TUGAS PERILAKU KONSUMEN
BAB XV & XVI
“INFORMATION SEARCH”
“ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION & SELECTION”
Oleh:
Cecia Rahmadani
115020207111040
Mira Farina Kusuma Dewi
115020207111031
Nungki Asri Saraswati
115020207111052
Ryan Hegar Suryadinatha
115020207111015
Disusun Untuk Memenuhi Tugas Mata Kuliah Perilaku Konsumen
Yang Dibimbing Oleh Ibu Risca Fitri Ayuni, SE., MBA., MM.
Jurusan Manajemen
Fakultas Ekonomi dan Bisnis Universitas Brawijaya Malang
Jalan Veteran, Malang 65145, Indonesia
Telp : +62-341-575840, 575841, Fax. +62-341-575841
E-mail : [email protected]
http://feb.ub.ac.id
KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur kehadirat Allah Yang Maha Kuasa atas berkat rahmat dan karunia-Nya
telah memberikan petunjuk dan kekuatan kepada diri penulis sehingga dapat
menyelesaikan tugas makalah ini dengan baik. Penulisan makalah perilaku konsumen
dengan materi tentang “information search & alternative evaluation and selection”
ditujukan untuk memenuhi tugas mata kuliah perilaku konsumen.
Penulis sadar bahwa makalah ini tidak akan terselesaikan dengan baik tanpa adanya
bantuan baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung dari berbagai pihak. Dalam
penyelesaian tugas makalah ini, penulis banyak mengalami kesulitan terutama disebabkan
akan kurangnya pengetahuan. Namun, berkat bimbingan dari berbagai pihak akhirnya
karya tulis ini dapat terselesaikan walaupun masih terdapat kekurangan didalamnya.
Karena itu, sepantasnya jika penulis mengucapkan terima kasih kepada Allah SWT yang
telah memberikan karunia-Nya untuk kelancaran tugas ini dan Ibu Risca Fitri Ayuni, SE.,
MBA., MM. selaku dosen mata kuliah Perilaku Konsumen yang telah banyak memberi
bimbingan dan masukan-masukan.
Penulis menyadari bahwa makalah ini masih banyak kekurangannya. Kritik dan saran
yang membangun penulis sangat di harapkan untuk memperbaiki makalah ini dan semoga
dapat memberikan manfaat bagi pembaca.
Malang, 18 September 2013
Penulis
CHAPTER 15
INFORMATION SEARCH
 Nature of Information Search
Consumers continue to identify problems and opportunities, so internal and external search
for information to solve this problem is a continuous process.
- Internal Search
Long-term memory search to determine if a satisfactory solution is known.
- External Searches
If resolution is not achieved through the internal search, then the search process is focused
on relevant external information.

Type of Information Sought
Decisions consumers need information about:
1. Appropriate evaluation criteria
2. The existence of various alternative
3. Performance of each alternative on each criterion evaluative
Evaluative criteria
One potential goal of both internal and external search is determining the appropriate
evaluation criteria. Government agencies and consumer organizations want consumers to
use voice evaluative criteria. Marketers want consumers to use the evaluation criteria in
accordance with the strength of their brands. Both marketers and government agencies
provide information designed to influence the evaluative criteria used.
Appropriate alternative
Awareness set consists of three subcategories quite important for marketers:
1. Which begs the consideration set or the set contains the brand or product to be
evaluated.
2. Incompetent set consists of brands found really worthy of further consideration.
3. Contains a lazy consumer brand aware but basically indifferent to.
Characteristics of alternative
1. To choose among brands in the evoked set, consumers compare them to the relevant
evaluative criteria.
2. This process requires the consumer to gather information about each brand in each of
the relevant evaluative criteria.
 Sources of Information
Five main sources of information available to consumers:
- Memory of the past searches, personal experiences, and low-involvement learning.
- Private sources, such as friends, family, and others.
- Independent sources, such as magazines, consumer groups, and government agencies.
- Marketing Resources, such as sales force, website, and advertising.
- Experiential sources, such as inspection or product trial
Finding Information on the Internet
- Internet affects searches.
- Gives increased speed and efficiency for a wide range of information.
- The search is more efficient and better decisions can produce.
- However, information overload can also occur.
• Number of External Information Search
Marketers are very interested in external search, because it gives them direct access
to consumers. Most of the purchases involve limited external search shortly before
buying. However, this does not mean bad judgment on the part of consumers
because they balance the costs and benefits of search.
Number of External Information Search
Measures are used:
- Number of stores visited
- The number of alternatives considered
- The number of private sources used
- Overall action or combination
Classification search
- Non-seekers
- Limited information seekers
- Extended information seekers
 Costs vs. benefits of external search
• Market characteristics
• Product Characteristics
• Characteristics of Consumers
• Characteristics Situation
 Market Characteristics
Market characteristics include the number of alternatives, price range, store
distribution, and information availability. Consumer perceptions of the market
characteristics, not the actual characteristics, influence shopping behavior. The
greater the number of alternatives available to resolve a problem, the more
external search there is likely to be.
Factors affecting external search
Influencing factor
Increasing
search to:
the
factor
causes
1. Market characteristics
a) No. of alternatives
Increase
b) Price range
Increase
c) Store distribution
Increase
d) Information availability
Increase
i) Advertising
ii) POP Displays
iii) Sales personnel
iv) Packaging
v) Experienced consumers
vi) Independent sources
 Product Characteristics
Product differentiation is associated with greater external search. And positive product
tend to engender search greater search than negative products.
Factors affecting external search (cont)
Influencing factor
Increasing the factor
causes search to:
2. Product characteristics
a) Price
Increase
b) Differentiation
Increase
c) Positive products
Increase
 Consumer Characteristics
A variety of consumer characteristics affect perceptions of search costs and
benefits. Confidence in one’s knowledge of existing solutions is an important
determinant. However, consumers often do not know what they think they
know! There are a variety of types of knowledge where a low level of
calibration frequently occurs to the detriment of consumers and firms, including
-
Memory of Facts
Memory of Events
Belief Polarization
Belief Validity
Personal Forecasts
 Consumer Perception of Risk
Associated with unsatisfactory product performance increases information
search. Perceived risk is high for products whose failure to perform as
expected would result in a high
•
•
•
•
•
Social cost
Financial cost
Time cost
Effort cost
Physical cost
Factors affecting external search (cont)
Influencing factor
Increasing the factor
causes search to:
3. Consumer characteristics
a) Learning and experience
Decrease
b) Shopping orientation
Mixed
c) Social status
Increase
d) Age, gender, household
Mixed
lifecycle
e) Product involvement
Mixed
f) Perceived risk
Increase
 Situation Characteristics
Situational variables can have a major impact on search behavior including the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Temporal perspective
Task definition
Antecedent state
Physical surroundings
Social surroundings
Factors affecting external search (cont)
Influencing factor
Increasing the factor
causes search to:
4. Situational characteristics
a) Time availability
Increase
b) Purchase for self
Decrease
c) Pleasant surroundings
Increase
d) Social surroundings
Mixed
e) Physical / mental energy
Decrease
 Marketing Strategies Base on Information Search Patterns
Sound marketing strategies take into account the nature of information search
prior to purchase.
Two dimensions of search are particularly appropriate:
1.
2.
The type of decision influences the level of search, and
The nature of the evoked set influences the direction of the search.
Strategies (in evoked set)
•
Maintenance strategy
o Defend against disruptive tactics
o Constant activity + interest
•
Capture strategy
o Constant supply + quality
o Continue limited search
•
Preference strategy
o Search locations must be anticipated, e.g. chemists
o POP + sales assistance
o Know where they search
 Maintenance Strategy
If the brand is purchased habitually by the target market, the marketer’s strategy
is to maintain that behavior This requires consistent attention to product quality,
distribution, and a reinforcement advertising strategy.
 Capture Strategy
Limited decision making generally involves a few brands evaluated on only a
few criteria.
 Brand is in evoked set.
 Search occurs mainly at the point-of-purchase or in readily available media.
 Objective is to capture as large a share as practical.
The marketer will want to supply information, often on price and availability, on
their website, in local media through cooperative advertising, and at the point-ofpurchase through displays and adequate shelf space.
 Preference Strategy
Extended decision making with the brand in the evoked set requires a preference
strategy. A simple capture strategy not likely adequate.Instead, marketer needs to
structure information so brand becomes preferred by target market.
Strategies (not in evoked set)
•
Disrupt strategy
o Attention-seeking ads
o Free samples or bonus encouraging trial
•
Intercept strategy
o Must attract attention
o POP display
o Product improvements, etc.
•
Acceptance strategy
o Advertise but don’t ‘sell’ the brand
o Encourage consumer to seek information
 Disrupt
If the brand is not part of the evoked set and the target market engages in nominal
decision making, the marketer’s first task is to disrupt the existing decision pattern.
Disrupt Strategy
-
Long-Run
Major brand improvement along with attention- attracting advertising could shift consumer
to more extensive decision making.
-
Short-Run
Attention-attracting advertising aimed specifically at breaking habitual decision making
can be successful.
Intercept Strategy
If limited decision making and brand is not part of evoked set, objective will be
to intercept the consumer during search. Emphasis will be on local media, pointof-purchase displays, shelf space, package design, etc. Coupons can also be
effective
Acceptance Strategy
Similar to preference strategy, but complicated by fact that target market is not
seeking information about the brand. Beyond preference strategy, marketer must
attract consumer attention or motivate brand learning. Incentives to try product,
long-term advertising to enhance low-involvement learning and use of the Internet
are useful for gaining acceptance.
CHAPTER 16
ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION AND SELECTION
 How Consumers Make Choices
In reality, all consumers have bounded rationality
A limited capacity for processing information.
Consumers also often have goals that are different from, or in addition to, selecting the
optimal alternative.
A metagoal refers to the general nature of the outcome being sought.
Three types of consumer choice processes:
1. Affective Choice
Affective choices tend to be more holistic. Brand not decomposed into distinct
components for separate evaluation.
Evaluations generally focus on how they will make the user feel as they are used.
2. Attitude-Based Choice
Requires the knowledge of specific attributes at the time the choice is made, and it
involves attribute-by-attribute comparisons across brands.
3. Attribute-Based Choice
Involves the use of general attitudes, summary impressions, intuitions, or heuristics;
no attribute-by-attribute comparisons are made at the time of choice.
 Evaluation Criteria
-
Nature of Evaluative Criteria
Evaluative criteria are typically product features or attributes associated with either
benefits desired by customers or the costs they must incur.
Evaluative criteria can differ in:
 Type
 Number
 Importance
-
Measurement of Evaluative Criteria
Before a marketing manager or a public policy decision maker can develop a
sound strategy to affect consumer decisions, he or she must determine:
 Which evaluative criteria are used by the consumer
 How the consumer perceives the various alternatives on each criterion
 The relative importance of each criterion
-
Determination of Which Evaluative Criteria Are Used
1. Direct methods include asking consumers what criteria they use in a particular
purchase.
2. Indirect techniques assume consumers will not or cannot state their evaluative
criteria.
•
Projective techniques - allow the respondent to indicate the criteria
someone else might use.
•
Perceptual mapping - researcher uses judgment to determine dimensions
underlying consumer evaluations of brand similarity.
-
Determination of Consumers’ Judgments of Brand Performance on Specific
Evaluative Criteria
Measuring consumer judgments of brand performance on specific attributes can
include:
 Rank ordering scales
 Semantic Differential Scales
 Likert Scales
-
Perceptual Mapping of Beer Brand Perception
-
Determination of Consumers’ Judgments of Brand Performance on Specific
Evaluative Criteria
Measuring consumer judgments of brand performance on specific attributes can
include:
 Rank ordering scales
 Semantic Differential Scales
 Likert Scales
-
Determination of the Relative Importance of Evaluative Criteria
The importance assigned to evaluative criteria can be measured either by direct or
by indirect methods.
 The constant sum scale is the most common direct method.
 Conjoint Analysis is the most common indirect method.
 Individual Judgment and Evaluative Criteria
-
Accuracy of Individual Judgments
The average consumer is not adequately trained to judge the performance of
competing brandson complex evaluative criteria, such as quality or durability. For
more straightforward criteria, however, most consumers can and do make such
judgments.
-
Use of Surrogate Indicators
Consumers frequently use an observable attribute of a product to indicate the
performance of the product on a less observable attribute. For example, most of us
use price as a guide to the quality of at least some products. An attribute use to stand
for or indicate another attribute is known as a surrogate indicator.
Costumers reliance on an attribute as a surrogate indicator of another attribute is
a function of its predictive value and confidence value. Predictive value refers to the
consumer’s perception that one attribute is an accurate predictor of the other.
Confidence value refers to the consumer’s ability to distinguish between brands on
the surrogate indicator.
-
Evaluative Criteria, Individual Judgments, and Marketing Strategy
Obviously, marketers must understand the evaluative criteria consumers use
relative to their products and develop products that excel on these features. All
aspects of the marketing communications mix must then communicate this
excellence. Marketers must also recognize and react to the ability of individuals to
judge evaluative criteria, as well as to their tendency to use surrogate indicators. For
example, most new consumer products are initially tested against competitors in
blind test. A blind test is one in which the consumer is not aware of the product’s
brand name. Such tests enable the marketer to evaluate the functional characteristics
of the product and to determine if a j.n.d over a particular competitor has been
obtained without the contaminating or “halo” effects of the brand name or the firm’s
reputation.
 Decision Rules for Attribute-Based Choices
-
Conjunctive Decision Rule
The conjunctive decision rule establishes minimum required performance
standards for each evaluative criterion and selects the first or all brands that surpass
these minimum standards. For example, assume that the following represent your
minimum standards for a notebook computer:
Price
3
Weight
4
Processor
3
Battery life
1
After-sale support
2
Display quality
3
Lenovo, Acer, Dell, and Toshiba are eliminated because they fail to meet all the
minimum standards.
-
Disjunctive Decision Rule
The disjunctive decision rule establishes a minimum level of performance for
each important attribute (often a fairly high level). All brands that surpass the
performance level for any key attribute are considered acceptable.
Price
5
Weight
5
Processor
Not critical
Battery life
Not critical
After-sale support
Not critical
Display quality
5
Acer, Compaq, and Dell meet minimum for at least one important criterion and
thus are acceptable.
-
Elimination-by-Aspects Rule
The elimination-by-aspects rule requires the consumer to rank the evaluative
criteria in terms of their importance and to establish a cutoff point for each criterion.
All brands are first considered on the most important criterion. Those that do not
surpass the cutoff point are dropped from consideration. If more than one brand
passes the cutoff point, the process is repeated on those brands for the second most
important criterion. This continues until only one brand remains.
Rank
Cutoff
Price
1
3
Weight
2
4
Display quality
3
4
Processor
4
3
After-sale support
5
3
Battery life
6
3
Step 1: Price eliminates Lenovo and Toshiba
Step 2: Weight eliminates Acer
Step 3: Of remaining brands (HP, Compaq, Dell), only Dell meets or exceeds
display quality minimum.
-
Lexicographic Decision Rule
The lexicographic decision rule requires the consumer to rank the criteria in
order of importance. The consumer selects the brand that performs best on the most
important attribute. If two or more brands tie, they are evaluated on the second most
important attribute.
This continues through the attributes until one brand
outperforms the others. The lexicographic decision rule is very similiar to the
elimination-by-aspects rule. The difference is that the lexicographic rule seeks
maximum performance at each stage while the elimination-by-aspects seeks
satisfactory performance at each stage. Example, Acer would be chosen because it
performs best on price, our consumer’s most important attribute.
-
Compensatory Decision Rule
The four previous are noncompensatory decision rules, since very good
performance on one evaluative criterion cannot compensate for poor performance
on another evaluative criterion. The compensatory decision rule states that the brand
that rates highest on the sum of the consumer’s judgments of the relevant evaluative
criteria will be chosen. This can be illustrated as: