Int . J. of Human Resource Management 13 :5 August 2002 761-772
Routledge
R
Taylor & Francis Group
A model for the influence of social
interaction and social support on female
expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment
Paula Caligiuri and Mila Lazarova
Abstract This paper offers a model to describe the way in which female expatriates
develop relationships and utilize those relationships to become cross-culturally adjusted .
This model includes three predictive components affecting cross-cultural adjustment . The
first includes the factors affecting whether a woman is able to form relationships on the
expatriate assignment . These antecedents can include the female expatriate's personality,
the cultural norms towards women, her language skills and the availability of possible
opportunities for interaction . The second component includes the various sources of
social interaction and social support (e .g . family members, and host national colleagues) .
The third component describes the nature of a female expatriate's social interaction and
social support (e .g . emotional, informational and instrumental) . Practical considerations
for multinational organizations sending female expatriates are offered .
Keywords Female expatriates ;
adjustment.
social
support;
social
interaction ; cross-cultural
From the recent increase in research on female expatriates, it is clear that this is an
important and timely topic for investigation (e .g . Adler, 1986, 1994a, 1994b, 1997 ;
Caligiuri and Tung, 1999 ; Napier and Taylor, 1995 ; Punnett et al ., 1992 ; Taylor and
Napier, 1996 ; Westwood and Leung, 1994) . Despite the attention in the research
literature, there is a concern that the number of female global assignees is
proportionally low in relation to the overall size of the qualified female labour pool .
Research from Australia, Canada and United States reports that the number of female
expatriates will range between 7 and 14 per cent, compared to the 25 to 45 per cent of
women in management (Hede and O'Brien, 1996 ; Florkowski and Fogel, 1999 ; Tung,
1998) .
The low number of women on global assignments is disconcerting given that the
research suggests that female expatriates are quite successful (Adler, 1984b, 1986,
1994 ; Caligiuri and Tung, 1999 ; Napier and Taylor, 1995 ; Taylor and Napier, 1996) .
Caligiuri and Tung (1999) compared male and female expatriates on three criteria of
success (retention, adjustment and supervisor-rated performance) . Their results suggest
that men and women do not differ on their desire to terminate their global assignments
- nor do they differ on supervisor-rated performance . The study did find, however, that
women were less cross-culturally adjusted than men in countries with low female
workforce participation and a lower percentage of women managers (Caligiuri and
Tung, 1999) . Given this gender difference, they recommended future research on the
Paula Caligiuri and Mila Lazarova, School of Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers
University, 94 Rockefeller Road, 200b Levin Building, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854,
USA .
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online © 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
h ttp ://www .tandf.co.uk/journal s
DOI : 10.1080/09585190210125903
762
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
factors influencing the cross-cultural adjustment of women on global assignments .
Thus, this paper focuses on social interaction and social support specifically as it relates
to cross-cultural adjustment of female expatriates .
While many of the predictors of male and female expatriates' cross-cultural
adjustment are similar, the context of the global assignments is different for women
(Adler, 1984a, 1984b, 1984c ; Caligiuri and Cascio, 1998 ; Napier and Taylor, 1995 ;
Taylor and Napier, 1996 ; Punnett et al ., 1992) . Compared to men, women are exposed
to additional work and non-work challenges on expatriate assignments . The primary
work challenge is the host nationals' cultural norms towards working with women .
Non-work challenges include family issues, such as child care and dual-career conflicts .
These additional work and non-work challenges on the global assignment may make the
cross-cultural adjustment of women more difficult than that of men (Adler, 1984a ;
Caligiuri and Tung, 1999 ; Elron and Kark, 2000 ; Harris, 1993a, 1993b ; Napier and
Taylor, 1995 ; Taylor and Napier, 1996 ; Westwood and Leung, 1994) .
Regardless of gender, there has been wide agreement that social interaction and
social support during the global assignment is one of the most critical determinants of
cross-cultural adjustment (Adelman, 1988 ; Aycan, 1997a, 1997b ; Black, 1990 ; Black et
al ., 1991 ; Briody and Chrisman, 1991 ; Church, 1982 ; Feldman and Bolino, 1999 ;
Fontaine, 1986 ; Furnham and Bochner, 1986 ; Rogers and Ward, 1993 ; Searle and
Ward, 1993 ; Ward and Chang, 1997 ; Ward and Kennedy, 1992, 1994 ; Weissman and
Furnham, 1987) . While social interaction and social support are important for both male
and female expatriates, recent research has found that the influence of social
interactions and social support may be especially critical for the adjustment of female
expatriates . For example, a study of expatriate women in Japan found that expatriates
who perceived positive attitudes and support on behalf of their Japanese bosses,
colleagues, subordinates and clients were significantly better adjusted to the host
country (Napier and Taylor, 1995 ; Taylor and Napier, 1996) . From a non-work
perspective, there is evidence that single women, who lack a supportive family unit
(Caligiuri et al., 1999) and who have difficulty making friends on global assignments
(Westwood and Leung, 1994) report lower cross-cultural adjustment . Thus, it is
apparent that social interaction and social support are important for female expatriates
in both work and non-work contexts . This paper examines the unique influence of social
interaction and social support on female expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment . The
focus of this paper is on traditional female expatriates (i .e . those who have been sent by
their home organization) . However, as Taylor and Napier (1996) suggest, many of the
issues relevant for traditional expatriates are also relevant for independents (i .e . those
women who have moved to another country on their own) and for spouses of
expatriates (i .e . those who relocate with their husbands) . Thus, many aspects of our
model should apply broadly to all women living outside their own countries .
Social interaction and social support for female expatriates
Social interaction with host, home and third-country nationals is an invaluable source of
information about culturally acceptable norms and behaviours and reduces uncertainties
associated with work and non-work situations (Aycan, 1997a, 1997b ; Black, 1990 ;
Briody and Chrisman, 1991 ; Feldman and Bolino, 1999) . Social support (e .g . from
family, host national colleagues, compatriots, expatriates from other countries) helps in
mobilizing psychological resources and serves to provide feelings of reinforcement,
recognition and affirmation (Fontaine, 1986 ; Rook, 1984) that can greatly enhance
female expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment . Social support can also buffer against
Caligiuri and Lazarova : Social interaction and social support
Source of
interactions
Type of
interactions
Family
Colleagues
Host nationals
Mentors
Other expatriates
Functionaries
Instrumental
Emotional
763
Cross-cultural
adjustment
Informational
Moderating variables : relationship-formation
antecedents
Affiliating personality characteristics
Cultural constraints, e .g . host-national cultural
norms towards developing relationships with
women
Situational constraints, e .g . language skills, job
constraints
Figure 1 Social interaction and social support as antecedents to female expatriates' crosscultural adjustment
stress that may result while expatriates are adjusting to the new environment and reestablishing their lives throughout the assignment (Aycan, 1997a, 1997b ; Black,
1990).
This paper offers a model to describe the way in which female expatriates develop
relationships and utilize those relationships to become cross-culturally adjusted . This
model includes three predictive components affecting cross-cultural adjustment . The
first includes the factors affecting whether a woman is able to form relationships on the
expatriate assignment . These relationship-formation antecedents acting as moderating
variables include the female expatriate's personality, the host nationals' cultural norms
towards women, her language skills and the availability of possible opportunities for
interaction . The second component includes the various sources of social interaction
and social support (e .g . family members and host-national colleagues) . The third
component describes the type of a female expatriate's social interaction and social
support (e .g . emotional, informational and instrumental) . In the context of female global
assignments, each of these three components will be addressed in the following
sections . Figure 1 presents the entire model .
Relationship-formation antecedents
This model proposes three possible antecedents affecting the formation of a female
expatriate's relationships during global assignments . These antecedents will affect
764
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
whether relationships develop, how strong the emotional ties will be and how influential
they will be in affecting adjustment . These antecedents include : (1) the female
expatriate's affiliating personality characteristics, (2) cultural constraints towards
developing relationships with women and (3) situational constraints affecting relationship building (namely language skills and location) .
Affiliating personality characteristics and relationship building
Affiliating personality characteristics relevant to social interactions are very important
since they affect the quantity and quality of expatriate interaction and, in turn, influence
cross-cultural adjustment (Caligiuri, 2000a, 2000b ; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985) .
These affiliating characteristics are openness, or one's willingness to communicate, and
sociability or extroversion, or one's ability to establish interpersonal relationships,
(Caligiuri, 2000a ; Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985 ; McEvoy and Parker, 1995 ; Parker and
McEvoy, 1993) . It is important to note that expatriates will vary on these affiliating
personality characteristics necessary for relating to others (Caligiuri, 2000b) . Thus, a
female expatriate who has access to daily interactions with other expatriates or host
nationals, yet is not open to the interactions, will have lower cross-cultural adjustment,
compared to a person with greater openness .
It is interesting to note that, in the case of affiliating personality characteristics,
women may have a slight advantage over men . Women tend to be more relationshipcentred and the affiliating personality characteristics tend to be somewhat higher in
women than in men (Parker and McEvoy, 1993 ; Westwood and Leung, 1994) .
Similarly, Jelinek and Adler (1988) noted that women tend to have good interpersonal
skills and an ability to discuss a large range of topics with business partners, enhancing
professional conversation . That is, many women put people at ease socially which, in
turn, can help in developing relationships in certain cultures .
Cultural constraints on relationship building
As an antecedent to relationship formation, it is important to recognize that cultures
differ on the extent to which men and women can readily form social relationships .
Cultural norms may prevent host nationals from freely interacting with women, which
would inevitably limit women's `access' to social interaction and social support . The
fewer interactions women have, the fewer opportunities they have to learn more about
the culture and the social norms of the host country and, in turn, the more difficult their
cross-cultural adjustment would be .
There is a variety of societal norms, perceptions and gender-role expectations that
may limit female expatriates' opportunities for interaction, compared to their male
counterparts (Westwood and Leung, 1994) . The clearest example is with single
expatriate women . These women may feel isolated from social situations that revolve
around the family - or in countries where being a single woman (of a certain age)
carries a negative connotation (Westwood and Leung, 1994 ; Caligiuri et al., 1999) . This
negative perception of being a `single female' may be true for male as well as female
host nationals . The result of this social isolation is that many single women report that
they are lonely . In a romantic context, for example, single female expatriates in Japan
report having very limited dating opportunities - a source of great frustration that had
a negative impact on adjustment (Napier and Taylor, 1995 ; Taylor and Napier, 1996) .
It was interesting to note that some single female expatriates even bought dogs for
companionship (Caligiuri et al ., 1999) .
Caligiuri and Lazarova : Social interaction and social support
765
These cultural challenges are not limited to just single women . Whether single or
married, women may find meaningful social relationships with male host nationals
especially challenging, due to the social stigma of a cross-gender friendships . Social
relationships with host national females may also be thwarted, if the female expatriates
have a high-status position with the organization . Thus, in cultures that are more
hierarchical, it is inappropriate to befriend a senior manager, regardless of gender . In
addition, if there is a prevalent 'anti-foreigner' attitude among host nationals, social
interactions might be extremely difficult . This bias, of course, would apply to both male
and female expatriates .
In a more indirect manner, the subtle biases against female professionals in certain
cultures may inhibit female expatriates' possible interactions (Caligiuri and Cascio,
1998 ; Elron and Kark, 2000; Harris, 1993a, 1993b ; Izraeli et al., 1980 ; Jelinek and
Adler, 1988) . In certain cultures, women may be afforded lower social status .
Therefore, a generalization to female expatriates would negatively influence the host
nationals' perceptions and attitudes - thus undermining female expatriates' authority
with people inside and outside the organization (Napier and Taylor, 1995 ; Taylor and
Napier, 1996) . Given that gender stereotyping is still prevalent in some countries, it is
important to recognize that it may have a limiting effect on female expatriates'
interactions, both inside and outside the workplace .
While stereotyping is relevant, it is important to note that Western female expatriates
may be viewed as professionals (and foreigners) first, and then as women (Adler,
1984a, 1984b, 1984c, 1994a, 1994b) . Being a woman may even work to the female
expatriates' advantage because of their enhanced visibility and perceptions of
competence (i .e . if corporate has chosen to send a woman, she must be extremely
competent: Adler, 1984a, 1984b, 1984c, 1994a, 1994b) . Even in this best case situation,
when a female expatriate is viewed by host-national men as a respected and competent
professional, the host-national men may still be unwilling to engage in any significant
social interactions, due to their cultural norms . This is consistent with the finding that
female expatriates can perform as well as male expatriates, but not be as crossculturally adjusted, in countries with fewer women in the workforce (Caligiuri and
Tung, 1999) .
Situational constraints on relationship building
While having the right affiliating personality characteristics and being accepted by host
nationals are important in the process of developing relationships, these are not enough
to influence social interactions - especially if female expatriates have only very limited
opportunities for interaction . Two additional limiting factors include language ability
and the job situation . For example, knowledge of the host-national language increases
the opportunities for daily interactions with host nationals . These interactions may
include more in-depth conversations with colleagues and subordinates at work and more
frequent conversations with neighbours, shopkeepers and the like.
In addition to language, other contextual factors may affect a female expatriate's
ability to have social interactions . For example, having extended (an 80-hour working
week) or unusual hours of work (an evening schedule) would limit opportunities for
social interaction . The location of the office (e.g . a busy city versus a remote rural
location) and the location of the residence (a networked expatriate community versus an
isolated local community) can each affect opportunities for social interaction . Each of
these factors can enhance (or limit) possible social interactions and social support and,
in turn, affect the cross-cultural adjustment of female expatriates .
766
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Sources of social interaction and social support
Each of the previous antecedents can affect a female expatriate's range of possible
interactions with various people during her global assignment . There are multiple
sources (i .e . people) and types (i .e . content) of social interaction and social support
(Ganster et al ., 1986 ; Kaufmann and Beehr, 1986 ; Shinn et al ., 1984 ; Shumaker and
Brownwell, 1984) . This section discusses the sources of social interaction and social
support relevant to female expatriates . The following section addresses the various
types of social interaction and social support. In this section, the various categories (e .g .
host nationals, family) are not necessarily exclusive . For example, a person can be both
a work colleague and an expatriate who lives in the same community .
Family
Family support can help expatriates mobilize their psychological resources to deal with
emotional problems and raise their confidence that they can successfully manage the
cross-cultural transition (Adelman, 1988 ; Caligiuri et al ., 1998a, 1998b ; Harvey, 1985) .
In the case of female expatriates, an important aspect of spousal support is the
reaffirmation of the sense of professional self of the female expatriate after confrontations with gender stereotyping prevalent in the host country (Napier and Taylor,
1995 ; Taylor and Napier, 1996) . A recent study suggests that married female expatriates
found the social support provided by their husbands and children to be an important
positive influence on their cross-cultural adjustment (Caligiuri et al ., 1999) .
Colleagues
Socialization and interaction with colleagues is another important predictor of women's
cross-cultural adjustment (e .g . Aycan, 1997a, 1997b ; Feldman and Bolino, 1999 ;
McEvoy and Parker, 1995 ; Napier and Taylor, 1995 ; Taylor and Napier, 1996) . Social
interaction and social support from co-workers makes expatriates feel that their
presence is valued - resulting in a sense of acceptance, belonging and satisfaction
which act to facilitate cross-cultural adjustment (Aycan, 1997b) . Colleagues can also
socialize female expatriates - teaching them the appropriate behaviours to be successful
on the job . This socialization process will positively affect performance and will, in
turn, increase cross-cultural adjustment .
Host nationals
As in the previous section, the process of socialization will positively affect crosscultural adjustment. The more female expatriates interact with host nationals, the more
likely they will be to learn the culturally appropriate norms and behaviours (e .g . Black
et al ., 1991 ; Briody and Chrisman, 1991 ; Caligiuri, 2000a, 2000b ; McEvoy and Parker,
1995 ; Parker and McEvoy, 1993) . Interactions may also increase an expatriate's
psychological well-being given that the more interaction a person has with people from
a particular culture, the more positive his or her attitudes will be towards people from
that culture (Church, 1982) . For the same reason, interactions with host nationals may
improve the perceptions of host nationals towards female expatriates . In other words,
positive time spent with a given female expatriate may help override any general
prejudices and biases . In turn, more favourable attitudes of host nationals will translate
to more social support provided to female expatriates .
Caligiuri and Lazarova : Social interaction and social support
767
Mentors
Once women are in their host countries, their adjustment can be enhanced through
mentoring programmes . Mentors have been found to facilitate socialization on the job
and to improve greatly the likelihood of professional success (Allen et al ., 1999) .
Feldman and Bolino (1999) recently explored how different forms of mentoring (more
specifically, task assistance, career assistance, psycho-social support and role modelling) influence how quickly expatriates learn their new jobs and how quickly they adjust
to their new work groups . They suggested that mentoring helps expatriates turn from
outsiders to active members of the subsidiary . Mentoring can also help expatriates feel
more comfortable with their new work group, and can also reduce female expatriates'
uncertainty about the new environment and help them get more easily assimilated into
the host culture. Similarly, Harvey et al . (1999) proposed that a multi-stage global
mentoring programme could be instrumental in proving effective socialization of
expatriates and in enhancing their cross-cultural adjustment.
Other expatriates
Expatriates' social support and social interactions with other expatriates are important
for cross-cultural adjustment (Black and Gregersen, 1991 ; Briody and Chrisman, 1991) .
These interactions can not only provide a sense of affiliation and belonging but also
serve as a source of information about the host environment seen through the lens of the
perceptions of other expatriates, or the `comparable others' (Adelman, 1988) . Adelman
pointed out that comparable others are very important to enhancing expatriate
adjustment since they have undergone (or are currently undergoing) the same
adjustment experience . These social comparisons can affirm self-evaluations, provide
psychological comfort and produce self-enhancement . That is, these other expatriates
function as a loosely structured self-help group - where those with similar problems can
work together towards solving them .
Other expatriates can also provide useful information about the culture, norms and
behaviour of the host country . These expatriates are in a position to help the cultural
integration of newcomers, especially if they have already established relationships with
host nationals . They can also provide information about the local community regarding
schools, shopping, leisure activities, churches, expatriate clubs, etc ., thus reducing many
of the hassles associated with trying to re-establish one's network (Briody and
Chrisman, 1991) . It may be especially helpful for female expatriates to establish
relationships with other female expatriates who are able to provide unique support on
gender-related issues .
Host-national functionaries
Daily social interactions can address the immediate everyday needs of expatriates, such
as assisting in house repairs, or providing information about where the nearest gas
station is, or giving advice on choosing the freshest vegetables . These daily functional
interactions are secondary ties with people outside the expatriate's primary social circle,
who can nevertheless be helpful in the adjustment process (Adelman, 1988) . These
functional interactions can provide immediate environmental feedback to female
expatriates when they are in stressful or ambiguous situations (Shumaker and
Brownwell, 1984) . For example, a store clerk who goes out of his or her way to help
the female expatriate select an appropriate gift to bring to a host-national dinner party
has helped the female expatriate learn a cultural norm .
768
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Type of social interactions and social support
Different types of social support exist and emphasize different elements of an individual's overall support network . While different in purpose, they will all function to
contribute to the recipient's (in this case, the female expatriate's) psychological and
physical well-being (Allen et al ., 1999 ; Geller and Hobfoll, 1993 ; Shinn et al ., 1984 ;
Shumaker and Brownwell, 1984 ; Viswesvaran et al ., 1999). Three types of support are
discussed in the context of female expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment : emotional
support, informational support and instrumental support . In conjunction with the
previous section, any of the sources of social relationships (e .g . host nationals, family
members) can provide one or more type of social support .
Emotional support
The initial stages of most expatriate assignments are often associated with stress,
disorientation and loneliness . Social interactions from all sources can provide
expatriates with the emotional support that helps them overcome the negative feelings
and experiences that are a natural part of the cross-cultural transition . Social interaction
fulfils the basic human need to affiliate, including the need for contact, companionship
and friendship . In the early stages of global assignments, these human emotional
connections can mitigate the negative psychological effects of isolation and loneliness
to maintain and enhance self-identity and self-esteem (Shumaker and Brownwell, 1984 ;
Allen et al ., 1999 ; Geller and Hobfoll, 1993 ; Shinn et al ., 1984 ; Viswesvaran et al .,
1999) .
In the context of female expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment, social interactions and
social support networks provide feelings of affiliation, belonging, affirmation of selfworth and psychological security . These social interactions may reduce stress and
provide referent groups, through which the new environment can be interpreted . Thus,
these interactions can help female expatriates overcome feelings of anxiety and
powerlessness - easing feelings of being inadequate and out of place (Adelman, 1988 ;
Briody and Chrisman, 1991 ; Church, 1982 ; Fontaine, 1986) . One example of emotional
support is a sympathetic colleague who listens to a new female expatriate vent her
feelings, uncertainties and problems. This interaction would provide some psychological comfort and can also compel the female expatriate to articulate clearly her most
critical concerns - and, once such concerns are identified, she can begin developing
solutions (Adelman, 1988) .
Informational support
Cross-cultural adjustment places high demands for processing unfamiliar stimuli on
newcomers (Adelman, 1988) . The information shared can be as mundane as where to
shop, eat, see a movie - or as critical as how to interpret a host-national colleague's
behaviour . Informational support, therefore, is any information that reduces expatriates'
uncertainty and confusion . The initial stages of a global assignment are especially
challenging for a new expatriate to form correct attributions about their new culture
because they do not know the appropriate norms and behaviours . Informational support
helps clarify the situation and provides feedback regarding appropriate behaviours and,
in turn, helps the expatriates develop sensitivity towards the cultural norms by creating
an understanding and appreciation for the host culture (Adelman, 1988 ; Briody and
Chrisman, 1991 ; Fontaine, 1986) .
Caligiuri and Lazarova : Social interaction and social support
769
Instrumental support
While discussed most often in domestic research, instrumental social support also has
the potential to influence female expatriates' adjustment . In this context, instrumental
social support refers to the creation of a supportive environment by providing female
expatriates with necessary resources . These resources may include money, baby-sitting,
helping with yard work, lending books or giving free lessons in the host-country
language (Adelman, 1988 ; Fontaine, 1986) . This instrumental support will ease stressful
situations for female expatriates by filling specific needs . This support could be, at
times, provided directly by the organization in an effort to improve adjustment .
Regardless of the source of support, instrumental support may enable some higher
levels of support to develop .
While providing such assistance may serve a tangible function, its provision may
have influence extending beyond satisfying a specific need . It may, in fact, help the
female expatriate feel connected and accepted by the local community (Shumaker and
Brownwell, 1984) . For example, if a neighbourhood grocer agrees to deliver groceries
to a female expatriate's home because she cannot get to the store before it closes, then
the grocer is providing instrumental support (i .e . her need for groceries after the store
closes) . Emotionally, the fact that the grocer would be willing to do this for her makes
her feel more connected to the broader host-national community . In addition,
instrumental support may enable deeper forms of social support. For example, when a
female expatriate finds a trusted baby-sitter, then she is able to spend some time socially
with host-national colleagues (i .e . developing emotionally supportive friendships) .
Thus, for functional and emotional reasons, instrumental support serves an important
role in female expatriate cross-cultural adjustment .
Summary and practical considerations
Social support and social interaction can create a sense of belonging, enhance
psychological security and self-esteem and reduce anxiety for female expatriates . Given
the profound impact social networks can have on a female expatriate's success,
organizations should encourage opportunities to support such interactions . For example,
given the importance of the contact of expatriates with host-national colleagues,
organizations could provide training for the host-country nationals in an attempt to
influence their perceptions of the female expatriate positively . This cultural diversity
training may heighten the cultural awareness of host-country nationals and confront
their biases and stereotypes (Aycan, 1997a ; Florkowski and Fogel, 1999 ; Vance and
Paik, 1995) . Such training would facilitate the interaction between host nationals and
female expatriates and increase the likelihood of social support . It is particularly
relevant in cases where strong biases against women exist in the host-country workforce
(Aycan, 1997a, 1997b ; Caligiuri and Cascio, 1998) .
To encourage emotional social support, organizations can work with professional
relocation companies worldwide to ensure that the female expatriate's new residence
will facilitate the possibility for social interaction . Given that even the best location will
not guarantee social interaction, organizations can also select expatriates who possess
the much-needed affiliating personality characteristics and language skills . Once on an
assignment, an organization can assign mentors to their female expatriates (Adler,
1984b ; Feltes et al., 1993) to support them in their new roles (Caligiuri and Cascio,
1998) . To address a female expatriate's informational and instrumental support directly,
organizations can work with professional relocation companies specializing in destination services for the host-national community . Host-national relocation professionals
770 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
can provide the necessary services, resources and information for the female expatriate
to address any immediate needs .
In sum, the quantity and quality of social interactions female expatriates have with
host nationals, family members, mentors, colleagues and other expatriates will greatly
affect their cross-cultural adjustment . While human relationship building is a part of
normal daily interactions, there are things that companies can do to assist female
expatriates . While nothing is foolproof, the attention to social interaction is warranted .
Given the unique challenges placed on female expatriates, it is important to encourage
social support and social interaction to buffer against the psychological effects of stress
that would accompany maladjustment. Social support and social interaction are clear
ways to intervene to ensure that female expatriates are cross-culturally adjusted .
Attention to female expatriates' social networks will facilitate their emotional wellbeing and cross-cultural adjustment, and, in turn, their performance on the job .
References
Adelman, M . (1988) 'Cross-Cultural Adjustment : A Theoretical Perspective on Social Support',
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 12 : 183-204 .
Adler, N .J . (1984a) `Expecting International Success : Female Managers Overseas', Columbia
Journal of World Business, 19 : 79-85 .
Adler, N .J . (19846) `Women in International Management : Where Are They?', California
Management Review, 26 : 78-89 .
Adler, N .J . (1984c) `Women Do Not Want International Careers and Other Myths about Women
in International Management', Organizational Dynamics, 13 : 6-79 .
Adler, N .J . (1986) `Women in Management Worldwide', International Studies of Management
and Organization, 3-4 : 3-32 .
Adler, N .J . (1994a) `Competitive Frontiers : Women Managing across Borders', Journal of
Management Development, 13 : 24-41 .
Adler, N .J . (1994b) `Women Managers in a Global Economy', Training and Development, 48 :
30-6 .
Adler, N .J . (1997) `Global Leadership : Women Leaders', Management International Review, 37 :
171-96.
Allen, T., McManus, S . and Russell, J . (1999) `Newcomer Socialization and Stress : Formal Peer
Relationships as a Source of Support', Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54 : 453-70.
Aycan, Z. (1997a) `Expatriate Adjustment as a Multifaceted Phenomenon : Individual and
Organizational Level Predictors', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8 :
432-56 .
Aycan, Z . (1997b) `Acculturation of Expatriate Managers : A Process Model of Adjustment and
Performance' . In Aycan, Z. (ed.) New Approaches to Employee Management, Vol . 4, Expatriate
Management: Theory And Research . Greenwich, CT : JAI Press, pp . 1-40 .
Black, J .S . (1990) `Locus of Control, Social Support, Stress and Adjustment in Internationals
Transfers', Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 7 : 1-29 .
Black, J .S . and Gregersen, H .B . (1991) `Antecedents to Cross-Cultural Adjustment for Expatriates
in Pacific Rim Assignments', Human Relations, 44 : 497-515 .
Black, J .S ., Mendenhall, M . and Oddou, G . (1991) `Toward a Comprehensive Model of
International Adjustment : An Integration of Multiple Theoretical Perspectives', Academy of
Management Review, 16 : 291-317 .
Briody, E . and Chrisman, J .B . (1991) `Cultural Adaptation on the Overseas Assignment', Human
Organization, 50 : 264-82 .
Caligiuri, P .M . (2000a) `Selecting Expatriates for Personality Characteristics : A Moderating
Effect of Personality on the Relationship between Host National Contact and Cross-Cultural
Adjustment', Management International Review, 40 : 61-80 .
Caligiuri, P .M . (2000b) `The Big Five Personality Characteristics as Predictors of Expatriate
Success', Personnel Psychology, 53 : 67-88 .
Caligiuri and Lazarova : Social interaction and social support 771
t
Caligiuri, P .M . and Cascio, W . (1998) `Can We Send Her There? Maximizing the Success of
Western Women on Global Assignments', Journal of World Business, 33 : 394-416.
Caligiuri, P.M . and Tung, R .L . (1999) `Comparing the Success of Male and Female Expatriates
from a US-based Multinational Company', International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 10(5) : 763-82 .
Caligiuri, P .M ., Hyland, M ., Joshi, A . and Bross, A . (1998a) `A Theoretical Framework for
Examining the Relationship between Family Adjustment and Expatriate Adjustment to
Working in the Host Country', Journal of Applied Psychology, 83 : 598-614 .
Caligiuri, P .M ., Hyland, M . and Joshi, A . (1998b) `Families on Global Assignments : Applying
Work/Family Theories Abroad' . In Rahim, A . (ed.) Current Topics in Management, Vol . 3 .
Greenwich, CT : JAI Press, pp. 313-28 .
Caligiuri, P .M ., Joshi, A . and Lazarova, M . (1999) `Factors Influencing the Adjustment of Women
on Global Assignments', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10 :
163-79 .
Church, A. (1982) `Sojourner Adjustment', Psychological Bulletin, 91 : 540-72 .
Elron, E . and Kark, R . (2000) `Women Managers and International Assignments : Some
Recommendations for Bridging the Gap' . In Mendenhall, M . and Oddou, G. (eds) Reading
Cases in International Human Resource Management . Scarborough, Ontario : South-West
College Publishing, pp . 144-54 .
Feldman, D .C . and Bolino, M .C. (1999) `The Impact of On-Site Mentoring on Expatriate
Socialization : A Structural Equation Modeling Approach', International Journal Human
Resource Management, 10 : 54-71 .
Feltes, P., Robinson, R .K . and Fink, R .L . (1993) `American Female Expatriates and the Civil
Rights Act of 1991 : Balancing Legal and Business Interests', Business Horizons, 36 : 82-6 .
Florkowski, G .W . and Fogel, D .S . (1999) `Expatriate Adjustment and Commitment : The Role of
Host Unit Treatment', International Journal of Human Resource Management, 10 : 783-807 .
Fontaine, G . (1986) `Roles of Social Support in Overseas Relocation : Implications for
Intercultural Training', International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10 : 361-78 .
Furnham, A . and Bochner, S . (1986) Culture Shock : Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar
Environments . New York : Methuen .
Ganster, D .C ., Fusilier, M .R . and Mayes, B .T. (1986) `Role of Social Support in the Experience
of Stress at Work', Journal of Applied Psychology, 71 : 102-10 .
Geller, P .A . and Hobfoll, S .E . (1993) `Gender Differences in Preference to Offer Social Support
to Assertive Men and Women', Sex Roles, 28 : 419-32 .
Harris, H . (1993a) `Women in International Management', Women in Management Review, 8 :
9-14 .
Harris, H . (1993b) `Women in International Management : Opportunity or Threat?', Women in
Management Review, 8 : 9-14 .
Harvey, M .G . (1985) `The Expatriate Family : An Overlooked Variable in International
Assignments', Columbia Journal of World Business, 20 : 84-92 .
Harvey, M ., Buckley, M .R ., Novocevic, M .M . and Weise, D . (1999) 'Mentoring Dual-Career
Expatriates : Sense-Making and Sense-Giving Social Support Process', International Journal of
I
Human Resource Management, 10 : 808-28 .
Hede, A . and O'Brien, E . (1996) `Affirmative Action in the Australian Private Sector : A
Longitudinal Analysis', International Review of Women and Leadership, 2 : 15-29 .
Izraeli, D.N ., Banai, M . and Zeira, Y . (1980) `Women Executives in MNC Subsidiaries',
California Management Review, 23 : 53-63 .
Jelinek, M . and Adler, N .J . (1988) `Women : World Class Managers for Global Competition',
Academy of Management Executive, 2 : 11-19 .
Kaufmann, G.M . and Beehr, T .A . (1986) `Interactions between Job Stressors and Social Support:
Some Counterintuitive Results', Journal of Applied Psychology, 71 : 522-6 .
McEvoy, G . and Parker, B . (1995) `Expatriate Adjustment : Causes and Consequences' . In Selmer,
J . (ed .) Expatriate Management : New Ideas for International Business . Westport, CT : Quorum
Books, pp . 97-114 .
772
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Mendenhall, M . and Oddou, G . (1985) `The Dimensions of Expatriate Acculturation : A Review',
Academy of Management Review, 10 : 39-47 .
Napier, N .K. and Taylor, S . (1995) Western Women Working in Japan : Breaking Corporate
Barriers . Westport, CT: Quorum Books .
Parker, B . and McEvoy, G .M . (1993) `Initial Examination of a Model of Intercultural
Adjustment', International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 17 : 355-79 .
Punnett, B .J ., Crocker, O . and Stevens, M .A . (1992) `The Challenge for Women Expatriates and
Spouses: Some Empirical Evidence', International Journal of Human Resource Management,
3 : 585-92 .
Rogers, J . and Ward, C . (1993) 'Expectation-Experience Discrepancies and Psychological
Adjustment during Cross-Cultural Reentry', International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
17 : 185-96 .
Rook, K. (1984) `Research on Social Support, Loneliness and Social Isolation', Review of
Personality and Social Psychology, 5 : 234-64 .
Searle, W . and Ward, C . (1993) `The Prediction of Psychological and Sociological Adjustment
during Cross-Cultural Transitions', International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 14 :
449-64 .
Shinn, M ., Lehmann, S . and Wong, N .W . (1984) `Social Interaction and Social Support', Journal
of Social Issues, 40 : 55-76 .
Shumaker, S .A . and Brownwell, A . (1984) `Toward a Theory of Social Support', Journal of
Social Issues, 40 : 55-76 .
Taylor, S . and Napier, N . (1996) `Working in Japan : Lessons from Women Expatriates', Sloan
Management Review, 37 : 76-84 .
Tung, R . (1998) `American Expatriates Abroad : From Neophytes to Cosmopolitans', Journal of
World Business, 33 : 125-44 .
Vance, C .M. and Paik, Y . (1995) 'Host-Country Workforce Training in Support of Expatriate
Management Assignment' . In Selmer, J. (ed .) Expatriate Management: New Ideas for
International Business . Westport, CT : Quorum Books .
Viswesvaran, C ., Sanches, J .I . and Fisher, J . (1999) `The Role of Social Support in the Process of
Work Stress : A Meta-Analysis', Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54 : 314-34.
Ward, C . and Chang, W . (1997) "`Cultural Fit" : A New Perspective on Personality and Sojourner
Adjustment', International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21 : 525-33 .
Ward, C . and Kennedy, A . (1992) `Locus of Control, Mood Disturbances, and Social Difficulty
during Cross-Cultural Transitions', International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16 :
175-94 .
Ward, C . and Kennedy, A . (1994) `Acculturation Strategies, Psychological Adjustment, and
Sociocultural Competence during Cross-Cultural Transitions', International Journal of International Relations, 18 : 329-43 .
Weissman, D . and Furnham, A . (1987) `The Expectations and Experiences of a Sojourning
Temporary Resident Abroad : A Preliminary Study', Human Relations, 5 : 313-26.
Westwood, R .I . and Leung, S .M . (1994) `The Female Expatriate Manager Experience : Coping
with Gender and Culture', International Studies of Management and Organization, 24 :
64-85 .
a
i
4