Designing an instructional game: reflections on Quest for
Independence1
Clark N. Quinn
School of Computer Science and Engineering
The University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW 2052
AUSTRALIA
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Faced with the unusual instructional goal of training independent living skills, an unusual target population of low
literacy youth, and hardware limitations of lowest-common-denominator microcomputers, naturally, we developed a
computer game. Using a cognitive approach, we developed Quest for Independence, a computer-based simulation game
to develop independent living skills. We discuss approach, the resulting game, and current status.
INTRODUCTION
Certain design opportunities stretch the boundaries of established procedure. When members of the Working Party on AfterCare
came to us seeking a computer component for a multi-media package addressing the needs of youth leaving 'alternate Care'
situations (growing up in other than the normal family situation, such as orphanages, foster homes, etc.), we were confronted with
just such a challenge. In the course of this project we were faced with an unusual user population, an unusual task, and some
constraints on potential solutions. We will here describe the constraints on design, discuss a methodology, and describe our
approach. The end result, the game Quest for Independence, provides a motivating learning environment for independent living
skills.
YOUTH IN CARE
In Australia, the Association of Child Welfare Agencies (ACWA) oversees a variety of situations where children are raised by
other than their biological parents (in 'Care'). There are numerous reasons why these children are separated from their parents,
numerous ways in which these children receive Care, and numerous reasons why these children might feel a need to assert their
independence. A constant, however, is that they must assert their independence in that they are required to leave the Care centres
at an age of approximately eighteen.
A problem, however, exists in that these newly-independent youth have not had an opportunity to acquire the living skills that are
required for successful adaptation to life after 'Care'. They have often been accommodated in large residencies where the
economies of scale preclude opportunities to participate in such mundane yet fundamental activities as getting a job or visiting the
bank. Thus, there is a need for some way of providing information about the realities of existence after 'Care'. While it may be
anticipated that a variety of social intervention activities might be considered, the realities are that the responsible agencies are
reduced to seeking information aids that can be distributed to their constituent Care providers.
In this particular situation, the working party on AfterCare was interested in taking advantage of the observed motivating effects of
computer games. In the Care centers, small numbers of limited-capability PC's and Macintoshes are heavily used by the children
to play games. The initial view of the working party was that some sort of computer component for instruction could have a
beneficial effect. This package would be placed in the Care centers, both as an opportunity for the children to learn about the
issues, but also to serve as the focus for dialog between children and between the children and Care providers. We were informed,
however, that these youth had a number of particular constraints that would affect our design. First, as a consequence of their
often-nomadic existence and under-privileged upbringing, these users were likely to be low in literacy. Being experienced with
television and computer games, they were likely to have little tolerance for any material of a low entertainment potential. Further,
fiercely defensive about their independence, they were likely to be resistant to any perception of meddling on the part of a
computer program. Finally, they were not likely to be facile with a keyboard. Just in case these constraints were not enough, the
1Education
and Information Technologies, 1 (3-4), 251-269.
budget the group had to work with was already largely committed to print material development, and we were requested to make
do with no additional resources.
Thus, we were faced with developing an entertaining, subtly instructional, easy-to-use computer package, to run on lowestcommon-denominator hardware. For academic reasons, we were constrained to a little over half a year for development and
testing. And, as academics, there was no obvious funding upon which to resort.
A COGNITIVE ENGINEERING METHODOLOGY
Several things informed our approach to meet these constraints on design. Following our philosophical allegiance to "cognitive
engineering" (Norman, 1986), applying what is known about how people think to the design of “user-centered” systems (e.g.
Norman & Draper, 1986), and our position as researchers on computer applications to education, we were led to develop a
methodology that reflected current views on user-involvement. Cognitive engineering has typically been construed to refer to
applying knowledge about people accomplishing tasks, but there are no principled reasons why this approach cannot be expanded
to include applying knowledge of teaching and learning to the design of instructional systems (c.f. Soloway 19xx, “Learner
Centered Design”). Instructional systems pose a particular problem in that the task is not known, unlike most interface design
situations. Rather than being able to utilise the user's knowledge of the task they are accomplishing, the task is learning new
material. While there is some commonality in learning across tasks, and theoretically this may be exploited, the novelty of the
knowledge and skill to be acquired can be assumed to provide less knowledge with which to bridge the interface gap.
At a first cut, there are three sources for information for such an interdisciplinary endeavor: user-system interaction, computer
game development, and instructional design. Conceptually, the educational goal must come first. The learning task, then, is
constrained by the requirement for an entertainment orientation. The instructional game design will end up driving the interface
considerations. We must initially investigate two related issues, what the instructional component is, and how to make the
program interesting.
Cognitive Skill Learning
The first step is to determine the specific concepts and skills that are the instructional focus of the game. These goals are likely to
have an impact on the resulting game constraints. If the goals of the program have not been determined by an instructor with
particular goals, then the developers must interact with experts in the domain of interest (with instructional expertise as well) to
determine the pedagogical scope of the system.
In general terms, learning can be divided into activity that requires the application of conceptual knowledge, and reflection on that
application to refine the understanding. A useful framework for cognitive skill learning is Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins,
Brown, & Newman, 1989), where skills are practiced in situated contexts, with pedagogical scaffolding. Conceptually, the
instructional component needs to be in the form of a game with opportunities for skill application, presented in a contextually
relevant form but with simplifications to support the skill acquisition (Quinn, 1992). However, the essential components of fun
identified above will need to be added to the environment, independent of the components included for instructional purposes, to
assure entertainment value. Further, in a game format there is not a requirement for explicit discussion of the concepts, and the
system can require discovery learning (using as an assumption that the motivating components of the game will drive discovery of
necessary information to successful completion). Finally, pure discovery does not guarantee sufficient exploration, so guidance
needs to be provided (Shute & Bonar, 1986) to at least ensure sufficient search.
Games
The initial motivation for considering a computer component was the motivating effects of computer games (e.g. Greenfield, 1984
Lepper, 1985), so we were naturally led to consider such an environment. Computer games have been considered as models for
interface design (e.g. Carroll, 1982; Neal, 1990; Crawford, 1990), and the general suggestion is to create a tight coupling or
"linkage" (Laurel, 1991) between actions and consequences. Less has been said about specific approaches to making games,
although Quinn (1991) has discussed the importance of creating a thematically situated context, and many have suggested the use
of adventure game formats to focus on problem-solving skills (e.g. Sherwood, 1990).
Malone (1981), has identified three specific components that contribute to engagement in computer games: fantasy, curiousity, and
challenge. These elements provide the cognitive and affective interest which will support continued play. Fantasy is the setting
and story of the game, providing an overall theme in which the game activity has meaning. The element of curiousity keeps the
game from being predictable. The right level of challenge keeps one from being bored with simplicity and from being frustrated
from too difficult a task. To access the motivating aspects of games, a learning environment will need to address these issues.
Some additional constraints come about from the type of game chosen. Games can be classified as drill and practice or some form
of simulation, although the boundaries are not hard and fast. In each case, however specific constraints arise that must be dealt
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with. We are restricting ourselves here to games that have the potential for complex skill learning, an area we feel has
considerable potential for school settings (e.g. Quinn, Boesen, Kedzier, Kelmenson, & Moser, 1994). As Reiber (1992) has
pointed out, the boundaries between games, microworlds, and simulations are overlapping, and at the juncture there is considerable
potential for instructional benefit. Thus, we were considering an environment that used the simplified form of simulation known
as a microworld along with the motivating aspects of games.
Computer games have also been shown to be effective learning environments. Lepper and Cordova, in a series of experiments
(1992) has found support for the contention that games can lead to enhanced ability to apply knowledge. This supports more
theoretical suggestions (e.g. Sherwood, 1991). However, the “pedagogical framing” (Quinn, 1988) or reflection on the the activity
must be present to support any learning (Curtis, 1993).
User-system interaction
The user-centered system design framework we support also has some implications for the process we followed. Usability
guidelines suggest early and frequent involvement of the users (e.g. Allen, Ballman, Begg, Miller-Jacobs, Nielsen, & Spool, 1993)
and iterative design (e.g. Bailey, 1993). However, there is limited support on the particulars of instructional interfaces. For
example, the chapter on computer-based instruction in a popular and comprehensive guide to the field (Eberts & Brock, 1990) acts
more as a survey of the field and has little in the way of specifics for development, mainly reiterating the importance of appropriate
feedback and the potential for graphical support (they also note the potential of games). Self (1988) goes further and points out
that one way is to make the interface actions reflect the learning activities.
A useful synergy is created by the process suggestions for iterative design and the low level of resources available, leading us to an
“action research” methodology (Dick, Passfield, & Wildman, 1993), where the data collected is fed back into the process and no
controlled experiments are performed. Our goal as researchers is to have some concrete outcomes of our efforts, but there are a
variety of reasons why a formal summative evaluation was not possible. However, the requirements for formative evaluation,
while not quantitative nor documentable, did inform into the process and led to what, ultimately, we believe to be a successful
design.
THE DESIGN PROCESS
The framework sketched above implies several things about the process we needed to undertake. Some specifics of the situation
included that our development effort was to be conducted during a course of several months; that the development environment
was HyperCard on the Apple Macintosh; and that, due to the tentative nature of contact with our user population, we had limited
opportunities in which to test the game fully. Within those constraints, the process should have cycles of development and
informal evaluation. Prototypes need to be developed to generate discussion and feedback.
Our initial contact was with Care providers, the members of the working party on 'After Care'. After several meetings with them
and a perusal of papers specific to the issue of leaving Care, we were convinced we had an understanding of the important
pedagogical goals. However, we also wanted to talk to sample users before we committed to the design. A meeting was arranged
where we had a chance to talk to two Care leavers. In retrospect, we should not have been surprised to discover that while the
goals the Care providers were important, more immediate needs were perceived by these youth. Initially, the Care providers had
focussed on skills of budgeting, shopping, and cooking. Our conversations with two representative youth indicated that the issue
that they had found most difficult was the notion of 'chains' of actions. For example, to get the government-supplied support
available while performing a job search, you needed to have a bank account. However, to get a bank account, you need several
forms of identification. And so on. Thus, the pedagogical goals were identified as having the learners discover and exercise the
sequences of actions that allowed them to acquire residence and maintain an income that supported providing for food and health
Care.
We were not surprised to find that our iterations on the subsequent design were much more frequent than formal models of
development would suggest. There was a continual prototyping, informal testing, and feedback between the developers, as we
developed the game. This can be attributed, in part, to the dynamics of the HyperCard Environment. By the time of the first test
with several representative users, substantial revisions had been made and a fairly robust and coherent game had been developed.
Our focus was on supporting contextually appropriate goals in the most direct manner, removing requirements for keyboard use,
and limiting the reading requirements on the player.
THE CONCEPT
Having chosen to implement an computer game with adventure and simulation components, the practical work comes down to
specifying the overall interaction. Instructional interfaces are inherently more difficult than other computer interfaces, as not only
is the computer interface new, but the task is also not completely known (Nicol, 1990). We are also back to the consideration of
presenting information to a potentially illiterate user population. These obstacles enhance the importance of providing a usable
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interface. Laurel (1991) proposes "designing the action" as a way to focus on the user's perception of action at the interface. Our
approach reflected this attitude; we were concerned with the "play" of the game.
Pedagogy
As developed through the design process, the instructional goal was to provide a learning opportunity to discover the contingencies
that exist in the real world and experiment with strategies to survive. We needed to situate this activity in an engaging
environment, and provide guidance for the process (Laurillard, 199x). The learner should acquire skills of persistence, balancing
constraints, and specific knowledge about the mechanisms of support in the Australian milieu.
To scaffold the learning process, elements of a total simulation were removed and the play simplified to focus on the important
skills. As a consequence, a variety of real tasks were not supported in the game; the player did not need to show up to work
everyday, transportation was instantaneous, etc. These simplifications would need to be pointed to, in a non-intrusive way.
There also needed to be guidance for the player. This guidance could not be intrusive, but had to prevent players from making
severe mistakes, yet not stifle independent approaches. This had to be addressed, however, after the overall game was developed,
to fit within it.
Fun
The first issue to address is fantasy; the problem is to create an engaging scenario that is realistic enough to hope for reliable
transfer from the game to the real world but also simplified enough not to be tedious. Two aspects of this issue are providing an
appropriate representation of the game and providing simplifying assumptions.
A frame of reference is needed for the play of the game; the game cannot work if the player does not connect to the situation.
While the budget management skills could be practiced in a scenario removed from a realistic scenario, and the skill of discovering
contingencies likewise practiced, the actual content of the relationship between objects and obstacles is tied to the world. Thus, the
game must essentially be set in the same government locale as the AfterCare program that started the project. This also follows
research that learning is context-bound and skills should be acquired in the context in which they should be exhibited (Brown,
Collins, & Duguid, 1989). This does not mean that a specific location should be used, but rather a generic setting (allowing us to
streamline aspects of the game without violating expectations) should be created that contains the elements common to most
suburbs and localities.
Representing the situation to the player is a complex issue. Adventure games arose as a text-based environment and typically set
the stage with a prose introduction. Subsequent graphic versions still rely on such stage-setting actions. In addition, graphic
games usually present a single picture for a current location. Our constraints, however, precluded a textual introduction, so the
graphic representation had to convey a more global perspective. Also, some adventure games deliberately use locational
indecision as a device to add curiosity and challenge, but our goal was to minimize attention to details that could obscure the
instructional goal. Locational difficulties are a common interface problem that can interfere with a task, and we wanted our
challenge and curiosity to be task-related. This led to a graphic representation that showed one quarter of town at a time, allowing
local motion and still providing a global context (see Figure 1). To incorporate the real issue of transportation necessities, two
towns were included that were connected by a bus line.
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Figure 1. Representational Frame
The necessity of embedding the skills in a realistic scenario drove the rest of the scenario. Of the real actions a person had
available, we had to decide which to maintain and which were redundant. These decisions were made on the basis of whether a
component would contribute to either relevant knowledge acquisition or game play. For example, while the player needed to stop
into work to pick up a paycheck (once they had obtained a job), we decided that showing up to work daily was an action at too low
a level to make explicit. Similarly, while taking the bus was necessary to emphasize that not all requirements for life are easily or
locally obtainable, waiting for the bus was an unnecessary delay.
Curiosity was an easy component to introduce, as the discovery component in such games naturally presents an element of the
unknown. Players must discover the contingencies between actions that enable opportunities (see Figure 2). However, more
emphasis on curiosity has been provided. Random events happen in real life that can be positive or negative. Similarly, we
wanted to incorporate opportunities for specific lessons about contingencies, such as drug use and sex and the possibility of
disease. Also, some events can provide assistance in dire times, such as the an unexpected financial windfall, or remind one of the
value of protecting investments, such as being mugged. A variety of such events occur in the game (see Figure 3).
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Figure 2. Discovering contingencies.
Figure 3. Random events of curiosity.
The requirement of challenge would optimally involve intelligent adjustment of the scenario based upon player activity. Such a
model, however, would not be computational feasible both in terms of practical development, due to limitations on time and
money, nor for deployment, due to the limited capabilities of the hardware available for access to the potential user population. A
more simplistic model of two components was implemented. First, the user can choose one of three levels of play. Practically,
these levels alter the initial values of certain variables and the final levels required for successful completion. Second, the player
(or a supervisor) can customize the initial conditions of play. Each of these makes the game more challenging (see Figure 4).
Similarly, the random events that contribute to curiosity also can affect the difficulty of the game.
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Figure 4. Choices for Challenge.
THE INTERFACE
Once the type of play is specified, the control of the game must be placed in the hands of the user. The user must be able to
navigate through and interact with the environment, perceiving events and responding with decisions. Given our user population,
these actions must be as graphic and "direct" (Ziegler & Fähnrich, 1988) as possible. This required an emphasis on iconic
representation and non-text interaction. Particular effort was made to determine what coping skills the illiterate population used to
survive, as a means of providing support. One of two paths identified (Johnston, 1985) was based on substitute verbal interactions,
an option that is not currently supported. The other approach is to rely on non-print materials. We hypothesized that this support
exists in the world in forms such as the objects available in shops and in graphics associated with signs. We provide support in this
way as much as possible (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. Graphic Clues.
At times, text is unavoidable. As much as possible, however, we tried to use acronyms and general words that may have been
learned as icons rather than as words.
Several interface models are available for action, ranging from command languages dependent on recall to graphic interface
"widgets" (Chiu, 1991) that are available for direct execution. As the direct mode of clicking on interface objects is becoming
familiar from computer games and provide graphic and direct action, a 'point-and-click' interface was supported that incorporated
interface objects (buttons) that responded to interface events (see Figure 6).
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Figure 6. Action support.
One of the important issues in discovery is supporting exploration. In this case, the player needs to manipulate the character
through the town. A natural "mapping" (Norman, 1988) in a two-dimensional spatial representation is to use arrows in the
appropriate directions. Arrows indicate direction and having the available arrows map onto the directions provided direct control.
Besides providing navigation, certain other actions must be supported. To accumulate the objects that enable further actions, some
form of accumulation must be provided. Adventure game conventions support an inventory of objects, a requirement of this game.
A graphic representation of a bag afforded the notion of containment, supporting inferences of possession.
Other actions are specific to locations. Moving through the city only requires support for navigation and inventory checking.
Random actions (as discussed above) can happen, but are handled by special interaction windows (dialog boxes) that present
situations and require responses. Although graphic support is used as much as possible, text is unavoidable. Within particular
buildings of the overall environment (see Figure 5 above), particular actions are relevant. These are represented by graphic or
labeled buttons. Each press enacts either a static transaction or a dialog. Also supported is an exit from the building.
As a simulation game, the interface also needed to support a representation of the current state of affairs. Dialogs provide
chronologically important information (see Figure 7), while bargraph representations encode status variables (see Figure 8).
Figure 7. Timely messages.
Figure 8. Current Status.
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The resulting interface combined a situating view, status reports, and a navigation interface in a highly graphic way (see Figure 9).
What remained was to integrate a system of guidance into the game that would help maintain the player's self image and ensure the
maximal benefit was obtained from play.
Figure 9. The original Quest for Independence screen.
TRACTABLE COACHING
For Quest for Independence, while there would not be tutoring on the generalisable skills, there needed to be coaching about the
game-specific considerations that lead to success. As the target learners typically have a low self-image, the possibility of losing
the game should be minimised. As the game has considerable complexity, the coaching has to support learners in continuing
exploration without minimising the difficulty and learning potential. Also, different youth would have different ability in the
game. Thus, there needed to be widely-differing types of help to deal with the different types of problems that could be
encountered. Further, the help had to come when things were critical but not before. The game needed a way that different players
could obtain more help if they were not feeling confident while not intruding on those who did not need any support.
To address these issues, a variety of forms of game-relevant information needed to be provided, and with varying levels of
intrusiveness. Three different forms of information are available, divided according to the role played in supporting game action.
The first form of information is about the overall game goals and the meaning of the interface items, about how to play the game.
A second form of information explains the simplifications introduced in the game and how they are different than in real life.
Finally, information about the particular game in play needs to be provided. Each of these would ideally fit thematically in the
game.
The information about the game needs to be readily available and will be consistent through all playing. As it is external to the
theme of the game, this information does not need to be embedded in the play, but can exist separately. To this end, an interface
button was dedicated to providing game-relevant information. The Information button (using the standard international
information symbol of a lower-case letter 'i') provides the game relevant information.
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The second form of information is about how the game has been simplified from the real world. While this can be construed as
information external to the game, it can also be considered as the type of information you would receive from counsellors. With a
deliberate goal of making the role of the Care centre in the game encourage the use of the Care centre in real life, this information
was made available as an option in the game's Care centre. Figure 10 represents both the Care centre (with help being available
from the button with the question mark '?') and a standard building interior from the city, with available actions located on the left
of the picture.
Figure 10. The Care centre.
The final form of information was context-specific help, that can be requested by the player or will be made available if
circumstances become particularly dire. To monitor the context, a model of the student was necessary.
STUDENT MODELLING
Spada (1993) suggests that there are three categories of student model, an individual model adapted for the particular learner, a
categorical model that identifies the student as one of a certain set of possible types, and a standard model that is used to respond
the same to any student behaviours. All but the standard model are areas of research interest but are beyond the scope of the
resource constraints we were working under. In general, student modelling is a difficult problem; Self (1990) points out the
difficulties and suggests several ways around the problem. Most useful to our system, he suggests not diagnosing what you cannot
treat. In the case of Quest, we were looking at ways to identify specific problems and provide solutions before they were too
extreme, without attempting to address more general strategies which are, we feel, the role of the counsellor.
Shute and Bonar (1986) suggested that, in an exploratory environment, as long as learners continued to explore that they would
eventually discover the information represented in the world. In Quest, the obstacles to exploration include not moving to other
parts of the world and allowing the character's health to a level where play was no longer possible. This suggests that coaching on
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the sufficiency of exploration and on maintaining health would provide support for successful play. The general model was to
monitor the status of the character and determine what action should be taken. Some of the potential aspects were more serious
than others, for instance allowing health to fall to far would prevent further play, so this issue was considered more important than
advice about looking for a better job. The possible issues identified for action are ordered by severity in Table 1.
Condition
Consequence
Sick
Too ill to continue
Tired
Too exhausted to continue
Hungry
Too hungry to continue
Thirsty
Too thirsty to continue
Carrying too much money
Mugging
Lied on job application
Fired
Not enough identification
No bank account
Not enough identification
No bank account
No Bank Account
Can't deposit money
Haven't collected pay
Not enough money
Haven't tried to finish
Continue to play
Haven't gone to other city
Not explored all options
Haven't got job*
No regular income
Haven't got housing*
No regular shelter
* If have, but not optimal, then suggests improvement
Action
See doctor
Get rest
Get food
Get drink
Put money in bank
Not lie next time
Get Birth Certificate
Get Letter of Reference
Open bank account
Get pay
Go to end game
Take bus
Look for (better) job
Look for (better) housing
Table 1. Issues for Action.
These activities are triggered by conditions. As the player moves through the game, the underlying character model is updated to
reflect the passage of time and the outcome of events like buying things or receiving money. At these times, the conditions are
monitored for any that match undesirable situations. There are two levels of activity. If a condition is serious enough, the game
will intervene and ask the player if a hint is desired. At any time the player can ask for a hint. If none of the conditions have been
matched (and initially they are not), the player is encouraged to continue exploration. The underlying action is pegged to trigger
conditions depending on how many moves have elapsed, what levels certain key variable are at, whether particular events have
occurred, or combinations of these. For example, if no bank account is open, the player has not yet got a letter of reference, and a
minimum time has elapsed since help was last offered, the help to be offered will be to get a letter of reference. This is assuming,
of course, that no more important issue has arisen.
Figure 11. Contextual hints.
This model meets the learning theory criteria described above. The activity is situated, in that the activity the player engages in is
a reflection of the real problem. The help that is provided is also situated, as it is relevant to the existing context. The activity is
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scaffolded, in that aspects of the world have not been included in the game model, to focus on the important pedagogical aspects.
The activity is constructive, as the learner must discover the activities that will maintain the important goals at effective levels.
However, there is also scaffolding in the fact that disastrous levels are identified. This also helps protect the self-image of the
learner.
The initial model was not perfect. While the underlying design was correct, the rate at which the model was updated, and therefore
indicated needs for intervention, was not able to be determined a priori. An iterative approach, as indicated by 'user-centred'
philosophies, played an important role here. Continuous testing among the developers, and less frequently with the counsellors,
and eventually with the youth, helped hone the intervention parameters. Note that the youth were difficult to contact reliably, and
we were extremely grateful to the Care centres for arranging the contacts and to the youth who did make an effort to participate.
REFLECTIONS
After development of the model, a critical task is to evaluate the effectiveness. However, the pragmatic constraints under which
we were working did not provide the resources to conduct a proper empirical test. Instead, pragmatic evaluation data are the only
way we can address this problem. While there has not been the formal summative evaluation that would be desired, the action
research approach used and the events following the development provide some indication of the success of this project.
The initial testing of the game with subjects provided extremely useful feedback on revisions to improve the game, but the overall
sequence of play was also encouraging. We were provided with three youth who had actual experience ‘After Care’. Two had
been the informants for the earlier discussion, and this was viewed as a reward for them. Each of our three users played the game
at least once. The first player lost the game, but the second, benefiting from having observed the first, completed the game. The
third player similarly observed the previous player and used the knowledge to successfully complete the game. The first player
demanded an opportunity to play again, and proceeded to complete the game successfully. Of course, numerous inadequacies of
the game play were revealed, which led to further work.
After the second round of development, we presented the game to the Care coordinator who brought it to the attention of ACWA.
They were pleased enough that they sought and found additional funding to develop the game further. The particular focus was to
make the game fit on 9" monitors, but they have also found youth with artistic skills who could create the coherent visual style that
our meager skills would not support. The importance of aesthetics is highlighted by the changes in the game. While game play is
essentially the same, the visual style of the game has changed drastically (See Figures 12 & 13)2. It can be argued, as well, that the
“engagement” (Laurel, 1991) has also changed, for the better. The financial support is from a company that is willing to use it's
philanthropic support to continue development of this game. This includes porting the finished game to run on IBM PC and
compatibles.
The Association decided that the resulting game (with no changes to the underlying pedagogical model) was worth distributing.
Finally, the product has been enthusiastically taken up by the targeted centres providing Care for these youth. The following quote
from ACWA gives some idea of how Quest has been received:
I can give you loads of anecdotal evidence about how good The Quest has been as well as providing you
with a breakdown of the types of services that use the game. Overall, everyone who uses The Quest loves
it!
Note that this does not directly address the effectiveness of the intervention, but of the overall package. While not the thorough
evaluation that would be desirable, it is an encouraging result, not the least because of the conditions under which the game was
produced.
2These changes were not all for the better. Numerous bugs were introduced by the programmer responsible for the changes, that
were subsequently fixed by the author in a rush to meet the announced date for the launch. In addition, the option to select
different difficulty levels for the game disappeared, for reasons that are unknown.
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Figure 12. The current Quest for Independence screen.
13
Figure 13. The current Care Centre.
On the basis of the essentially positive feedback, work is continuing on the development of computer support for instruction. We
desire to use this experience as the basis for a systematic procedure for instructional game development (Quinn, 1995). In
addition, the above methodology has been used to develop a new project for ACWA.
Another issue we think is important is the gender-specific nature of the game, or rather the lack of it. Computer games have been
roundly (and rightly) criticised for appealing largely to males. The initial testers of the game were female, and the again anecdotal
evidence is that females certainly enjoy the game as well as males. We believe that games can be made that appeal to youth in
general, and attribute the existing appeal of most computer games to males as a condemnation of the imagination of the game
companies rather than an inherent feature of the context.
A final project is evaluating the benefits of direct-manipulation in game environments. We believe that games are a potent
instructional tool, and that the proposed methodology is a starting point in such development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people have contributed to this work. I first need to acknowledge the substantial contribution of Dana Kedzier, whose
honours project this was, and who contributed in major ways to the overall design. I also need to acknowledge the contributions of
Roberta Freedman, who acted as our Care contact and informant during this project, as well as chief motivator. I would also like
to thank the rest of the AfterCare working party, and particularly those Care leavers who volunteered to help us develop this
material. Mention also need go to the team working to polish the game, headed by Susan Basser. Thanks also go to Andrew
O’Brien who provided the update on Quest’s status and is currently in charge of distribution. Thanks also go to the HyperCard
development team for providing an environment within which we could develop this work. Would that Apple supported
HyperCard as it deserves. Finally, I need to acknowledge the valuable comments received from Rob Moser and Andrew White on
an earlier draft of this paper.
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