PACKET #1: Math & Lab Skills
• Atlantic/Pacific Rule
• Density = Mass/Volume (Table S)
• % Error = M-A/A x100 (Numerator is absolute and
don’t forget Table S)
PACKET #2: Energy & Thermodynamics
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Solid (s) – Crystalline
Aqueous (aq) – Homogenous Mixture
S  L  G = Endothermic
G  L  S = Exothermic
Diatomic Molecules – MUST KNOW THEM!
Compound – can be broken down (chemically
combined/fixed)
• Element – can’t be broken down
• Mixture – Physically combined/varied
q=mC∆T
I
q=mHv
q=mHf
PACKET #3: Atomic Concepts
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Proton - +1, 1 amu, Nucleus (Atomic #)
Neutron – 0, 1 amu, Nucleus (At.#-Mass#)
Electron - -1, 0 amu, Orbital
Atomic # - Protons
Mass # - Proton + Neutron
Nuclear Charge - #Protons
Isotope – Same # protons, Different # neutrons
Atomic Mass – Average of all the natually occurring
isotopes.
• Ion – Charged Particles (+) lose, (-) gain. Why
solutions are good conductors of electricity.
• Rutherford’s Gold Foil – Atom mostly empty space and the
nucleus is (+) charged
• Bright Line Spectrum – when an electron goes from the
excited to the ground state it releases energy.
• Valence Electrons – outermost shell; the farther away from
the nucleus an electron is, the more energy it has. (Lewis
Dot).
PACKET #4: Periodic Table
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Arranged in increasing Atomic #.
Groups – vertical, same # valence electrons (more similar)
Periods – horizontal, same # PEL’s.
Metals – left of zig zag (metallic bonds, mobile electrons)
Non-metals – rights of zig zag
Metalloids – on zig zag
Noble Gases – Group 18 (stable valence shell)
Liquids – Hg & Br
Gases – Noble gases and H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2.
Allotropes – Oxygen (O2, O3) and Carbon (coal, diamond,
graphite). Same element with different structure and
different properties!!!
TABLE S: Please remember that you can always refer
to Table S to determine this!!
• Electronegativity – attraction for electrons (decreases
down a group, increases across a period)
• Ionization Energy – energy needed to lose electrons
(decreases down a groups, increases across a period)
• Atomic Radius – distance from nucleus to valence
shell (increases down a group, decreases across a
period)
• Gain Greater, Lose Less!!!
PACKET #5: Naming/Balancing/Reaction Types
• Ionic – Ions transfer electrons
– M-NM, M-PI, PI-NM, PI-PI (if there’s a PI then it’s
BOTH)
– Criss-Cross Method
– Roman Numerals for metals with multiple Ox.#. Roman
numerals indicate the Ox.#
• Covalent – NM’s electrons are transferred
• Chemical Reactions have conservation of Mass,
Charge, and Energy!!
• BARF
• Synthesis
• Decomposition
• Single Replacement (Table J)
• Double Replacement
• Combustion (Table I)
PACKET #6: Moles & Stiochiometry
GFM = 1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 molecules = 22.4 L
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Molecular Formula (Covalent) – Ex. C6H12O6
Empirical Formula – Ex. CH2O (simplified)
Mass MF/Mass EF
Moles = given mass/GFM
% composition = part/whole x 100
Hydrate
• % composition = hydrate-anhydrate/hydrate x 100
• Stoichiometry – remember that the coefficients are the # of
moles, and the ratio of the substances have to remain the
same.
PACKET #7: Chemical Bonding
• Ionic – EN difference greater than 1.7, transfer electrons;
ALWAYS POLAR (unequal electron distribution). Only good
conductors of electricity as a liquid (l) or aqueous (aq).
• Covalent – EN difference less than 1.7, sharing electrons; Polar
Bond (diff. EN); Non-Polar Bond (same EN – diatomic molecules)
• SNAP (symmetrical non-polar; asymmetrical polar)
– Polar (H2O, NH3, HCl) vs. Non-Polar Molecule (CH4, CO2, Diatomics)
• Partially + & - (Only in Asymmetrical Polar Molecules)
– (-) has the higher EN, (+) has the lower EN
• Network Solids – Diamond, SiC, SiO2.
• Metallic Bonds – Why metals are excellent conductors of electricity
in the SOLID phase. Mobile electrons!!!
The greater
the EN
difference
The more
Polar a
substance is
Higher the
MP/BP
Stronger
the IMF
• Intermolecular Forces (IMF) – Forces that hold one
molecule to an adjacent molecule. Allows for phase changes
to occur.
– Hydrogen Bond: Strongest IMF; affects polar molecules
(asymmetrical) with H-N, H-F, and H-O bonds. Ex: H2O, NH3,
and HF.
– Dipole Attraction: Also affects polar molecules (asymmetrical),
other than the ones described above. Ex: H2S, PCl3, HCl.
– Van der Waals Forces (London Dispersion Forces): Weakest, affects
non-polar molecules (symmetrical), no partially + or – ends).
• Molecule-Ions Attraction:
“Likes dissolve in likes”
H2O is POLAR
PACKET #8: Gases & Gas Laws
• Vapor Pressure – the pressure exerted by a gas.
• Combined Gas Law:
Boyles Law: At constant temperature, pressure and volume are
inversely related
Charles’s Law: At constant pressure, volume and temperature
are directly related.
The higher the BP,
the stronger the
IMF.
H & He are real gases that behave like ideal
IDEAL GAS THEORY:
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A gas is composed of particles that are in continuous random straight line motion.
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When gas molecules collide with each other or with the walls of the container, there
is a transfer of energy between colliding particles; the total energy remains constant.
3.
The volume of gas particles is negligible in comparison with the volume of space
they are in. There is a lot of space between the particles.
4.
Gas particles are considered as having no force of attraction for each other.
Ideal Gases: High Temperature/Low Pressure
Real Gases: Low Temperature/High Pressure
Packet #9: Solutions
• Solution – Homogenous mixtures; solute + solvent
• Solid Solutes – Direct relationship with temperature, no affect with
pressure
• Gas Solutes – Indirect relationship with temperature, direct relationship
with pressure
• When you add an ionic salt to a solvent it raises the BP/lowers the FP
(Hot gets hotter; Cold gets colder)
●Saturated – on the line (equilibrium)
●Unsaturated – Below the line
●Supersaturated – Above the line
Soluble
Insoluble
●Most soluble
●High conc. dissolved ions
●Electrolyte (Acid, Base, Salt)
●Least soluble
●Low conc.dissolved ions
●Poor Electrolyte
●PRECIPITATE
PACKET #10: Acids, Bases, & Salts
• Acids – Arrhenius acid has H+/H3O+ (Table K) an electrolyte,
litmus turns red, phenolphthalein colorless. pH less than 7.
Reacts with certain metals (Table J). Don’t forget –COOH.
• Bases – Arrhenius base has OH- (Table L) an electrolyte, litmus
turns blus, phenolphthalein pink. pH greater than 7. Don’t be
tricked, by an alcohol CH3OH.
• BAAD – bases accept/acids donate H+(also called protons)
• Neutralization Reactions:
• H+ concentration 1.0 x 10-3 pH is 3 (Acidic, high H3O+)
• H+ concentration 1.0 x 10-11 pH is 11 (Basic, low H3O+)
• Every step of the pH scale - 10x (2 - 100x, 3 - 1000x, etc …)
The first color correlates to the first
pH value and less; the second color
correlates to the second pH value
and higher. A color in between will
have a pH range in between.
Please DO NOT confuse this equation with
Molarity when they give you information about
both an acid and a base. May have to subtract
the final-initial volume first to get VA or VB.
Inverse relationship.
Packet #11: Kinetics & Equilibrium
• Collision Theory – In order for a chemical reaction to occur there has
to be effective collision (enough energy and proper orientation).
Directly affected by temperature, concentration, and surface area.
• Catalyst – speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation
energy of a reaction (different pathway).
∆H = PEp – PER
∆H (+) Endo
∆H (-) Exo
Equilibrium – the rate of the forward and the reverse reactions are
equal; the concentrations (amounts) remain constant (phase,
solution, chemical)
– Phase: any phase change
– Solution: saturated (dissolve = settle out)
– Chemical: Le Chatelier’s Principle – when a chemical reaction at
equilibrium is stressed (concentration, temperature, pressure) it shift
away from that side in order to alleviate the stress and return to
equilibrium. The side where more collisions occur is the side that’s
stressed.
– YOU MUST ALWAYS MENTION A SHIFT WHEN ASKED
“EXPLAIN IN TERMS OF LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE”!!!!!
Spontaneous Reaction (occurs in nature):
• Low Energy, High Entropy
PACKET #12: REDOX
• A reaction in which the oxidation numbers
change and the amount of electrons lost
(oxidation) is EQUAL to the amount of
electrons gained (reduction). “OIL RIG”
• YOU MUST BE ABLE TO ASSIGN
OXIDATION NUMBERS!
• When an electron is lost, the electron is on the
right side of the half reaction and the oxidation
# goes UP.
• When an electron is gained, the electron is on the
left side of the half reaction and the oxidation #
goes DOWN.
• Single Replacement Reactions are ALWAYS
REDOX. Double Replacement Reactions are
NEVER REDOX. Remember, the element by
itself has to be more reactive then the element its
replacing. The more reactive metal is always the
ANODE.
AN OX; RED CAT
VOLTAIC
ELECTROLYTIC
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• Non-spontaneous
• Electrical  Chemical
• Requires a battery as a source of
energy
• Anode – oxidation (+)
• Cathode – reduction (-)
• (+) charged ion moves toward the
cathode
• (-) charged ion moves toward the
anode
• Electroplating: the thing being
plated is the cathode.
Spontaneous
Chemical  Electrical Energy
Anode – oxidation (-)
Cathode – reduction (+)
Example: BATTERY
Electrons travel from anode to cathode
(wire)
• More reactive metal (Table J) ALWAYS
the site of oxidation
• Salt bridge is for the flow of ions from
one half-cell to another
PACKET #13: Organic Chemistry
• Must involve CARBON, can make chains, rings, and networks. Must
have 4 bonds around it.
• Hydrocarbons – Organic compound composed of only H & O
• Alkanes - Only single bonds; Saturated
• Alkenes – At least 1 double bond; Unsaturated
• Alkynes – At least 1 triple bond; Unsaturated
• Isomer – Same molecular formula different structural formula.
Organic Reactions
• Substitution (alkanes): 2  2
• Addition (alkenes/alkynes) 2  1
• Combustion – Table I
(carbon comp. + O2  H2O + CO2)
• Fermentation (produces ethanol)
• Esterfication (organic acid + alcohol)
• Saponification (SOAP)
• Polymerization (many small  1 big)
PACKET #14: Nuclear Chemistry
• Radioactive Isotope – The nucleus is unstable and breaks
down (decays) emitting rays/particles when the ratio of
protons to neutrons moves away from 1:1.
• Natural Transmutation (Table N) – Occurs in nature.
• Artificial Transmutation – not radioactive, use a ray/particle
and bombard to make the isotope radioactive.
Fusion (Unite):
Fission (Split):
Fraction Remaining: (1/2)#HL
1=½
2=¼
3 = 1/8
4 = 1/16
5 = 1/32
6 = 1/64
Some of the mass
is converted to
energy!!
Carbon-14: Dating living things
Uranium-238 & Lead-206: Geologic Dating
Technetium -99 : Used to pinpoint brain tumors!
Iodine -131: Used to diagnose and treat thyroid
disorders!
Radium & Cobalt-60: Used in cancer treatment!