學研究所碩士論文。
3.張文良。2001。
〈彌勒信仰述評〉
，收於《中國佛教學術論典》第二十二冊。台
北：佛光出版社。
48. Ji Gong (濟公)
Ji Gong’s name is Li Xiu-yuan (李修緣) whose names in religion are various, including
Ji Dian (濟顛), Monk Ji Dian (濟顛和尚), or the Living Buddha Ji Gong (濟公活佛) etc.
Ji Gong was in Sung Dynasty. He is a descendant of a military marshal, Lee Wen-he
(李文和), around Tian Tai (天台) area, Zhe Jiang province (浙江省). When he was
eighteen, he became a monk at Ling Yin temple (靈隱寺), Hang Zhou (杭州). His
master was Hui-yuan (慧遠), a very kind master to Ji Gong. It is said that Ji Gong was
a monk not obeying the disciplines of Buddhist monastery. He drank wine and ate
meat. His talking was naughty and behavior was crazy. Other monks did not like him
and always wanted to expel him from the temple. However, his master always kept
him stay well until his mater was dead. After that, Ji Gong was ejected from the Ling
Yin temple. He moved to another temple, the Jingci temple (淨慈寺), and stayed
there till he was dead. Because he had some magical power, he always helped people,
such as to cure their sickness or predicate their accidents etc. Then People loved him
very much and think that he was the incarnation of a Buddhist saint, the Taming
Dragon Arhat (降龍羅漢). Ji Gong was dead in 1209 and buried at Hu Pao Di (虎跑地),
a place by Western Lake (西湖).
The belief on Ji Gong is so popular because of not only Ji Gong’s legendary biography
but also the folk literature’s contribution as well. By the beginning of Ming dynasty,
many storytellers propagated Ji Gong’s thaumaturgical stories. All the material
enriched Ji Gong’s story. Today, Ji Gong’s story is rewritten as some TV shows also.
They are very popular not only in Taiwan but also in Mainland China and Tibet area.
Ji Gong is an important figure in the popular religion. Many sects in Taiwan regard
him as a deity. For example, when people call upon their gods (降神) or hold on the
flying phoenix ritual (扶鸞), Ji Gong is one of the major deities who possesses on the
medium. In I-kuan Dao, the disciples call Ji Gong ‘Lao shi’ (老師), the master or the
teacher, and they believe that I-kuan Dao's founder, Zhang Tian-ran (張天然,
1889-1947), was the incarnation of Ji Gong. Another famous sect, Ci Hui Tang (慈惠
堂), is the one who familiar with Ji Gong’s mediumship. In popular religion, although
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Ji Gong is not the highest god, he is the benevolent messenger who helps people.
Keywords: Ji Gong, I-kuan Dao, Ci Hui Tang
References:
1.Shahar, Meir. (1998) Crazy Ji : Chinese religion and popular literature. Cambridge,
Mass. : Harvard University Press.
2.張忠良。2006。
〈南臺灣的濟公廟宇及其信仰〉
。
《成大中文學報》
，14：211-238。
3.張忠良。2007。《濟公故事綜合硏究》臺北：秀威資訊科技出版。
4.張忠良。2007。
〈多元形象的佛門顛僧～濟公活佛〉
。
《心鏡宗教季刊》
，12：36-38。
5.黃東陽。2008。
〈顛狂的真相--《濟公全傳》所呈顯濟公「狂行勸喻」之思維模
式及其社會意義〉。《新世紀宗教研究》，7(2):57-101。
6.賴永海。1993。《濟公和尚》臺北：東大。
49. Sakyamuni (釋迦牟尼佛)
Shijia mouni fo (釋迦牟尼佛), is transliterated from the Sanskrit term,
Sakyamuni, Buddha, the awakened one. Regarding to the understanding of Chinese
Buddhist, Shijia, Sakya is his surname and muni means mercy and patient. Sakyamuni
was the founder of Buddhism. He was born 2500 years ago in India. He was the single
son of King Suddhodana and the prince of the kindom Kapilavastu. When he was
twenty nine years old, he left for forest and devoting himself to practicing all kind of
yoga. He was desperated to escape from the endless rebirth, samsara, which is the
popular belief in India. After his six years in ascetic life, he abandoned the strict
restricting with his diet which almost made him starving. He meditated under a bodhi
tree for forty nine days. Finally, he was enlightened. He began to mission his teaching
and established his mission group, the Sanga, Buddhist monastic group. After forty
nine years, he was into mahaparinirvana, the final deathless state.
Sakyamuni, as the founder of Buddhism was introduced into China accompanied
with Buddhism. His imgae has two aspects. One is philosophical and another is like
the highest god in Chinese Buddhism. Regarding to the Buddhist scriptures, Buddha
is an enlightend teacher who preaches the way to avoid rebirth and suffering.
Because his position is too high to approach, people are seldom to pray him for the
blessing of daily events. However, Sakyamuni as a stand point in the explaination of
Buddhism is still important. Today, he is depicted as a powerful medical doctor and a
wise educator in Taiwan.
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In the popular culture and Daoism, Sakyamuni is regarding as god or like a
Daoist immoral. At first, because of the competition between Buddhism and Daoism,
Sakyamuni was depicted as an avatar of Laozi. In the novel, the Journey to the West
(西遊記), Sakyamuni is an immortal like figure coming from west to gather the
Monkey into his fist. This image later was transformed as a part of Wuxia xiaoshuo
(武俠小説), a Chinese genre which is in relation with martical artist.
There are some daily occasions in relation with Sakyamuni in Taiwan. On April,
eighth, in Chinese lunar calendar, Sakyamuni’s birthday, people go to the Buddhist
temple to bath the statue of baby Sakyamuni for celebrating and blessing. On
December, eighth, the day Sakyamuni got enlightened, in the Buddhist temples, the
laba porridge (臘八粥) are prepared and served. It is a celebrating for that
Sakyamuni accpted a shepherdess’s milk porridge as an offering. The Sakyamuni was
nourished and enlightened. There is also a taboo about Sakyamuni. Offering sugar
apple to god or Buddha is inappropriate. Because the name of sugar apple is a
homonyms term with Shijia, the abbreviated name of Sakyamuni in Taiwan.
Almost of the Buddhist temples in Taiwan is dedicated to Sakyamuni, no matter
whom Buddhist school they belongs to.
關鍵詞：佛陀、佛祖、釋迦牟尼、臘八粥
Keywords: Buddha, Sakyamuni, laba porridge
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50. Guanyin (觀世音菩薩)
Guanyin, Avalokiteśvara, a goddess originates from India. At first, Guanyin was a
male bodhisattva in Chinese Buddhism. After thousands years, Guanyin became a
female figure in Chinese Buddhism and goddess in popular religion. Guanyin is the
most popular goddess in Taiwan. She is also called Guanshiyin (觀世音), Guanzizai
(觀自在), Nanhai gufo (南海古佛), Guanyin dashi (觀音古佛), Yuantong jiaozhu (圓
通教主), and Guanyin fozu (觀音佛祖). In Taiwan, she is often abbreviated as
Guanyin ma (觀音媽), Fozu ma (佛祖媽), or Fozu (佛祖).
According to the chapter 25th of Lotus Sutra (法華經), the Universal Gateway (普
門品), Guanyin is a bodhisattva who can assume all living being no matter what kind
of gender or form is needed to liberate beings from suffering. After this mercy figure
went deep and vast in Chinese society, Guanyin became a goddess. As various kinds
of female avatar, Guanyin attended Chinese life. In Taiwan, Guanyin’s figure is various,
including conferring kids, holding a bamboo basket, moon mirroring in water,
thousands hands and eyes. A ghost king with flaming face is also one of Guanyin’s
avatars. Mazu (媽祖) was also formed from one blood of Guanyin. Above phenomena
and legend reveal the close relation between Guanyin and popular religion.
Besides, in Taiwan, many temples of popular religion are also dedicated to Guanyin
and named in relation of Guanyin. Many temples are named Yan zai (巖仔) or
Guanyin ting (觀音亭). In the house, Guanyin is the major element in most of the
icon hung above the shrine. On this kind of icon, Guanyin is placed above all other
god. Under Guanyin, there are Mazu, Guansheng dijun, the Earth god, and the
kitchen god. By the side of Guanyin, there are Shancai (善才) and Longnu (龍女). As a
result, a saying is that Guanyin is worshiped in every house. The nineteenth day of
the second month in Chinese lunar calendar is Guanyin’s birthday. The nineteenth
day of the sixth month is Guanyin’s enlightened day. The nineteenth day of the
nineth month is the day Guanyin becoming a monk.
There are many temples dedicated to Guanyin in Taiwan. The famous are Longshan
temple (龍山寺)and Zhulin shan Guanyin temple (竹林山觀音寺) in Taipei, the
Lianzuoshan Guanyin temple (蓮座山觀音寺) and Shoushanyan Guanyin temple (壽
山巖觀音寺) in Taoyuan (桃園), the Ziyunyan (紫雲巖) in Taizhong (台中), Longshan
temple (龍山寺) in Lugang (鹿港), Biyun temple (碧雲寺)in Tainan and Chaofeng
temple (超峰寺) in Gaoxiong (高雄), etc.
Keywords: Avalokiteśvara, Guanyin ma, Yan zai (巖仔)
參考書目
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林美容、蘇全正。2003。〈臺灣的民間佛教傳統與「巖仔」的觀音信仰之社會實
踐〉。《新世紀宗教研究》，2（3）：2-34。
林美容。2007。
〈臺灣觀音信仰的主要型態〉
。收於《民間佛教研究》
。
「人間佛教
叢書」2。譚偉倫主編。北京：中華書局。
陳清香。1973。〈觀音菩薩形像研究〉。《華岡佛學文報》，3：57-78。
Sangren, P. Steven. 1983. “ Female Gender in Chinese Religious Symbols: Kuan Yin,
Ma Tsu, and the Eternal Mother” Signs: Journal of Women in culture and society, 9
（1）: 4-25.
建議書目
于君方。2009。《觀音：菩薩中國化的演變》。臺北：法鼓。
顏素慧。2001。《觀音小百科：第一本親近觀音的書》。臺北：橡樹林。
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