Critical thinking
as an educational ideal
David Hitchcock
McMaster University
[email protected]
Outline
1. Development of the concept
2. Definition
3. An educational ideal
1. Development: John Dewey
(How We Think, 1910)
“active, persistent, and careful
consideration
of any belief or supposed form of
knowledge
in the light of the grounds that
support it,
and the further conclusions to
which it tends…
judgment suspended during
further inquiry”
1. Development: Edward Glaser
(An Experiment in the
Development of Critical Thinking,
1941)
“The ability to think critically …
involves three things:
( 1 ) an attitude of being disposed
to consider in a thoughtful way
the problems and subjects that
come within the range of one's
experiences,
(2) knowledge of the methods of
logical inquiry and reasoning, and
(3) some skill in applying those
methods.”
1. Development: Robert Ennis
“the correct assessing of
statements” (1962)
“reasonable reflective
thinking focused on
deciding what to believe
or do” (1985 on)
1. Development: Alec Fisher and
Michael Scriven
(Critical Thinking: Its Definition
and Assessment, 1997)
“skilled and active
interpretation and evaluation
of observations,
communications,
information and
argumentation”
2. Definition: commonalities
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•
•
•
a type of thinking
applies to all subject matters
involves looking back, suspending judgment
reasonable
involves careful consideration of evidence
oriented to making a definite judgment
ideal of a “critical thinker”
– someone who thinks critically whenever appropriate
– involves knowledge, skills, attitudes, dispositions
2. Definition: differences
• appraisal only or creative also?
• skills, attitudes or both?
• general or subject-specific?
2. Definition: component skills
•
•
•
•
•
clarify meaning
analyze arguments
evaluate evidence
judge whether a conclusion follows
draw warranted conclusions
2. Definition: component dispositions
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•
•
•
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•
•
open-minded
fair-minded
searching for evidence
trying to be well-informed
attentive to others’ views and their reasons
proportioning belief to the evidence
willing to consider alternatives and revise
beliefs
Definition: critical thinking process
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
identify and analyze problem
clarify meaning
gather evidence
assess evidence
infer conclusions
consider other relevant information
make overall judgment
Definition: relation to logical analysis
logical
critical
analysis of
thinking
arguments
Educational ideal: basic argument
In my view, C [it should be a goal of any system of education to teach the knowledge, develop the
skills, and foster the attitudes and dispositions of a “critical thinker”: someone who thinks critically
when it is appropriate to do so, and who does so well.] 1 [The ability to think critically, in the sense
just described, is an important life skill.] 1a [Everybody encounters from time to time perplexities
about what to believe or what to do, both in everyday life and in specialized occupations.] 1b
[Skillful critical thinking is by definition more likely to lead to a satisfactory resolution of such
perplexities than inadequate reflection or a knee-jerk reaction.] 1 [A disposition to respond to
perplexities with skillful critical thinking is thus helpful to anyone in managing their life.]
Furthermore, although most people develop some disposition to think critically and some skill at
doing so in the ordinary course of their maturation, especially in the context of schooling, 2
[focused attention on the knowledge, skills and attitudes of a critical thinker can improve them
noticeably.] For example, 2a [in a study of the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in
critical thinking (Hitchcock 2004), I found that, at the beginning of a critical thinking course, on a
standardized test of critical thinking skills the average score of several hundred undergraduates
who had already completed at least one year of university courses was 17 out of 34. At the end of
the course, the average score on this standardized test had risen to 19 out of 34, a gain of half a
standard deviation, enough to be noticeable, and far more than the expected gain of .05 of a
standard deviation (Pascarella & Teranzini 2005).] 2b [Other studies have found even greater
average gains from taking a course in critical thinking, ranging as high as 1.5 standard deviations.]
Such results point to just one respect in which explicit instruction in critical thinking can make it
better. 2c [More generally, a student can improve thinking of any sort in six different respects:
awareness, effort, attitude, organization, sub-skills and smoothness (Swartz & Perkins 1990, p. 24).]
For all the reasons just mentioned, C [it makes sense to make critical thinking an explicit goal of any
educational system, and especially of any system of post-secondary education.]
Educational ideal: basic argument
Any system of education should aim to teach the knowledge, develop
the skills, and foster the attitudes and dispositions of a “critical thinker”.
A disposition to respond to perplexities
with skillful critical thinking is helpful to
anyone in managing their life.
Everybody
encounters
perplexities
about what to
believe or
what to do.
Skillful critical
thinking is more
likely to lead to a
satisfactory
resolution of such
perplexities.
Attention to the knowledge, skills
and attitudes of a critical thinker can
improve them noticeably.
Noticeable
gain, more
than
expected.
(Hitchcock
2004)
Other
studies
found
greater
gains.
A student can
improve
thinking in six
different
respects.
(Swartz &
Perkins 1990)
Educational ideal: three caveats
• don’t just say it, do it
• ideal will be approached, not achieved
• domain knowledge is needed too
Educational ideal: three models
Model
Infusion (in
subject
courses)
Stand-alone
course
Advantage
Challenge
ready-made
transfer
domain knowledge
wide range of
subject-matters
domain knowledge
may be missing
Combination domain knowledge institutional
plus wide range of commitment
subject-matters
Educational ideal: design principles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Adapt to your situation.
Communicate goals clearly.
Motivate the students.
Use a framework.
Foster a critical spirit.
Prefer depth to breadth.
Use bridging.
Use salient current issues.
Educational ideal: design principles
9. Use real or realistic examples.
10.Pick your examples with care.
11.Provide guided practice with feedback.
12.Check for understanding.
13.Encourage meta-cognition.
14.Think about context.
15.Watch for empty use of technical terms.
16.Design multiple-choice items carefully.
Educational ideal: On the Web
• Robert Ennis: www.criticalthinking.net
• AILACT: http://ailact.mcmaster.ca/
• Tim van Gelder: http://austhink.com/critical/
Summary
1. Development: Dewey, Glaser, Ennis, Fisher
and Scriven
2. Definition: commonalities, differences, skills,
attitudes, process, relation to logical
appraisal
3. Educational ideal: basic argument, three
models, course design principles