Theories and Strategies of Change
(RD 704)
FE L. PORCIUNCULA, Ph.D.
and
OPEN UNIVERSITY
Central Luzon State University
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija
Module on Theories and Strategies of Change
(RD 704)
Introduction
This module will cover the subject matter as described in your course syllabus by
combining inputs (from facilitator/reports of students and visits to selected communities
if applicable); in-depth discussions, analysis, application, and reflections. Together, we
intend to collectively comprehend the gamut of theories and strategies of change by
focusing on selected theories with special emphasis on the psychosocial approach.
We will be both teacher and student during the course. The approach will be
participatory in nature – we learn from each other but guided with the course syllabus,
which I have prepared as a teacher-facilitator.
You are encouraged to explore your creativity in preparing the individual
reports/presentations/requirements of the course. As in any other distance mode of
education, you can work at your own pace, but it is always advisable to work
diligently on the assigned tasks and assignments. You are free to contact me anytime
(am just an email away:[email protected]) for any queries that you may have.
The module is sub-divided into five major sections:
Part I
Part II
Part III
Part IV
Part V
: Course Orientation/Leveling-off
: Overview, Definitions, Context Setting and Prologue to Theoretical
Development
: Theories of Social Change
: Approaches/Strategies in Social Change
: Theory Construction
Again, we will collectively evaluate our performance (as student and as a
teacher/facilitator) towards the end of the course. The evaluation tool will cover
learning, insights and recommendations as students. Your inputs will be highly
appreciated for further improving the course content and methods used.
PART I: COURSE ORIENTATION- LEVELLING OFF
Introduction
This course on Theories and Strategies of Change offers an overview of core literature
on selected theories of social change with emphasis on the psychosocial approach leading
to an understanding of the change process and alternatives for effective change – from the
individual, to organizational and societal change.
Review the course syllabus (Please refer to Appendix A, Course Reference No.1) as
to its contents and objectives as follows:
a. Interpret, and apply major social change theories and appropriate strategies in
rural development;
b. Appreciate the history, analytical foundations and comparative perspectives of
these theories and strategies of change;
c. Operatonalize selected theories and evolve strategies of change for particular rural
development projects; and
d. Learn to apply and use selected theories of change in research and development.
Self-introductions of the Members of the Class:
Each of you are requested to write down a brief self introduction - stating your
name, country of origin, educational background, current work, field of
specialization, and any other important information that will guide me in facilitating
this course.
At this point, as the facilitator, you are requested to write down also the specific
area of interest in the course and/or specific expectation (primary) which will be
part of the self-introduction exercise.
As soon as you are able to do both of the tasks above, kindly please email it to me
for processing.
Processing the Class’ Expectations
After the class members’ self introduction exercise, your expectations vis-à-vis the course
content and design will be summarized. Gaps will be defined, if there are and will be
logically included in the course content and design.
Please take note of the course requirements and its weight on your potential grade. The
references in the course syllabus are the basic required readings but you are encouraged
to explore more references in the nearest available library and Internet. Each of you are
advised to keep an e-journal (reflective journal) during the course where your insights
and reflections will be recorded.
The specific content guide on the succeeding parts of this module will guide you further.
PART II: OVERVIEW, DEFINITIONS, CONTEXT
SETTING AND PROLOGUE TO THEORETICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
This section will cover the overview, definitions, and context setting towards the
development of theories on development (Please refer to Appendix B, Course
Reference No. 2). A core concern of this section is to equip students with a critical
understanding of the debate and practice, the political and economic forces that shaped
theories on development and eventually how to explore concrete approaches/strategies to
address the root causes of underdevelopment in a given state or nation.
Please take note that we have a special interest on rural development theories as it impact
on the development of a particular society in general.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the module, students will be able to:



Understand the purpose, importance, origin, common features, and
differences of theories of social change historically speaking;
Situate social change vis-à-vis development with emphasis on holistic and
sustainable development; and
Present an objective historical account on the evolution of theories.
Content Discussion
What is social change? This is one of the basic questions we have to agree upon. To
fully grasp the meaning of societal change, we should know the context or the particular
period in the history of a particular society where change evolved or is evolving. We
cannot divorce social realities of a given period to be able to judge the validity of change
and strategies, which has taken place or is taking place in a given society.
Please take note of this basic premise in analyzing theories and strategies in certain
societies as we proceed with the course.
In studying theories for social change, it is important to remember the following points

There are no “right” or “wrong” theories, just different ways of looking at
issues at hand;
Theories were derived from a common summed-up experiences of the
people/societies at a given period and is continually evolving;


Theories should be viewed as “guidelines” for understanding change and
developing appropriate programs, not “absolute” rules or laws governing
how change takes place; and
Theories should never be applied without a thorough understanding of the
context and particularities of the communities/countries you are working
with to bring about change and development.
Reflective Exercise: Consolidating your Learning
With the inputs from the attached readings and suggested references, let as pose at this
point to consider the following questions and record it in your Reflective e-Journal. Take
note of the following points to ponder:
What is social change? What is cultural change? Is there a difference between the
two? Based on your observations, what are the key factors that propel societal
change? Can these key factors be explained or predicted? Can it be established that
there is a consistent pattern of change in organizations, communities, nations or a
society?
What is the basic aspect that one must learn to be able to comprehend the laws
governing societal change and development?
You are reminded to compose your reflection/answers on the above questions and
post it in your Reflective e-Journal and email it to me as soon as possible.
References/Suggested Readings:
a. Garcia, M.1993. Development: Its sociological dimensions. National Bookstore,
Manila, Philippines
b. Jordans, Eva, et. al.1992. Poverty and development. Development Cooperation
Information Department. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, Netherlands.
c. Lauer, R. H. Perspectives in social change, Allyn and Bacon Inc.USA.
d. Maquiso, T. R. 1997. Socio-Anthro: An introduction to sociology. Groundwater
Publications and Research Corporation, Makati City, Philippines.
e. Panopio, I. et al. 1995. Sociology: Focus on the Philippines. Ken
Incorporated.Quezon City Philippines.
f. So, Alvin.1997. Social change and development. Sage Publication.
g. Readings from the Internet
h. Course Reference No. 2 (Appendix B)
COURSE EVALUATION NO. 1
The first term examination will be given after we have completed Part I and Part
II of the course. The examination questions are as follows:
RD 704 – THEORIES AND STRATEGIES OF CHANGE
1ST TERM EXAMINATION
1. Define the following:
a. Social Change
b. Theories
c. Development
d. Rural Development
e. Strategies of Change
2. Identify/explain the elements of change according to Vago. Can change be
constructive or destructive or both? Give/identify manifestations of social
change that will justify your answers.
3. Discuss/explain the sources of social change. Discuss at least five (5) barriers
of social change and conceptualize your own thought on situations or
circumstances which are conducive to the acceptance of change.
4. Bonus questions
a. Provide a brief account of the development of the history of scientific
sociology.
b. Give the importance/values of theories and illustrate/explain the
relationship of theory and research.
You are again reminded to email the answers as soon as you are done.
PART III: THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Introduction
As a core component of this course, we will review/critique the theories – the scholars
involved, their major contributions (background on the development of theory with past
and present-day theories, salient concepts/paradigms, issues addressed, merits/demerits of
the theories) and its dynamics in social practice. A course reference (Please refer to
Appendix C, Course Reference No. 3) is provided as a useful reading for greater
understanding.
Learning Outcomes
With this particular section of the module, students will be able to:


Describe, compare, and contrast several theories of social change and the
roles of individuals and people played in a given period on these changes;
and
Critique with objectivity different theories as to their assumptions, origins,
merits/demerits, implications, relevance to rural development.
Content Discussion
Our main concern as a class is to address the question of why and how social change
occurred in different societies that gave birth to these theories. Hence, comparative
dimensions to be analyzed will include the theory’s scope, historical origins, societal
analysis/phenomena/problem areas from which the theory evolved and applied on one
hand, as it impacts on mankind.
The key word is change in a societal level where you as a student will consider the
affectivity/usefulness of particular theories as practiced and how scholars and activists
with different perspectives (worldviews) have critiqued each other’s work and
contribution to the development of a theory.
The analysis will give due emphasis on types of evidence and knowledge available on
mentioned theories in the syllabus as to approach and type of inquiry used to critique
selected theories of social change.
Social justice and social change will be examined across theories’ goals, and assumptions
espoused by each theory. We will examine the theories of social change for their
relevance and/or applicability with focus on how those theories have prevented, reduced
or eliminated existing problems.
As I have espoused earlier that as students and teacher in this course - we will draw from
our different backgrounds, expertise and experiences - the lessons as we experiment with
new knowledge and skills in exploring theories of social change.
This section of the course which will provide the students the basic tools on appreciating
the basic elements- why and how theories were developed, have been applied or could be
applied for different purposes is designed to guide the students in the next section. The
succeeding section where case studies (selected countries or cases in selected
institutions/organizations) will be presented and analyzed at length with a pre-determined
bias for the marginalized/oppressed sectors in a given nation in terms of relevance and
impact.
Reflective Exercise: Critiquing a Theory
At this point, as a teacher, I am more interested in your views and insights based on
your clear understanding on theories of social change. You are therefore tasked to
critique any two theories, using the standardized and analytical units developed by
Meleis (1985) and Maddi (1976) as follows:
Criteria
Unit of Analysis
1. Relationship between structure and function
a. Clarity
b. Parsimony
c. Teleology
2. Circle of Contagiousness
a. Geographical origin of theory and
geographical spread
3. Usefulness
a. Practice
b. Research
a.
b.
c.
d.
Direction
Applicability
Generalizability
Relevance
a. Consistency
b. Testability
c. Predictability
4. External Components
a. Congruence between values of theory
and other professions
a. Complementarity
b. Esotericism
c. Competition
b. Congruence of theory with social
values
a. Belief
b. Values
c. Customs
c. Social Significance
a. Value to humanity
Operational Definition of the Units of Analysis
1. Clarity – denotes precision of boundaries of the theory ; sense of orderliness;
vividness of meaning; consistency and linkage of assumptions, concepts and
propositions.
2. Parsimony – is otherwise known as simplicity, with the theory focusing on few
concepts and few relationships and assumptions.
3. Tautology - means the needless repetition of an idea in the different parts of the
theory.
4. Directionality – refers to whether the theory provides or not prescribe to effect
practice.
5. Applicability – whether the theory contains concrete notions and not abstract
concepts to effect application.
6. Generalizability – covers a wide and not just few fields.
7. Relevance – whether the theory applies to current situation or interest or any other
development phenomenon.
8. Potential usefulness in Research – responds to the following questions:
a. Are the concepts used uniformly in the same context to imply consistent
meaning (consistency)?
b. Is there a congruence/corroboration between theoretical claims and
empirical evidence (testability)?
c. Is the theory capable to predict phenomena (predictability)?
9. Congruence between values of theory and other profession – refers to whether the
values implied by the theory complement or compete with the values held by
other profession at the time the theory was developed.
10. Congruence of theory with social values – pertains to whether the idea advocated
by the theory correspond or antagonize existing beliefs, values and expectations
of the society.
11. Social significance - refers to whether the goals and consequences of the theory
can make a substantial and valued difference in society.
As a reminder, you need to submit your critique of the selected theories using the
above criteria, as soon as you are done with it. This is a prelude to the more intensive
in-depth analysis of theories as applied in existing social realities in selected
countries/institutions/organizations as covered in Part IV of these module.
References:/Suggested Readings:
a. Blumberg, R.L. A general theory of gender stratification.
b. Etzioni and Etzioni. Social change, sources, patterns and consequences. Basic
Books, Inc. USA.
c. Lauer, Robert H. 1982. Perspectives on social change. Allyn and Bacon Inc.USA
d. Pagaduan,M. and Perez-Corral V. (eds), 1996. Women, development and aid. G10. Manila,Philipines.
e. Smelser, N.J. 1994. Sociological theories. International Social Science Journal,
USA.
f. So, Alvin, 1997.Social change and development. Sage Publications
g. Vago, Stevens.1980. Social change.Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, New York.
h. Several readings taken from the internet
i. Course Reference No. 3 (Appendix C)
COURSE EVALUATION NO. 2
RD 704 – THEORIES AND STRATEGIES OF CHANGE
2nd TERM EXAMINATION
1. From the array of theories that you have examined and analyzed, identify
any three theories and explain them according to the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
proponent(s)
assumptions
unit of analysis
strengths and weaknesses
the application of the theories to any socio-economic phenomena or
development issue. Identify any social phenomena or development
issue (i.e. globalization, migration, persisting poverty, these are just
examples you can identify or choose your own) and analyze, explain it
by using the selected theories.
2. In this age of globalization, what major socio-economic changes do you
foresee in your country’s rural society in the next five years? What possible
socio-economic phenomenon or development issue(s) would arise out of these
changes? Develop/explain your own strategies to help address the identified
phenomenon/issue.
3. Feminist theories were developed as a result of the enduring work of women’s
movement and the discipline of women’s studies. Provide a brief/concise
presentation and analysis of the development of the feminist theories as they
evolve historically.
4. Social issues concerning women remain to be of interest at present. Identify
one particular women issue (issues may involve professionals, peasant
women, women OFWs, urban poor women, prostitutes, etc) and explain it
using one of the feminist theories.
You are again reminded to answer the above questions and email it to me as soon
as possible.
PART IV: APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL
CHANGE
Introduction
You now have ample knowledge on the analyzed theories of social change, goals and
assumptions of each theory and how it promotes social justice in a given period and given
context. In this section, we will use the theories in analyzing selected rural development
programs/projects with the attendant approaches and strategies used in implementation.
Learning Outcomes:
On this part of the module, students will be able to -:



Grasp basic interdisciplinary skills in understanding the dimensions of
theories on social changes vis-à-vis selected rural development
programs/projects implemented;
Thoroughly understand the conceptual framework on effectively analyzing
relationships between issues and developmental processes and make
objective judgment on policies and implementation approaches and
strategies as it impacts on the majority of the people; and
Develop critical stance and command of current theory, policy and practice
in relation to development and rural development in particular.
Content Discussion
Armed with basic knowledge on contributions of major theorists, tools and abilities to
assess, measure and discuss and critique of social change theories, modernization and
development - let us examine closely as individuals how development paradigms,
approaches and strategies have been translated into policies and programs of our own
countries. to achieve development.
Course Reference No.4 found in Appendix D will provide the chronological events in
understanding the development process and the major government policies affecting the
development of the country.
It also highlights the major paradigms and
approaches/strategies that will hopefully be useful in analyzing rural development
programs/projects.
Read carefully and digest the content of the Course Reference No.4 found in Appendix
D. Considering the major paradigm shifts in rural development in the Philippines, come
up with your own insights and lessons learned along the process. This is a prelude to
the next exercise that you are going to do.
Reflective Exercise: Operationalizing Selected Theories and Evolve Strategies of
Change for Particular Rural Development Program/Project
You are now tasked to select one particular rural development program/project
implemented by your institution/organization and analyze it in terms of theoretical
and methodological merits. Guided with theories, be able to understand the major
forces, principles and concerns, which shaped the very existence of the selected
program/project. The aim is to adhere or contra pose social realities by pinpointing
the viability and limitations of different theories as tools of analysis for concrete
social practice. Reflect on the applicability, soundness, practicality and cost
effectiveness of the approaches and strategies used vis-a-viz the outcomes/impacts
of the program/project.
Consider the following major points in the selection and analysis of the rural
development program project:








The modern society is complex and highly differentiated but theories help us
comprehend this complexity – understand realities at different levels of
social aggregation – from micro level to macro-level of our society’s basic
structures.
Critical analysis of socio-economic and political conflicts, their roots and
potential approaches to resolution with specific reference to the Third
World. Policy processes, role and power of different actors and institutions
such as the law making bodies, the Church, the ruling Party/government
among others.
Explore and examine your own assumptions, potentials and flaws of
different approaches and/or application on a variety of policy instruments
and institutional designs which you may have been involved as inputs for
your analysis;
What are the main features of your country’s current socio-economic and
political situation vis-à-vis global realities such as globalization? What is the
root causes of societal problems’ of poverty and underdevelopment?
What is the main paradigm your government is using to achieve
development? Are gender related problems addressed?
Do you think that paradigm used in sound and is genuinely addressing the
root causes of underdevelopment/disparity/inequality across classes and
sectors?
What are the main responses of the marginalized sectors in your country
seeking genuine development?
How can you contribute to address existing major problems in your country
of origin?
You are again reminded to exercise your creativity and analytical capability in
undertaking the above exercise and submit your output as soon as you are certain of
its outstanding merit.
References/Suggested Readings:
a. Lauer, R. H.1982.Perspectives on social change. Allyn and Bacon Inc. USA.
b. World Bank. 2002. Reaching the rural poor: WBs Renewed Strategy for
Rural Development, USA
c. Case/country reports
d. Course Reference No. 4 (Appendix D)
PART V: THEORY CONSTRUCTION
Introduction
Theories present a systematic view of phenomenon by specifying relations among
variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting such phenomenon. The scientific
norm of logical reasoning provides a link or a bridge between theory and research. In
actual practice, theory and research interact through a never ending alternation of
deduction and induction.
Learning Outcomes
On this final part of the module, students will be able to:
1. Integrate lessons learned in the course through a theory of development/theory
construction..
Content Discussion
While theory construction is not a lockstep affair, the following lists of steps would guide
you on how to proceed in theory construction.
1. Specify a topic. The first step is to pick a topic that interests you. The topic may
be an event, a phenomena or a problem area. It may be broad or narrow and the
sources may include your own experiences, the experiences of others as reported
to you and the various other social theories that have been built in the past.
Whatever the topic, it should be something you’re interested in understanding and
explaining.
2. Undertake an inventory of what is known about the topics and specify the
range of phenomena your theory addresses. This both means writing down
your own observation and ideas and collating what other scholars have said about
the topic. You can talk to other people and read what others have written about it.
It also important to determine the range of phenomena the would be theory is
addressing in terms of its application, whether the theory would be applied to all
of human social life or whether it applies only to Americans, Filipinos, the youth,
etc.
3. Identify and specify your major concepts and variables.
4.
Assemble what is known (proposition) about the relationships among those
variables. As the relevant concepts and variables have been identified and
discern what has already been learned about them, you can begin creating a
prepositional structure that explain the topic under study.
5. Reason logically from those propositions to the specific topic you are
examining.
An Example in Theory Construction
Source of Example: H. Edward Ransford (1968)
Topic:
Political violence as a result of the nearly one week f rioting, burning,
looting that occurred in the predominantly black suburbs of Watts in Los Angeles
in 1965. the Watts event resulted with 35 people dead and about $200 M in
damages. Although the rioting was triggered by a specific incident involving
black residents and white police, the event couldn’t account for the extent of
rioting that followed. Most of those who participated in the rioting had nothing to
do with the original incident.
Theoretical Literature:
As Ransford addressed the aftermath of Watts, he found a body of
theoretical literature dealing with extreme political behavior. Specifically, social
isolation and powerlessness had been linked to political violence by previous
scholars. Noted scholars include Gurr whose research was about civil strife;
Feirabend, et. al. focusing on social conditions that lead to frustration and
therefore to political violence.
Range/application of phenomena:
American blacks pursuing civil rights.
Major Concepts and Variables
Concept
Political violence, which involves destructive attacks by groups within a
political community, against its regime, authority or politics (GURR). Political
violence in this example is manifested in the form of rioting.
Variables
Isolation defined as potential separatism, discrimination and restrictions
on political participation (Gurr).
Powerlessness defined as low expectancy of control over events or defined
simply as the individual or group’s insufficient capability to influence or effect
peaceful changes in the society (Gurr).
Propositions
1. Blacks who are isolated from the mainstream white society are more likely to riot
than those blacks who are already participating in the mainstream society.
2. Blacks who felt powerless would be more likely to riot than those who felt they
already had some chance of improving things.
Hypothesis
Blacks with a high degree of isolation and powerlessness are more likely to resort
to political violence than those with a low degree of isolation and powerlessness.
Ransford’s theoretical premise for expecting isolation and powerlessness to
produce political violence is only half of science. More often, the things that seem to
make sense don’t turn out to be true. So Ransford undertook a research project to find out
if his theoretical expectations are borne out by empirical reality.
Support for this theory was undertaken by Ransford on the basis of data from a
sample of 312 black from Los Angeles. The variable isolation was measured in terms of
the contacts of blacks with whites at work, in their neighborhoods, in organizations and in
other situations. Other questions probed the extent to which they socialized with whites,
while a feeling of powerlessness was measured in terms of the subjects’ agreements or
disagreements.
The answers that the respondents gave to all the questions made it possible for
Ransford to characterize each in terms of (1) isolation and powerlessness. In the simplest
characterization, any particular respondent could be described as high or low in terms of
isolation from whites and high or low in the feelings of powerlessness.
If Ransford’s theoretical expectations were correct, he should have found that the
subjects with high isolation and high powerlessness were more likely to report actually
doing so than those who rated low on isolation and powerlessness. That’s exactly what
Ransford found out. Results indicated that of the subjects rated high on isolation, 44
percent said they would be willing to use violence contrasted with only 17 percent rated
low on isolation. Similarly, 41 percent of those rated high on powerlessness and only 16
percent of those rated low said they would be willing to use violence.
Ransford’s conclusion regarding the uses of political violence bears two important
elements of a scientific theory - logical integrity and empirical verification. The
important requirements of explanation, prediction and understanding are likewise present
in the theory.
Reflective Exercise: Consolidating your Learning through Theory Construction
As a major requisite for the course, construct your own development theory by
integrating your learning throughout the course. Refer to the guide and another example
as shown in Appendix E, Course Reference No. 5. Be as exhaustive as possible in
gathering relevant literatures and theoretical perspectives in your chosen topic.
Kindly please submit the theory constructed as soon as you have completed it.
Closing Exercise
Present an array of insights from the reflection papers/assigned tasks you have submitted
throughout the course on the topics covered and/or points of unity and contentious points
on one hand, to summarize the collective learning as counterpoised to learning outcomes.
Were your expectations of the course met? Identify at least two important learning in
pursuing the course and how these will be useful in your career or present work. Present a
before and after the course what-to-do scenarios and submit it to me as soon as you
have intently thought of the learning from the course .