Ecosystems:
Questions,Concepts, Theories
and Indicators
Ecology Centre, University of Kiel
Outline
• Questions referring to the ecosystem approach
– Operational guidance
– Malawi principles
• Concepts to link theory and practice
– Orientor theory
– Ecosystem indicators
– Ecosystems as parts of human-environmental
systems
 Applications will be shown by W. Windhorst
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Structure of the paper
Operational guidance 1-5
• Focus on relationships and processes within
ecosystems, e.g. stores and flows of energy, water,
nurients)
How to quantify?
How to treat irreversible processes?
– Ecosystem resilience
– Causes of biodiversity loss
– Determinants for management decisions
• Enhance benefit-sharing
How to conceive? How to apply?
– Environmental security How to quantify?
How to link to ecosystem processes?
– Sustainability
– Valuation of ecosystem goods and services
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Guidelines and questions
Operational guidance 1-5
How to realize these
important demands
in a conservative
„management
environment“?
• Use adaptive management practices
– Managing uncertainties
– Management as a learning process
How to receive an
– Flexible ecosystem management
appropriate support
– Long-term orientation
for LTER activities?
• Select the appropriate scale and improve
decentralization
How to find the
appropriate scale?
• Ensure intersectoral cooperation
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Guidelines and questions
The objectives of management of land, water and
living resources are a matter of societal choice
• How to investigate the relevant societal preferences?
• How to realize participative approaches?
• How to translate scientific concepts into every-dayslanguage and how to educate stakeholders?
 Many questions for social scientists and
environmental planners
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 1
Management should be decentralized to the lowest
appropriate level
• How to reduce the influence of centralized and
hierarchical institutional settings?
• How is this assumption correlated with the scale
approach in other principles?
• How will high-level constraints be implemented?
 Apply hierarchy theory in environmental mangement
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 2
Ecosystem managers should consider the effects
(actual or potential) of their activities on adjacent
and other ecosystems
• How to implement risk analysis concepts which indeed
take into account indirect and de-localized effects?
• How to couple ecosystem processes with landscape
dynamics?
• How to convince managers to use systems analysis
approaches?
 Link ecosystem science with landscape ecology
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 3
Ecosystem managers should consider the effects
(actual or potential) of their activities on adjacent
and other ecosystems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 3
Recognizing potential gains from management, there
is usually a need to understand and manage the
ecosystem in an economic context
• How to quantify (existing and potential) ecosystem
goods and services?
• How to compare environmental values with economic
values?
 Investigate the structures and functions in humanenvironmental systems
 Look for innovative ecosystem based evaluation
systems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 4
Recognizing potential gains from management, there
is usually a need to understand and manage the
ecosystem in an economic context
Contextual
constraints
Response
__________
social change
political change
technological change
cultural change
Drivers
Drivers
__________
socioeconomic
sociopolitical
demographic
technological
cultural/religious
Human
well-being
Impact
__________
formation of opinions
governance
participation
Land use
__________
spatial (structural)
intensity (functional)
Pressure
__________
basic supply
health
social security
education
Decision
process
...
Ecosystem
services
sup
port
ing
__________
structural
functional
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 4
State
__________
Provisioning 
Regulating 
Cultural 
Landscape
state / integrity
Contextual
constraints
__________
external
environmental
changes
Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning,
in order to maintain ecosystem services, should be a
priority target of the ecosystem approach.
• How to measure ecosystem functioning?
• How are structures and functions interrelated?
• How to evaluate ecosystem organizations of future
states?
• How to indicate ecosystem services?
 Do research on linkages between structures and
functions (ecosystem organization, ecosystem theory)
 Derive ecosystem indicators
 Investigate ecosystem services
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 5
Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning,
in order to maintain ecosystem services, should be a
priority target of the ecosystem approach.
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 5
Ecosystems must be managed within the limits of
their functioning.
• Which functions have to be taken into account?
• How to quantify those limits?
• How to cope with adaptation and constraints‘
dynamics?
 Search good ecosystem indicators
 Apply those indicators and link them with functioning
ecosystem models
 Use and develop scenario techniques
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 6
Ecosystems must be managed within the limits of
their functioning.
2
Precipitation
Global
radiation
Interception
Measured
variables
Modelled
variables
Stand and
atmosphere
Infiltration (h)
Humic soil layer
Infiltration (m)
Mineral soil layers
11
Water balance
5
Aquatic system
water
R
Biologically
dominated
energy flows;
foodwebs
Y
Evapotranspiration
Respiration Harvest
9
Prim. Production
P
C
Litter fall
Faeces
S
D
Soil
temperature
R
Consumption
Respiration
Assimilation
5
H
6
Influent
A
Y
Meat
Humic
Substances
Meteorologically
dominated
energy flows
Aquifer
Groundwater
P
E
G
Elimination
Growth
Sec. Production
F
Reproduction
energy
ecosystem organization
Fog
Deposition
Dry
Deposition
Atmosphere
Stand
Application
Substances / Elements of Interest
Interception
Throughfall
Assimilation
Leaching
Stemflow
Metabolism
Plants
Plants
Metabolism
Animals
Animals
Mobility
Detritus
Lateral
Transport
Precipitation
Assimilation
Animals
Microbial
Decomposit.
Assimilation
Plants
Vertical
Transport
Groundwater
Discharge
Assimilation
Animals
Hydrochem.
Dynamics
Microbial
Decomposit.
Detritus
Aquifer
Percolation
Groundwater
Dynamics
Basin
Flow
TK
Suspended
Load
Interflow
Soil
- leicht zersetzbar
Transport
Assimilation
Plants
Detritus
Detritus/
Speicher
Inflow
Gas
exchange
Runoff
Frequenz
Aquatic ecosystem
Litter
Litter
Adsorption
Calcium, Sodium,
Potassium, Magnesium
Oxigen, Nitrogen,
Phosphorous, Sulfur
Chloride,
Hydrocarbons
Heavy Metals, Pesticides, other Pollutants
Reichweite
Emergie
Kontrollfunktion
- schwer zersetzbar
Sediment
Dynamics
Sediment
Aktives
Nahrungsnetz
SK
PK
P
SK
PK/SP
Min
Aktivität & Frequenz
Emission - Immission
Rainfall
Deposition
nutrients
Discharge
10
PAR
Soil
heat flux
Unsaturated zone
Long wave
radiation
7
4
12
4
4
1
2
Vertical
temperature
gradients
3
Seepage
8
Absorption
Throughfall
Stemflow
3
Refelexion
2
Precipitation
1
Respiration
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 6
community
The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the
appropriate spatial and temporal scales.
• How do different scales interact?
• How to find the appropriate scales?
• How to correlate spatial and temporal features?
 Intensify research on hierarchies and scale
interactions
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 7
The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the
appropriate spatial and temporal scales.
Holon Level (+1)
Spatial Extent: High
Frequencies: Low
Minor Interactions
Multiple Interactions
Holon Level (0)
Filter
Constraints
Holon
Level
(-1)
Spatial Extent: Small
Frequencies: High
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 7
Focal level
Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects
..of.. ecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem
management should be set for the long term.
• How to foresee the outcome of long-term processes?
 Intensify long-term ecological research
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 8
Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects
..of.. ecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem
management should be set for the long term.
http://www.lter-d.ufz.de/
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 8
Management must recognize that change is
inevitable.
• How to convince managers that stability is not the
primary target any more?
• Where do we want ecosystem to develop towards?
 Find quantitaive examples for Holling‘s adaptive cycle
 Improve models to cope with structural changes
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 9
Management must recognize that change is
inevitable.
conservation
Exergy
stored
reorganization
Resiliance Alliance
release
exploitation
Connectedness
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 9
The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate
balance between, and integration of, conservation
and use of biodiversity.
• How to derive and compare ecosystem services?
• How to integrate conservation and land use (outside
of preserved areas)?
 Intensify research on ecosystem services
 Investigate human-environmental systems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 10
The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate
balance between, and integration of, conservation
and use of biodiversity.
land use
integrity
economy
social
welfare
Reindeer herding:
Recommendations
for sustainable
land use
RENMAN
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 10
The ecosystem approach should consider all forms of
relevant information, including scientific, indegeneous
and local knowledge, innovations and practices.
• How to make all these forms of knowledge available?
 Build up comprehensive information systems
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 11
The ecosystem approach should involve all releant
sectors of society and scientific disciplines.
• How to realize this demand, e.g. in national
administration?
• How to organize such a complex attempt?
 Strengthen interdisciplinary cooperation
 Build up interdisciplinary structures in environmental
administration
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Principle 12
• Items to be observed:
Ecosystem structures – functions – organizations
Demands
• Spatial levels to be integrated:
Ecosystems – ecotones – landscapes – watersheds
• Hierarchies to be involved:
Scale interactions (short-long, small-large)
• Destruction and decay to be included:
Management of change – ecosystem dynamics
• Humans to be integrated:
Conservation – land use – services
• Conventions to be realized:
Sustainability – risk – health - integrity - security
• Strategies to be followed:
Interdiciplinary cooperation and participation
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Interim balance
What is ecosystem integrity?
Applying ecosystem concepts –
a (first) case study
What is ecosystem integrity?
Political
Target:
Sustainable
Development
An alternative formulation
for the ecological component
of sustainable development:
Political
Target:
Sustainable
Development
...“Meet the needs
of future generations“....
=
Keep available
the functions of nature
(ecosystem services)
intergenerational
(long-term)
intragenerational
(global)
Production
Functions
Carrier
Functions
Pro
ce
Pro ssual
of vision
Ser
vic
es
Regulation
Functions
Information
Functions
Production
Functions
-
Protection
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
cosmic influences
energy balance
chemistry atmosphere
chemistry ocean
climate
runoff & flood prevention
groundater recharge
waterbalance catchments
erosion and sedimentation
soil fertility
biomass production
organic matter
nutrient budgets
waste storage
biological control
habitat maintenance
diversity maintenance
Carrier
Functions
Pro
ce
Pro ssual
of vision
Ser
vic
es
Regulation
Functions
Information
Functions
Production
Functions
-
Protection
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation
cosmic influences
energy balance
chemistry atmosphere
chemistry ocean
climate
runoff & flood prevention
groundater recharge
waterbalance catchments
erosion and sedimentation
soil fertility
biomass production
organic matter
nutrient budgets
waste storage
biological control
habitat maintenance
diversity maintenance
Carrier
Functions
Pro
ce
Pro ssual
of vision
Ser
vic
es
Regulation
Functions
Information
Functions
Basic processes
of ecological
self-organisation
The „functions of nature“ build up the framework for the
ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in an
appropriate performance of the regulation functions
The „functions of nature“ build up the framework for the
ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in an
appropriate performance of the regulation functions
The „functions of nature“ are based upon
self-organizing processes.
The „functions of nature“ provide the framework for the
ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in an
appropriate performance of the regulation functions
The „functions of nature“ are based upon
self-organizing processes.
To maintain the „functions of nature“
the ability for future self-organization of ecosystems
must be supported.
The „functions of nature“ provide the framework for the
ecological focus of sustainable development.
Providing the functions of nature results in an
appropriate performance of the regulation functions
The „functions of nature“ are based upon
self-organizing processes.
To maintain the „functions of nature“
the ability for future self-organization of ecosystems
must be supported.
Eco-target „ecological integrity“:
preservation against non-specific ecological risks
Barkmann et al. 2001
How to indicate integrity?
Normative
Arguments
System-analytical
Arguments
Normative
Arguments
System-analytical
Arguments
Risk Minimization
and
Ecological
Integrity
Thermodynamics,
Gradient Principle
and
Orientor Theory
Normative
Arguments:
Risk Minimization and
Ecological
Integrity
Indicators
of the
Capacity
for SelfOrganization
System-analytical
Arguments:
Thermodynamics,
Gradient Principle and
Orientor Theory
Maturity
Minor
Ecological
Risk
Major
Ecological
Risk
Orientors
as
Indicators
Pioneer Stage
LanduseIntensity
Natural
(primary)
Sucession
Structural Gradients
Functional Gradients
Structural Gradients
• Abiotic Gradients
• Biotic Gradients
Functional Gradients
• Hydrological Gradients
• Energetic Gradients
• Nutrient Gradients
Structural Gradients
• Abiotic Gradients
• Biotic Gradients
Functional Gradients
• Hydrological Gradients
• Energetic Gradients
• Nutrient Gradients
•
•
•
•
Inputs
Outputs
Efficiencies
Storages
Proposed Indicators:
Structural Gradients
• Abiotic Gradients
• Biotop Heterogeneity
• Biotic Gradients
• Species Abundances
Functional Gradients
• Hydrological Gradients
• Energetic Gradients
• Nutrient Gradients
•
•
•
•
•
•
Biotic Water Flows
Exergy Capture
Entropy Export
Metabolic Efficiency
Nutrient Loss
Storage Capacity
DÄNEMARK
Sylt
Föhr
N
SCHLESWIGOstsee
Amrum
0
600
[m]
Kiel
Stolper See
Schierensee
Fuhlensee
Schwerpunktraum
Alte
Schwentine
HOLSTEIN
Belauer
See
Schmalensee
VORPOMMERN
HAMBURG
0
Bornhöveder
See
MECKLENBURG -
50
[km]
Location of the Bornhöved Lakes District
Case study
ecosystem comparison
Examples from Barkmann et al. (2001): GAIA 10/2 and Müller (2005): Ecological Indicators 5/4
Arable Land
Beech Forest
Proposed Indicators:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Baumann (2001), Barkmann et al. (2001)
Biotop Heterogeneity
Species Abundances
Biotic Water Flows
Exergy Capture
Entropy Export
Metabolic Efficiency
Nutrient Loss
Storage Capacity
Exergy Capture
Entropy Export
Metabolic
Effiency -1
Biodiversity
Biotic Water
Flows
Abiotic
Heterogeneity
Nutrient Loss
-1
Storage
Capacity for Self-Organisation
Baumann et al. 2001
Exergy Capture
Entropy Export
Metabolic
Effiency -1
Biodiversity
Biotic Water
Flows
Abiotic
Heterogeneity
50 %
100
%
Nutrient Loss
-1
150
%
Beech
Forest
Storage
Capacity for Self-Organisation
Exergy Capture
Entropy Export
Metabolic
Effiency -1
Biodiversity
Biotic Water
Flows
Abiotic
Heterogeneity
50 %
100 %
Nutrient Loss
-1
150 %
Beech
Forest
Maize
Field
Storage
Capacity for Self-Organisation
Case study
land use scenarios
Examples from Schrautzer et al. (i.p.): Ecological Studies and Müller et al. (2006): Ecological Indicators 6/1
Ecosystem types and modelled landscape units
Indicandum
Indicator(s)
- biotic structures
- number of plant species
- plant strategy types
- energy budgets
 exergy capture
- net primary production (NPP)
- energy budgets
 entropy production
- energy budgets
 metabolic efficiency
- hydrological budgets
 biotic water flows
- chemical budgets
 nutrient loss
- microbial soil respiration (MSR)
- chemical budgets
 storage capacity
- nitrogen balance
- carbon balance
- NPP/soil respiration
- evapotranspiration / transpiration
- nitrogen net mineralization
- nitrate leaching
- denitrification
Land use intensity
States of development
wet alder carrs,
mesotrophic
EU
wet alder carrs,
eutrophic
DR
Disturbances:
DR
drained alder carrs, EU
mesotrophic
drained alder carrs,
eutrophic
DE, MO, GR
wet grasslands , weakly
drained, mesotrophic
DE, MO, GR
EU
wet grasslands , weakly
drained, eutrophic
DE: deforestation
DR: drainage
EU: eutrophication
GR: grazing
MO: mowing
Pl : ploughing
EU, DR, GR, MO
wet grasslands ,
moderately drained
EU, DR
wet grassland ,
intensively drained
Retrogressional sequence on histosols
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems
(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
Net Primary Production
200
No. of Plant Species
N Net Mineralization
150
100
Evapotranspiration /
Transpiration
N Leaching
50
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
0
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Hem 2
Moderately Drained
Intensively Drained
NPP / Soil Respiration
Denitrification
Nitrogen Balance
Microbial Soil Respiration
Carbon Balance
ID
MD
WDEU
WDME
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems
(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
Net Primary Production
200
No. of Plant Species
150
N Net Mineralization
100
50
Evapotranspiration /
Transpiration
N Leaching
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
0
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Hem 2
Moderately Drained
Hem 3
Intensively Drained
NPP / Soil Respiration
Denitrification
Nitrogen Balance
Microbial Soil Respiration
Carbon Balance
ID
MD
WDEU
WDME
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems
(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
Net Primary Production
200
No. of Plant Species
150
N Net Mineralization
100
50
Evapotranspiration /
Transpiration
N Leaching
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
0
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Hem 2
Moderately Drained
Hem 3
Intensively Drained
NPP / Soil Respiration
Hem 4
Denitrification
Nitrogen Balance
Microbial Soil Respiration
Carbon Balance
ID
MD
WDEU
WDME
Ecosystem Indicators for Wet Grassland Ecosystems
(Intensively Drained Ecosystems = 100%)
Net Primary Production
200
No. of Plant Species
150
N Net Mineralization
100
50
Evapotranspiration /
Transpiration
N Leaching
Weakly Drained, Mesotrophic
0
Weakly Drained, Eutrophic
Hem 2
Moderately Drained
Hem 3
Intensively Drained
NPP / Soil Respiration
Hem 4
Denitrification
Hem 5
Nitrogen Balance
Microbial Soil Respiration
Carbon Balance
ID
MD
WDEU
WDME
Management Target and Ecosystem Consequences
Net Primary Production
200
No. of Plant Species
150
Loss of Structures
N Net Mineralization
100
Gradient Degradation
50
Evapotranspiration /
Transpiration
0
Loss of Cycling Efficiencies
N Leaching
Landscape Functional Sink
Landscape Functional Source
NPP / Soil Respiration
Denitrification
Loss of Metabolic Efficiencies
Nitrogen Balance
Carbon Balance
ID
MD
WDEU
Microbial Soil Respiration
WDME
Conclusions
• Ecosystem states can be indicated on a
holistic level
• Ecosystem development can be depicted on
the base of complex models
• Ecosystem science is ready for further
applications
• Ecosystem principles provoke many questions
to science and practice
Ecosystem Approach, Salzau 2006
Guidelines and questions