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Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges
of a Changing Ocean
Committee on the Development of an Integrated Science Strategy for
Ocean Acidification Monitoring, Research, and Impacts Assessment;
National Research Council
ISBN
978-0-309-15359-1
175 pages
6x9
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Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
Summary
The ocean absorbs a significant portion of carbon dioxide (CO2) emis­
sions from human activities, equivalent to about one­third of the total
emissions for the past 200 years from fossil fuel combustion, cement pro­
duction and land­use change (Sabine et al., 2004). Uptake of CO2 by the
ocean benefits society by moderating the rate of climate change but also
causes unprecedented changes to ocean chemistry, decreasing the pH of
the water and leading to a suite of chemical changes collectively known as
ocean acidification. Like climate change, ocean acidification is a growing
global problem that will intensify with continued CO2 emissions and has
the potential to change marine ecosystems and affect benefits to society.
The average pH of ocean surface waters has decreased by about
0.1 unit—from about 8.2 to 8.1—since the beginning of the industrial revo­
lution, with model projections showing an additional 0.2­0.3 drop by the
end of the century, even under optimistic scenarios (Caldeira and Wickett,
2005).1 Perhaps more important is that the rate of this change exceeds any
known change in ocean chemistry for at least 800,000 years (Ridgewell and
Zeebe, 2005). The major changes in ocean chemistry caused by increasing
atmospheric CO2 are well understood and can be precisely calculated,
despite some uncertainty resulting from biological feedback processes.
However, the direct biological effects of ocean acidification are less certain
1
“Acidification” does not mean that the ocean has a pH below neutrality. The average pH
of the ocean is still basic (8.1), but because the pH is decreasing, it is described as undergo­
ing acidification.
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
OCEANACIDIFICATION
and will vary among organisms, with some coping well and others not
at all. The long­term consequences of ocean acidification for marine biota
are unknown, but changes in many ecosystems and the services they
provide to society appear likely based on current understanding (Raven
et al., 2005).
In response to these concerns, Congress requested that the National
Research Council conduct a study on ocean acidification in the Magnuson­
Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act of
2006. The CommitteeontheDeelopmentofanIntegratedScienceStrategyfor
OceanAcidificationMonitoring,Research,andImpactsAssessment is charged
with reviewing the current state of knowledge and identifying key gaps
in information to help federal agencies develop a program to improve
understanding and address the consequences of ocean acidification (see
Box S.1 for full statement of task). Shortly after the study was underway,
Congress passed another law—the Federal Ocean Acidification Research
and Monitoring (FOARAM) Act of 2009—which calls for, among other
things, the establishment of a federal ocean acidification program; this
report is directed to the ongoing strategic planning process for such a
program.
Although ocean acidification research is in its infancy, there is already
growing evidence of changes in ocean chemistry and ensuing biologi­
cal impacts. Time­series measurements and other field data have docu­
mented the decrease in ocean pH and other related changes in seawater
chemistry (Dore et al., 2009). The absorption of anthropogenic CO 2 by the
oceans increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in seawater (quanti­
BOX S.1
Statement of Task
Among the many potential direct and indirect impacts of greenhouse gas emissions (particularly CO2) and global warming, this study will examine the anticipated
consequences of ocean acidification due to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels on fisheries, protected species, coral reefs, and other natural resources in
the United States and internationally. The committee will recommend priorities for
a national research, monitoring, and assessment plan to advance understanding of
the biogeochemistry of carbon dioxide uptake in the ocean and the relationship to
atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide, and to reduce uncertainties in projections of
increasing ocean acidification and the potential effects on living marine resources
and ocean ecosystems. The committee’s report will:
continued
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
SUMMARY
BOX S.1 Continued
1. Review current knowledge of ocean acidification, covering past, present, and
anticipated future effects on ocean ecosystems.
A. To what degree is the present understanding sufficient to guide federal and
state agencies in evaluating potential impacts for environmental and living
resource management?
B. To what degree are federal agency programs and plans responsive
to the nation’s needs for ocean acidification research, monitoring and
assessments?
2. Identify critical uncertainties and key science questions regarding the progression
and impacts of ocean acidification and the new information needed to facilitate
research and decision making for potential mitigation and adaptation options.
A. What are the critical information requirements for impact assessments and
forecasts (e.g., biogeochemical processes regulating atmospheric CO 2
exchange, buffering, and acidification; effects of acidification on organisms
at various life stages and on biomineralization; and the effects of parallel
stressors)?
B. What should be the priorities for research and monitoring to provide the
necessary information for national and regional impact assessments for
living marine resources and ocean ecosystems over the next decade?
C. How should the adverse impacts of ocean acidification be measured and
valued?
D. How could additional research and modeling improve contingency planning
for adaptive management of acidification impacts on marine ecosystems
and resources?
3. Recommend a strategy of research, monitoring, and assessment for federal
agencies, the scientific community, and other partners, including a strategy for
developing a comprehensive, coordinated interagency program to address the
high priority information needs.
A. What linkages with states, non-governmental organizations, and the international science community are required?
B. What is the appropriate balance among (a) short and long term research
goals and (b) research, observations, modeling, and communication?
C. What opportunities are available to collaborate with international programs,
such as the Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research
(IMBER) and Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS) projects,
and non-U.S. programs, such as the European Project on Ocean Acidification (EPOCA)? What would be the value of coordinating U.S. efforts
through international scientific organizations such as the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC), the International Council for Science
Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR), the World Climate
Research Programme (WCRP), the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), and the North Pacific Marine Science Organization
(PICES)?
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
OCEANACIDIFICATION
fied as a decrease in pH), and also brings increases in CO2 and bicarbonate
ion concentrations and decreases the carbonate ion concentration. These
changes in the inorganic carbon and acid­base chemistry of seawater can
affect physiological processes in marine organisms such as carbon fixation
in photosynthesis, maintenance of physiological pH in internal fluids and
tissues, or precipitation of carbonate minerals. Some of the strongest evi­
dence of the potential impacts of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems
comes from experiments on calcifying organisms; acidifying seawater to
various extents has been shown to affect the formation and dissolution
of calcium carbonate shells and skeletons in a range of marine organisms
including reef­building corals, commercially important mollusks such as
oysters and mussels, and many phytoplankton and zooplankton species
that form the base of marine food webs.
It is important to note that the concentration of atmospheric CO2 is
rising too rapidly for natural, CaCO3­cycle (calcium carbonate) processes
to maintain the pH of the ocean. As a consequence, the average pH of the
ocean will continue to decrease as the surface ocean absorbs more atmo­
spheric CO2. In contrast, atmospheric CO2 increased over thousands of
years during the glacial/interglacial cycles of the past 800,000 years, slow
enough for the CaCO3 cycle to compensate and maintain near constant pH
(Hönisch et al., 2009). In the deeper geologic past—many millions of years
ago—atmospheric CO2 reached levels multiple times higher than present
conditions, resulting in a tropical climate up to the high latitudes. The simi­
larity of these deep past events to the current anthropogenic increase in
atmospheric CO2 is unclear because the time frames for CO2 release are not
well constrained. If CO2 levels increased over thousands of years during
these deep past events, the CaCO3 cycle would have stabilized the ocean
against changes in pH (Caldeira et al., 1999). Better reconstructions of the
time frame of those hot house/ice house CO2 perturbations and the envi­
ronmental conditions that ensued will be necessary to determine whether
the changes in marine ecosystems observed in the fossil record reflect an
increased acidification of the paleo­ocean during that time.
Experimental reduction of seawater pH with CO2 affects many bio­
logical processes, including calcification, photosynthesis, nutrient acqui­
sition, growth, reproduction, and survival, depending upon the amount
of acidification and the species tested (Orr et al., 2009). It is currently not
known if and how various marine organisms will ultimately acclimate
or adapt to the chemical changes resulting from acidification, but exist­
ing data suggest that there likely will be ecological winners and losers,
leading to shifts in the composition and functioning of many marine eco­
systems. It is also not known how these changes will interact with other
environmental stressors such as climate change, overfishing, and pollu­
tion. Most importantly, despite the potential for socioeconomic impacts
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
SUMMARY
to occur in coral reef systems, aquaculture, fisheries, and other sectors,
there is not currently enough information to assess these impacts, much
less develop plans to mitigate or adapt to them.
CONCLUSION: The chemistry of the ocean is changing at an unprecedented rate and magnitude due to anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions; the rate of change exceeds any known to have occurred for at least
the past hundreds of thousands of years.
Unless anthropogenic CO2 emissions are substantially curbed, or
atmospheric CO2 is controlled by some other means, the average pH of
the ocean will continue to fall. Ocean acidification has demonstrated
impacts on many marine organisms. While the ultimate consequences
are still unknown, there is a risk of ecosystem changes that threaten
coral reefs, fisheries, protected species, and other natural resources of
value to society.
CONCLUSION: given that ocean acidification is an emerging field of
research, the committee finds that the federal government has taken
initial steps to respond to the nation’s long-term needs and that the
national ocean acidification program currently in development is a positive move toward coordinating these efforts.
An ocean acidification program will require coordination at the inter­
national, national, regional, state, and local levels. Within the U.S. federal
government, it will involve many of the greater than 20 agencies that are
engaged in ocean science and resource management. To address the full
scope of potential impacts, strong interactions among scientists in mul­
tiple fields and from various organizations will be required and two­way
communication with stakeholders will be necessary. Ultimately, a suc­
cessful program will have an approach that integrates basic science with
decision support.
The growing concern over ocean acidification is demonstrated in
the several workshops that have been convened on the subject, as well
as scientific reviews and community statements (e.g., Raven et al., 2005;
Doney et al., 2009; Kleypas et al., 2006; Fabry et al., 2008a; Orr et al., 2009;
European Science Foundation, 2009). These reviews and reports present a
community­based statement on the science of ocean acidification as well
as steps needed to better understand and address it; they provide the
groundwork for the committee’s analysis.
CONCLUSION: The development of a National Ocean Acidification
Program will be a complex undertaking, but legislation has laid the
foundation, and a path forward has been articulated in numerous
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
OCEANACIDIFICATION
reports that provide a strong basis for identifying future needs and
priorities for understanding and responding to ocean acidification.
The committee’s recommendations, presented below, include six key
elements of a successful national ocean acidification program: (1) a robust
observing network, (2) research to fulfill critical information needs,
(3) assessments and support to provide relevant information to decision
makers, (4) data management, (5) facilities and training of ocean acidifica­
tion researchers, and (6) effective program planning and management.
OBSERvINg NETWORK
Many publications have noted the critical need for long­term moni­
toring of ocean and climate to document and quantify changes, including
ocean acidification, and that the current observation systems for monitor­
ing these changes are insufficient. A global network of robust and sus­
tained chemical and biological observations will be necessary to establish
a baseline and to detect and predict changes attributable to acidification.
The first step in developing the observing network will be iden­
tification of the appropriate chemical and biological parameters to be
measured by the network and ensuring data quality and consistency
across space and time. There is widespread agreement on the chemical
parameters (and methods and tools for measurement) for monitoring
ocean acidification. Unlike the chemical parameters, there are no agreed
upon metrics for biological variables. In part, this is because the field is
young and in part because the biological effects of ocean acidification,
from the cellular to the ecosystem level, are very complex. To account for
this complexity, the program will need to monitor parameters that cover
a range of organisms and ecosystems and support both laboratory­based
and field research. The development of new tools and techniques, includ­
ing novel autonomous sensors, would greatly improve the ability to make
relevant chemical and biological measurements over space and time and
will be necessary to identify and characterize essential biological indica­
tors concerning the ecosystem consequences of ocean acidification. As
critical biological indicators and metrics are identified, the Program will
need to incorporate those measurements into the research plan, and thus,
adaptability in response to developments in the field is a critical element
of the monitoring program.
The next step in developing the observing network will be consider­
ation of available resources. A number of existing sites and surveys could
serve as a backbone for an ocean acidification observational network,
but these existing sites were not designed to observe ocean acidification
and thus do not provide adequate coverage or measurements of key
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
SUMMARY
parameters. The current system of observations would be improved by
adding sites and measurements in ecosystems projected to be vulner­
able to ocean acidification (e.g., coral reefs and polar regions) and areas
of high variability (e.g., coastal regions). Two community­based reports
(Fabry et al., 2008a; Feely et al., 2010) identify vulnerable ecosystems,
measurement requirements, and other details for developing an ocean
acidification observational network. Another important consideration is
the sustainability of long­term observations, which remains a perpetual
challenge but is critical given the gradual, cumulative, and long­lasting
pressure of ocean acidification. Integrating the network of ocean acidifica­
tion observations with other ocean observing systems will help to ensure
sustainability of the acidification­specific observations.
CONCLUSION: The chemical parameters that should be measured as
part of an ocean acidification observational network and the methods
to make those measurements are well established.
RECOMMENDATION: The National Program should support a chemical monitoring program that includes measurements of temperature,
salinity, oxygen, nutrients critical to primary production, and at least
two of the following four carbon parameters: dissolved inorganic
carbon, pCO2, total alkalinity, and pH. To account for variability in
these values with depth, measurements should be made not just in the
surface layer, but with consideration for different depth zones of interest, such as the deep sea, the oxygen minimum zone, or in coastal areas
that experience periodic or seasonal hypoxia.
CONCLUSION: Standardized, appropriate parameters for monitoring
the biological effects of ocean acidification cannot be determined until
more is known concerning the physiological responses and population
consequences of ocean acidification across a wide range of taxa.
RECOMMENDATION: To incorporate findings from future research,
the National Program should support an adaptive monitoring program
to identify biological response variables specific to ocean acidification.
In the meantime, measurements of general indicators of ecosystem
change, such as primary productivity, should be supported as part of a
program for assessing the effects of acidification. These measurements
will also have value in assessing the effects of other long-term environmental stressors.
RECOMMENDATION: To ensure long-term continuity of data sets
across investigators, locations, and time, the National Ocean Acidifica-
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
OCEANACIDIFICATION
tion Program should support inter-calibration, standards development,
and efforts to make methods of acquiring chemical and biological
data clear and consistent. The Program should support the development of satellite, ship-based, and autonomous sensors, as well as other
methods and technologies, as part of a network for observing ocean
acidification and its impacts. As the field advances and a consensus
emerges, the Program should support the identification and standardization of biological parameters for monitoring ocean acidification and
its effects.
CONCLUSION: The existing observing networks are inadequate for
the task of monitoring ocean acidification and its effects. However,
these networks can be used as the backbone of a broader monitoring
network.
RECOMMENDATION: The National Ocean Acidification Program
should review existing and emergent observing networks to identify
existing measurements, chemical and biological, that could become
part of a comprehensive ocean acidification observing network and
to identify any critical spatial or temporal gaps in the current capacity
to monitor ocean acidification. The Program should work to fill these
gaps by:
• ensuring that existing coastal and oceanic carbon observing sites
adequately measure the seawater carbonate system and a range of biological parameters;
• identifying and leveraging other long-term ocean monitoring
programs by adding relevant chemical and biological measurements at
existing and new sites;
• adding additional time-series sites, repeat transects, and in situ
sensors in key areas that are currently undersampled. These should be
prioritized based on ecological and societal vulnerabilities;
• deploying and field testing new remote sensing and in situ technologies for observing ocean acidification and its impacts; and
• supporting the development and application of new data analysis and modeling techniques for integrating satellite, ship-based, and
in situ observations.
RECOMMENDATION: The National Ocean Acidification Program
should plan for the long-term sustainability of an integrated ocean
acidification observation network.
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
SUMMARY
RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Ocean acidification research is still in its infancy. A great deal of
research has been conducted and new information gathered in the past
several years, and it is clear from this research that ocean acidification
may threaten marine ecosystems and the services they provide. How­
ever, much more information is needed in order to fully understand and
address these changes. Most previous research on the biological effects of
ocean acidification has dealt with acute responses in a few species, and
very little is known about the impacts of acidification on many ecologi­
cally or economically important organisms, their populations, and com­
munities; the effects on a variety of physiological and biogeochemical
processes; and the capacity of organisms to adapt to projected changes in
ocean chemistry (Boyd et al., 2008). There is a need for research that pro­
vides a mechanistic understanding of physiological effects, elucidates the
acclimation and adaptation potential of organisms, and allows scaling up
to ecosystem effects, taking into account the role and response of humans
in those systems and how best to support decision making in affected sys­
tems. There is also a need to understand these effects in light of multiple
and potentially compounding environmental stressors, such as increasing
temperature, pollution, and overfishing. The committee identifies eight
broad research areas that address these critical information gaps; detailed
research recommendations on specific regions and topics are contained
in other community­based reports (i.e., Raven et al., 2005; Kleypas et al.,
2006; Fabry et al., 2008a; Orr et al., 2009; Joint et al., 2009).
CONCLUSION: Present knowledge is insufficient to guide federal
and state agencies in evaluating potential impacts for management
purposes.
RECOMMENDATION: Federal and federally funded research on ocean
acidification should focus on the following eight unranked priorities:
• understand processes affecting acidification in coastal waters;
• understand the physiological mechanisms of biological responses;
• assess the potential for acclimation and adaptation;
• investigate the response of individuals, populations, and
communities;
• understand ecosystem-level consequences;
• investigate the interactive effects of multiple stressors;
• understand the implications for biogeochemical cycles; and
• understand the socioeconomic impacts and inform decisions.
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
0
OCEANACIDIFICATION
ASSESSMENT AND DECISION SUPPORT
The FOARAM Act of 2009 charges an interagency working group with
overseeing the development of impacts assessments and adaptation and
mitigation strategies, and with facilitating communication and outreach
with stakeholders. Because ocean acidification is a relatively new concern
and research results are just emerging, it will be challenging to move from
science to decision support. Nonetheless, ocean acidification is occurring
now and will continue for some time. Resource managers will need infor­
mation in order to adapt to changes in ocean chemistry and biology. In
view of the limited current knowledge about the impacts of ocean acidi­
fication, the first step for the National Ocean Acidification Program will
be to clearly define the problem and the stakeholders (i.e., for whom is
this a problem and at what time scales), and build a process for decision
support. It must be noted that a one­time identification of stakeholders
and their concerns will not be adequate in the long term, and it should be
considered an iterative process. As research is performed and the effects
of ocean acidification are better defined, additional stakeholders may be
identified, and the results of the socioeconomic analysis may change.
For climate change decision support, there have been pilot programs
within some federal agencies and there is growing interest within the
federal government for developing a national climate service to further
develop climate­related decision support. Similarly, new approaches for
ecosystem­based management and marine spatial planning are also being
developed. The National Ocean Acidification Program could leverage the
expertise of these existing and future programs.
RECOMMENDATION: The National Ocean Acidification Program
should focus on identifying, engaging, and responding to stakeholders
in its assessment and decision support process and work with existing climate service and marine ecosystem management programs to
develop a broad strategy for decision support.
DATA MANAgEMENT
Data quality and access, as well as appropriate standards for data
reporting and archiving, will be integral components of a successful pro­
gram to enhance the value of data collected and ensure they are accessible
(with appropriate metadata) to researchers now and in the future. Other
large­scale research programs have developed data policies that address
data quality, access, and archiving to enhance the value of data collected
within these programs, and the research community has developed The
Guide to Best Practices in Ocean Acidification Research and Data Reporting
to provide guidance on data reporting and usage (Riebesell et al., 2010).
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
SUMMARY
A successful program will require a management office with sufficient
resources to guide data management and synthesis, development of poli­
cies, and communication with principal investigators. There are many
existing data management offices and databases that could support ocean
acidification observational and research data.
The FOARAM Act also calls for an “Ocean Acidification Information
Exchange” that would go beyond chemical and biological measurements
alone, to produce syntheses and assessments that would be accessible to
and understandable by managers, policy makers, and the general public.
This is an important priority for decision support, but it would require
specific resources and expertise, particularly in science communication,
to operate effectively.
RECOMMENDATION: The National Ocean Acidification Program
should create a data management office and provide it with adequate
resources. guided by experiences from previous and current largescale research programs and the research community, the office should
develop policies to ensure data and metadata quality, access, and
archiving. The Program should identify appropriate data center(s) for
archiving of ocean acidification data or, if existing data centers are inadequate, the Program should create its own.
RECOMMENDATION: In addition to management of research and
observational data, the National Ocean Acidification Program, in establishing an Ocean Acidification Information Exchange, should provide
timely research results, syntheses, and assessments that are of value to
managers, policy makers, and the general public. The Program should
develop a strategy and provide adequate resources for communication
efforts.
FACILITIES AND HUMAN RESOURCES
Facilities and trained researchers will be needed to achieve the research
priorities and observations described in this document. This may include
large community resources and facilities including, for example, central
facilities for high­quality carbonate chemistry measurements or techni­
cally complex experimental systems (e.g., free­ocean CO2 experiment
(FOCE)­type sites, mesocosms), facilities located at sites with natural pH
gradients and variability, or intercomparison studies to enable integration
of data from different investigators. There are some community facilities
of this scale, but they are currently quite limited. Large facilities may be
required to scale up to ecosystem­level experiments, although there are
scientific and economic trade­offs among the various types of facilities.
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
OCEANACIDIFICATION
Similarly, ocean acidification is a highly interdisciplinary and grow­
ing field that is attracting new graduate students, postdoctoral investiga­
tors, and principal investigators. Training opportunities to help scientists
make the transition to this new field, and to engage researchers in fields
related to management and decision support, will accelerate the progress
in ocean acidification research.
RECOMMENDATION: As the National Ocean Acidification Program
develops a research plan, the facilities and human resource needs should
also be assessed. Existing community facilities available to support
high-quality field- and laboratory-based carbonate chemistry measurements, well-controlled carbonate chemistry manipulations, and largescale ecosystem manipulations and comparisons should be inventoried
and gaps assessed based on research needs. An assessment should also
be made of community data resources such as genome sequences for
organisms vulnerable to ocean acidification. Where facilities or data
resources are lacking, the Program should support their development,
which in some cases also may require additional investments in technology development. The Program should also support the development of human resources through workshops, short-courses, or other
training opportunities.
PROgRAM PLANNINg, STRUCTURE, AND MANAgEMENT
The committee delineates ambitious priorities and goals for the
National Ocean Acidification Program. The FOARAM Act calls for
the development of a detailed, 10­year strategic plan for the National
Ocean Acidification Program; while the ultimate details of such a plan
are outside the scope of this report, the Program will need to lay out
a clear strategic plan to identify key goals and set priorities, as well as a
detailed implementation plan. Community input into plan development
will promote transparency and community acceptance of the plans and
Program. A 10­year plan allows for planned evaluations: in addition to a
final 10­year assessment of the program, a mid­term review after 5 years
would be useful in evaluating the progress toward the goals and mak­
ing appropriate corrections. While the 10­year period outlined in the
FOARAM Act may be adequate to achieve some goals, it is likely that
the Program in its entirety will extend beyond this initial time frame and
some operational elements may continue indefinitely. During the initial
10­year period, a legacy program for extended time series measurements,
research, and management will need to be developed. The committee
identifies eight key elements that will need to be included in the strategic
plan (see below).
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
SUMMARY
If fully executed, the elements outlined in the FOARAM Act and
recommended in this report would create a large and complex program
that will require sufficient support. These program goals are certainly on
the order of, if not more ambitious than, previous major oceanographic
programs and will require a high level of coordination that warrants
a program office to coordinate the activities of the program and serve
as a central point for communicating and collaborating with outside
groups such as Congress and international ocean acidification programs.
International collaboration is critical to the success of the Program;
ocean acidification is a global problem which requires a multinational
research approach. Such collaboration also affords opportunities to share
resources (including expensive large­scale facilities for ecosystem­level
manipulation) and expertise that may be beyond the capacity of one
single nation.
RECOMMENDATION: The National Ocean Acidification Program
should create a detailed implementation plan with community input.
The plan should address (1) goals and objectives; (2) metrics for evaluation; (3) mechanisms for coordination, integration, and evaluation;
(4) means to transition research and observational elements to operational status; (5) agency roles and responsibilities; (6) coordination
with existing and developing national and international programs;
(7) resource requirements; and (8) community input and external
review.
RECOMMENDATION: The National Ocean Acidification Program
should create a program office with the resources to ensure successful coordination and integration of all of the elements outlined in the
FOARAM Act and this report.
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Ocean Acidification: A National Strategy to Meet the Challenges of a Changing Ocean
Copyright © National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.