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Responding to Climate Change
Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Copyright © 2014, World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
ISBN (printed version): 978-92-844-1618-9
ISBN (electronic version): 978-92-844-1619-6
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Published by the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).
First printing: 2014
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World Tourism Organization (2014), Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the
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Table of contents
Acknowledgements7
Foreword9
Chapter 1
Tourism responses to climate change in Asia and the Pacific: an introduction
11
Tourism and climate change: an international overview
17
1.1
Climate change
17
19
1.2 Tourism and climate change
1.3
The contribution of tourism to climate change
20
1.4
Tourism and future emissions
21
1.5
Conclusion23
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Chapter 2
Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
27
2.1
Climate change 27
2.2
The impact of extreme weather events on tourism 29
2.3
Tourism’s contributions to climate change
31
2.4
Tourism government response to climate change
33
2.5
Conclusion37
Chapter 3
Pacific tourism building resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change 41
3.1
Tourism and climate change in the Pacific
42
3.2
The project
43
3.3
The tourism adaptation toolkit framework
45
3.4
Conclusion46
Chapter 4
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific: a review of some
Asian Pacific UNWTO Member States
49
4.1
Australia49
4.2
Bangladesh 51
4.3
Cambodia52
4.4
China53
4.5
India54
4.6
Indonesia56
4.7
Japan58
4.8
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
58
4.9
Malaysia59
4.10
Maldives60
4.11
Mongolia62
4.12
Papua New Guinea
62
4.13
Philippines63
4.14
Republic of Korea
64
4.15
Sri Lanka
65
4.16
Thailand66
4.17
Conclusion67
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Chapter 5
Air travel, emissions, and tourism growth in the Asia and the Pacific region 69
5.1
Energy use and emissions in Asia and the Pacific
71
5.2
Climate policy implications
73
77
Chapter 6
Tourism vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation to climate change in China
6.1
Understanding vulnerability as an approach to climate change adaptation
77
6.2
Study Context and Methods
78
6.3
Vulnerability: what key sensitivities make Jiuzhaigou vulnerable?
80
6.4
Resilience: what strengths make Jiuzhaigou resilient?
83
6.5
Conclusion84
Chapter 7
Twenty-five years of Australian federal climate change policy: implications for tourism 87
7.1
Climate change policies
88
7.2
Implications for tourism
92
7.3
Conclusion 94
97
Chapter 8
Climate change and tourism: Bangladesh´s adaptation measures
8.1
Climate change in Bangladesh
97
8.2
The government’s response to climate change in Bangladesh
98
8.3
The present situation of tourism development in Bangladesh
99
8.4
Ecotourism in Bangladesh
100
8.5
Issues, opportunities and challenges for climate change and tourism in Bangladesh
101
8.6
Policy initiatives and programmes responding to climate change for tourism in the country
103
8.7
Future issues and the way forward
104
Chapter 9
Tourism as a sustainable livelihood option:
a case of climate change adaptation in Nepal
107
9.1
Background: Nepal’s response to climate change
107
9.2
Tourism in Nepal
107
9.3
Climate change impacts on tourism
108
9.4
Case study: Upper Mustang Tourism Value Chain Project
108
9.5
Conclusions112
Acknowledgements 113
115
Chapter 10
The potential for Cambodia to climate-proof its tourism sector 10.1
Tourism in Cambodia
115
10.2
The climate change context
117
10.3
Climate change threats to Cambodian tourism
120
10.4
Opportunities for Cambodian tourism to lead the response to the climate change challenge 121
10.5
Climate-proofing Cambodian tourism
121
10.6
Conclusion123
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Chapter 11
Climate change and tourism development in Viet Nam 125
11.1
Impacts of climate change on Viet Nam
127
11.2
Responding to climate change
129
11.3
Conclusion131
Chapter 12
Climate change adaptation for regional tourism destinations:
a case study of Victoria´s Surf Coast region
133
12.1
Climate change impacts at tourism destinations 133
12.2
Climate change adaptation at tourism destinations
134
12.3
The Surf Coast case study 135
12.4
Results138
12.5
Conclusion Chapter 13
142
All-year-round tourism in Alpine ski resorts: the Australian ski industry´s
response to climate change
145
13.1
The future of the Australian ski industry
145
13.2
Adaptation strategy one: snowmaking
146
13.3
Adaptation strategy two: all-year-round tourism
147
13.4
Limitations to all-year-round tourism
148
13.5
The case of Mount Baw Baw
149
13.6
Current Green Season strategies
150
13.7
Recommendations for Alpine Ski Resorts
151
Chapter 14
Here today, gone tomorrow? Cultural and religious embeddedness
of climate change risk perception 153
14.1
Perceptions of climate change risks
153
14.2
Case study: Maldives
154
14.3
Discussion and conclusions
158
161
Chapter 15
Events and climate change: an Asia and the Pacific perspective
15.1
Projected climate change impacts
162
15.2
Climate change mitigation by events
162
15.3
Events and adaptation
164
15.4
Resilience 166
15.5
Conclusions168
Chapter 16
Climate change eco-actions by tourism enterprises in Queensland, Australia 16.1
Climate change and Australian tourism
169
169
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16.2
Methodology171
16.3
Results172
16.4
Discussion 177
16.5
Conclusion178
Chapter 17
Climate change as a major crisis event: implications for a tropical nature based
destination 181
17.1
What we know
182
17.2
What we don’t know
182
17.3
What destinations should do: the case of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia
184
17.4
Conclusion187
Chapter 18
Conclusions and recommendations
189
18.1
Main issues covered in this publication
190
18.2
Recommendations 190
18.3
Looking forward
192
Glossary193
List of acronyms and abbreviations
195
List of contributors 199
References and bibliography
209
T
7
Acknowledgements
This study is the result of a collaborative research project between the World Tourism Organization
(UNWTO) and the University of Queensland (UQ).
The work was coordinated by the Regional Programme for Asia and the Pacific of the World
Tourism Organization under the auspices of Mr. Xu Jing, Director and Mr. Hae-guk Hwang, Deputy
Director, together with the inputs of Mr. Omar Nawaz, Project Coordinator and Ms. Veronica
Handal, Assistant.
The World Tourism Organization and the University of Queensland would like to express their
sincere gratitude to Dr. Lisa Ruhanen for her editorial work and to all of those who have participated
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in the production of this report, in particular to the authors, for their valuable contributions.
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9
Foreword
Climate change is one of the greatest defies of our times. As highlighted by the United Nations
Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, “climate change is the pre-eminent geopolitical and economic
issue of the 21th century. It rewrites the global equation for development, peace and prosperity”.
Rising sea levels, warmer sea temperatures and increasing storm frequency are becoming
more rampant than ever and the impacts of climate change are increasingly evident. As such,
a ‘business-as-usual’ scenario cannot be maintained. Now, more than ever, it is crucial that we
channel our efforts into a new development paradigm – a low-carbon, resource efficient and
socially inclusive development model.
In 2012, for the first time in history more than one billion international tourists travelled the
world in one single year; by 2030 this number will reach 1.8 billion. One billion tourists can be
one billion opportunities for sustainable development or one billion disasters; we need to decouple
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the projected massive growth in tourism in the decades ahead from increased energy use and
emissions.
Tourism is both a vector and a victim of climate change. The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
research shows that tourism accounts for 5% of global CO2 emissions. On the other side, rising
sea levels, coastal erosion, loss of biodiversity threaten the future of tourism. And although
progress has been made on multiple fronts, we need to step up our efforts to better understand
the link between tourism and climate change, particularly in Asia and the Pacific, one of the fastest
growing tourism regions in the world.
Responding to Climate Change in Asia and the Pacific, undertaken by the UNWTO Regional
Programme for Asia and the Pacific in collaboration with the University of Queensland (UQ) in
Australia, reviews tourism related climate change policies, programmes and other initiatives being
undertaken in Asia and the Pacific.
I trust the findings of this study will enable the tourism sector in Asia and the Pacific, and beyond,
to learn from the academic research and the case studies emerging from the region and which
can be replicated elsewhere. I am confident this initiative will also encourage other institutions to
pursue and complete existing gaps in a field of tourism that requires further attention in our quest
for sustainable development where climate change has a deep impact.
10
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
On the behalf of UNWTO, I would also like to express our utmost appreciation to Dr. Lisa Ruhanen,
for her untiring editorial work, as well as to all the authors and institutions that supported Dr.
Ruhanen and contributed to this report.
Taleb Rifai
Secretary-General,
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11
Tourism responses to climate change in Asia and the Pacific:
an introduction
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) has confirmed that over 1 billion travellers are now
crossing international borders every year. In fact, in 2013, international tourist arrivals reached
a record of 1,087 million, with the highest growth rates occurring in Asia and the Pacific. SouthEast Asia alone witnessed a 10% growth in tourist arrivals in 2013, and the region is predicted to
welcome 5–6% more travellers in 2014.1
At the same time, planet earth is warming unequivocally. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPPC) says that it is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause
of this warming since the mid-20th century.2 It has become evident that humanity is not only
feeling the effect of climate change; it is also contributing to it. This leaves the global tourism
sector, with its reliance on the world’s natural and climatic resources and dependence on the
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transport industry, facing an uncertain and challenging future.
Climate change
According to the IPCC, each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the earth’s
surface than any preceding decade since 1850.3 However, global warming is only one aspect of
climate change. The IPCC suggests that climate changes should be defined in relation to time,
location and scale, and that climatic changes can either refer to climate variability or climate
change. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) reflects this
distinction, attributing climate variability to natural causes and climate change to human activities
(which have an effect on the atmospheric composition).4
It has been predicted that the Asia and the Pacific region will account for about half (47%) of all
global carbon emissions by 2030.5
Tourism and climate change
Research into the links between tourism and climate change has been on the academic agenda
for at least the last decade. Climate change emerged internationally as a new field of concern for
the tourism sector in 2003.6 Immediately identified links included the effect of climate change on
tourism’s environmental resources (impacts on seasons, water availability, landscapes and snow
coverage, to name a few), the contribution of tourism to climate change (e.g., through emissions),
and the possible effects that greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation policies (such as carbon taxes)
would have on tourism in the future.7
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
As predicted, these links between the tourism sector and climate change have attracted increasing
attention in recent years, both in academia and in the public arena. It has been recognised, as noted
by Francesco Frangialli (former UNWTO Secretary-General) in 2007, that “tourism contributes to
global warming, and, at the same time, is a victim of climate change.”8
Indeed, climate is a vital resource for tourism, and the sector’s reliance on climate and weatherrelated factors makes it highly sensitive to any effects of climate change and global warming –
many of which are already being felt in destinations around the world.9 Given tourism’s important
role as a creator of jobs, booster of economies and contributor to the fight against global poverty;
and in the face of the projected increase in travellers in coming years, there exists a real need
for the sector to urgently act to adopt policies which will ensure that the sector is developed
responsibly and sustainably, using the ‘quadruple bottom line’ approach of environmental, social,
economic and climate responsiveness.10 This need becomes increasingly clear in light of the
IPCC’s future climate change predictions.
Future climate change predictions
Globally, the IPCC has predicted that it is very likely that hot extremes, heat waves and heavy
precipitation will increase in frequency. It is also likely that tropical cyclone intensity will increase,
while precipitation increases are very likely in high altitudes and likely in most subtropical land
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regions. The IPCC has less confidence in a global decrease of tropical cyclone numbers.11
Though dependent on adaptation efforts, temperature change rates and socio-economic
environments, examples of the impacts anticipated due to global average temperature changes
include:
––
Changes in water availability;
––
Increased coral bleaching, increased number of extinctions and increasing species range
shifts and wildlife risks;
––
Complex, localised negative impacts on small holders, subsistence farmers and fishers;
changes in productivity;
––
Increased damage from floods and storms, loss of coastal wetlands, increased risk of
coastal flooding; and
––
Increasing burdens from malnutrition, diarrhoeal, cardio-respiratory and infectious diseases;
increased morbidity and mortality from heat waves, floods and droughts; changed distribution
of some disease vectors and increasing burdens on health services.
In Asia, key impacts will include changes in freshwater availability (particularly in large river areas
in Central, South, East and South-East Asia); increased risk of flooding from the sea (and, in some
mega deltas, from rivers); increased pressures on natural resources and the environment related
to rapid urbanisation, industrialisation and economic development; and endemic morbidity and
mortality due to diarrhoeal disease impacted by floods and droughts.12
In Australia and New Zealand, significant biodiversity loss is projected to occur in such worldrenowned sites as the Great Barrier Reef and Queensland’s Wet Tropics. Water security issues,
a reduction in agricultural production due to increasing numbers of droughts and fires and risks
associated with sea level rise, storms and coastal flooding have been identified as key concerns
for these countries up to 2050.13
T
13
For small island states, including those in the Asia and the Pacific region, sea level rise is expected
to increase, and storm surges, erosion and other coastal hazards may threaten vital infrastructure,
settlements and facilities. Local resources will be impacted by beach erosion, coral bleaching and
other deterioration effects of coastal conditions, and increasing temperatures may encourage
non-native species to become present where they previously were not. Finally, by the middle of
the century, the IPCC predicts that climate change will reduce water resources in many small
island states to the point where they become insufficient to meet demand during low-rainfall
periods.14 These effects all have the potential to create a huge impact on the sustained livelihood
of small island communities.
In light of both these potential impacts and the predicted growth in tourism worldwide, especially
in Asia and the Pacific countries, a need has arisen to more deeply investigate the links between
climate change and tourism in the region. This study, compiled by Australia’s University of
Queensland and incorporating contributions from world-leading scholars and international
experts, is the first step in addressing current and future needs. The following section will give
some overview of the key topics and themes covered in this publication.
Summary of present publication
Chapter 1 emphasises that tourism is both a receptor of and contributor to climate change
impacts, though there remains a limited understanding on sector, market- and destination-specific
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climate change impacts. It is noted that tourism growth to 2035 is likely to surpass efficiency
improvements, and that future research should address the relative capacities of technological,
managerial and behavioural approaches to emissions mitigation and reduction.
Chapter 2 discusses climate change and tourism specifically in Asia, noting that the region is
significantly at risk from climate change impacts. It is also highlighted that countries in Asia are
strong contributors to global carbon emissions due to their rapid growth rates and that many
tourism businesses do not yet demonstrate a high level of adaptive capacity. At the same time,
the region is a key player in the global response to climate change, and a number of sustainable
tourism measures are already being enacted by governments in the region.
Chapter 3 focuses on resilience building and adaptation of the Pacific tourism sector to climate
change threats. Climate change is one of the most pressing environmental and economic issues
facing small island developing states and territories in the Pacific, and one which not only directly
impacts livelihoods but also hampers progress toward achieving the Millennium Development
Goals. The region is particularly at risk from storm surges, cyclones, warming sea temperatures
and changes in rainfall patterns; risks which can be further exacerbated by limited natural and
human resources and inadequate financial resources.
Chapter 4 outlines a range of government policy responses to climate change and tourism from
a number of UNWTO Member States in Asia and the Pacific. It is noted that seven out of the
ten most at risk countries to climate change are located in this region and that despite strong
climate change predictions and their documented potential implications for the tourism industry,
integration and recognition of these risks is still not widely understood or incorporated into
government policies in the region.
14
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
The need to engage with climate change and its future impacts is further highlighted in chapter
5 on Air travel, emissions and tourism growth. It offers a differing point of view to others in this
volume as the author examines the contribution of the tourism sector to climate change, and
warns of the dangers of considerably higher energy use and emissions in the future in light of the
predicted growth of the tourism industry.
A case study approach is taken in chapter 6, examining the vulnerability, resilience and adaptation
to climate change of Jiuzhaigou in China’s Sichuan Province. A lack of research into climate
change adaptation in the tourism sector is noted and it is suggested that major geographical
gaps exist in the tourism and climate change literature. The case study presented shows that
tourism vulnerability is shaped by a variety of human and natural factors, which all contribute to
the sector’s exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity to climate change.
The focus in chapter 7 shifts to federal government responses to climate change threats, presenting
an in-depth review of Australian federal climate change policy from 1988 to 2013. With six prime
ministers and seven governments in power during that time, Australia’s national climate change
framework has been characterised by inconsistent and even strongly divergent approaches to
addressing the issue of climate change. Australia’s focus has always been on climate change
mitigation, rather than adaptation, and it is discussed what this means for the future of tourism in
Australia.
Chapter 8 introduces the current situation of Bangladesh, a country which globally is considered
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to be one of the most vulnerable countries to the adverse effects of climate change. As noted,
Bangladesh faces significant challenges in strengthening its adaptability, including a lack of
financial resources and insufficient coordination between stakeholders. The chapter outlines a
few possible solutions to this, including developing alternative forms of tourism.
Chapter 9 examines climate change and tourism in mountain destination Nepal, a country which
contributes almost nothing to global greenhouse gas emissions but which is severely impacted by
the effects of climate change. A case study of the Upper Mustang Tourism Value Chain Project is
presented, which examines the links between the local tourism industry and seasonal agricultural
production.
Sustainable tourism development is focused in chapter 10. Cambodia has recognised the need
to develop climate change risk reduction measures and emphasise mitigation as part of being a
responsible global citizen. The country’s popularity and rapid growth means that Cambodia is at
a key tipping point in its journey to be a global citizen, and that investors should be encouraged
to include climate change considerations into their developments. As noted, “the tourism outlook
for Cambodia is buoyant […] investors will be less adverse to the additional capital costs involved
in climate-proofing investments, especially if made aware of long-term operational cost savings.”
Chapter 11 focuses on Viet Nam which is another nation extremely vulnerable to a wide range of
climate change impacts. The most significant of these is sea level rise, which affects Viet Nam
more than any other country in East Asia. A lack of general awareness about climate change
among tourism stakeholders heightens the need for a more thorough examination of Viet Nam’s
key risks, and joint stakeholder efforts in considering both adaptation and mitigation measures to
address the country’s specific future needs.
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15
Chapter 12 presents another case study on attitudes to climate change in a regional tourism
destination on Australia’s Victorian coast, particularly in terms of adaptation. As noted, “adaptation
[to climate change] can be a response to unfavourable outcomes already occurring due to climate
change, or part of a proactive strategy to minimise future risks and/or capitalise on potential
opportunities”. As this chapter shows, our understanding of the relationship between tourism and
climate change continues to expand, not least in the area of the best ways for destinations to
adapt and manage impacts.
In chapter 13 the topic of climate change impacts on the global ski industry is raised, noting
that this sector is highly vulnerable to global warming due to its dependence on cooler climatic
conditions. Using the example of low lying Australian ski resorts, this section examines various
coping mechanisms and adaptation strategies that resorts may implement to ensure their
sustainable existence in an increasingly competitive and constantly changing climate.
Chapter 14 takes yet another approach to understanding the climate change and tourism
connection. In an effort to understand people’s perceptions of the risks associated with climate
change, it explores how social, cultural, religious and psychological factors impact people’s
behaviours, intentions and methods of coping. The focus of this chapter is an examination of how
local residents of a highly vulnerable tourism destination (Maldives) view climate change and how
this perception impacts their motivation to adapt to related risks.
In chapter 15, the link between climate change and events is investigated, noting that a shortage
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of research exists in this field. It examines the vulnerability of events (particularly small scale
events) to weather-related impacts and explores how events may be contributing to climate
change. Furthermore, it provides examples of measures which can be taken by organisers to
counter these negative effects.
Chapter 16 reviews environmentally certified tourism operators and their mitigation efforts in
Queensland, Australia. Included businesses range from accommodation providers and attractions
to tour operators and convention centres. A number of key factors are found that drive an
organization to become more eco-friendly. These factors include the owner-manager’s personal
environmental concern, a desire to attract customers, saving costs and adhering to government
regulation or certification requirements.
The final chapter 17 suggests that a new term should be used to explain climate change and its
impacts on tourism: The word “disruption” takes into account the magnitude and time scale of
impacts, and could be used in future research. It is noted that it is time that the industry stops
taking the “let’s wait and see” approach and starts taking precautionary actions. If not, the natural
resources, which make this sector unique, will eventually be lost forever.
16
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Endnotes
1
World Tourism Organization (2014).
2
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
8
World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment
Programme (2008).
3Ibid.
9Ibid.
4Ibid.
10Ibid.
5
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
11 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
6
Dubois, G. and Ceron, J. P. (2006).
12Ibid.
7Ibid.
13Ibid.
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14Ibid.
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17
Chapter 1
Tourism and climate change:
an international overview
Climate is generally defined as the weather averaged over a period of time, and effectively
represents the conditions one would anticipate experiencing at a specific destination and time.1
The IPCC states that:
“Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather, or more rigorously,
as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities
over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical
period for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological
Organization. The relevant quantities are most often surface variables such as
temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a
statistical description, of the climate system.”
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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013), glossary
1.1
Climate change
Descriptions of climate and associated change are specific to a time and a location and are
defined over various scales from the local to the global, and over varying degrees of time. Changes
in climate are described by the IPCC in terms of either:2
––
Climate variability: variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard
deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales
beyond that of individual weather events; and
––
Climate change: climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be
identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate
change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing such as modulations of
the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition
of the atmosphere or in land use.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the lead international
forum for developing an international response to climate change, defines climate change as
“a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the
composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability
observed over comparable time periods”3.
The reality of climate change is no longer open to scientific dispute. The most recent IPCC
report on the physical science of climate change concluded in its summary for policy makers
that “warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed
18
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed,
the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of
greenhouse gases have increased”4.
They go on to emphasise that “human influence on the climate system is clear. This is evident
from the increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, positive radiative forcing,
observed warming, and understanding of the climate system”5 .
Other key findings of the IPCC are highlighted in box 1.1.
In addition to assessing recent climate change the IPCC use a number of models to project
changes in the climate system. These are important not only because of their assessment of
potential environmental futures and their corresponding relationship with potential economic,
societal and political futures but also because they act as important drivers for international
climate change negotiations, and the actions of industry, governments and communities. Box 1.2
reports on some of the key findings of the IPCC with respect to future global and regional climate
change.
Box 1.1 ––
Key findings of the IPCC with respect to the physical science of climate changea
Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the Earth’s surface than any preceding decade since
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1850 […]. In the northern hemisphere, 1983–2012 was likely the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years (medium
confidence);b
––
Ocean warming dominates the increase in energy stored in the climate system, accounting for more than 90% of the energy
accumulated between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence). It is virtually certain that the upper ocean (0−700 m) warmed from
1971 to 2010 […] and it likely warmed between the 1870s and 1971;
––
Over the last two decades, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been losing mass, glaciers have continued to shrink
almost worldwide, and Arctic sea ice and northern hemisphere spring snow cover have continued to decrease in extent
(high confidence);
––
The rate of sea level rise since the mid-19th century has been larger than the mean rate during the previous two millennia
(high confidence). Over the period 1901 to 2010, global mean sea level rose by 0.19 m (0.17 m to 0.21 m);
––
The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to levels unprecedented in
at least the last 800,000 years. Carbon dioxide concentrations have increased by 40% since pre-industrial times, primarily
from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land use change emissions. The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the
emitted anthropogenic carbon dioxide, causing ocean acidification; and
––
Total radiative forcingc is positive, and has led to an uptake of energy by the climate system. The largest contribution to total
radiative forcing is caused by the increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2 since 1750.
a) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013a, b).
b) The IPCC use a level of confidence to characterize uncertainty as to the correctness of an analysis or a statement: very high confidence at least 9
out of 10 chance of being correct; high confidence about 8 out of 10 chance; medium confidence about 5 out of 10 chance; low confidence about
2 out of 10 chance; very low confidence less than 1 out of 10 chance.
Likelihood refers to a probabilistic assessment of some well-defined outcome having occurred or occurring in the future: virtually certain >99%
probability of occurrence; very likely >90% probability; likely >66% probability; about as likely as not 33–66% probability; unlikely <33% probability;
very unlikely <10% probability; exceptionally unlikely <1% probability. See: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007)
c) Radiative forcing provides a way to compare the magnitude of different natural and anthropogenic perturbations of the climate system, including
cooling (–) and warming (+) influences. When combined, the net radiative forcing indicates the direction and magnitude of influence on the climate.
See: Scott, D. et al. (2012), p. 23. and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
Tourism and climate change: an international overview
Key findings of the IPCC with respect to future global and regional climate changea
Box 1.2
––
19
Continued emissions of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and changes in all components of the climate system.
Limiting climate change will require substantial and sustained reductions of greenhouse gas emissions;
––
Global surface temperature change for the end of the 21st century is likely to exceed 1.5° C relative to 1850 to 1900 for all
Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP)b scenarios except RCP2.6. It is likely to exceed 2° C for RCP6.0 and RCP8.5,
and more likely than not to exceed 2° C for RCP4.5. Warming will continue beyond 2100 under all RCP scenarios except
RCP2.6. Warming will continue to exhibit interannual-to-decadal variability and will not be regionally uniform;
––
Changes in the global water cycle in response to the warming over the 21st century will not be uniform. The contrast in
precipitation between wet and dry regions and between wet and dry seasons will increase, although there may be regional
exceptions;
––
The global ocean will continue to warm during the 21st century. Heat will penetrate from the surface to the deep ocean and
affect ocean circulation;
It is very likely that the Arctic sea ice cover will continue to shrink and thin and that northern hemisphere spring snow cover
––
will decrease during the 21st century as global mean surface temperature rises. Global glacier volume will further decrease;
––
Global mean sea level will continue to rise during the 21st century […]. Under all RCP scenarios, the rate of sea level rise
will very likely exceed that observed during 1971 to 2010 due to increased ocean warming and increased loss of mass from
glaciers and ice sheets;
––
Climate change will affect carbon cycle processes in a way that will exacerbate the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere (high
confidence). Further uptake of carbon by the ocean will increase ocean acidification; and
––
Cumulative emissions of CO2 largely determine global mean surface warming by the late 21st century and beyond […]. Most
aspects of climate change will persist for many centuries even if emissions of CO2 are stopped. This represents a substantial
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multi-century climate change commitment created by past, present and future emissions of CO2.
a
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
b) A new set of scenarios of anthropogenic contributions to the climate system which was used for the new climate model simulations carried out for
the IPCC under the framework of the World Climate Research Programme. See: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
1.2 Tourism and climate change
The physical impacts and science of climate change present a number of significant challenges for
tourism with respect to its effects on destinations, infrastructure and resources, generating regions,
competitiveness and tourist flows and behaviours, as well as adaptation and mitigation.6 Climate
change is a significant subject of media and public debate. Because tourism is often associated
with transport, and with aviation in particular, tourism is often a focal point for discussions on
climate change in general.7 There is a growing awareness of tourism impacts and the tensions that
may exist in attempting to balance economic development with social and environmental goals.8
Undoubtedly, the relationship between tourism and climate change reflects some of the issues faced
by other industries and economic sectors.9 However, tourism also has specific characteristics and
peculiarities that demand its own mitigation and adaptation response.10 These include tourism’s
significant role in less developed countries and in biodiversity conservation,11 as well as the roles
of climate, environment, risk and security in influencing tourist travel patterns.12
As with other economic sectors, tourism therefore both contributes to and is affected by climate
change. However, tourism is often regarded as being among the more vulnerable sectors because
of its dependence on the environment as a factor in the attractiveness of destinations,13 although
20
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
the long term effects of climate change on tourist decision-making is relatively unknown given the
adaptive capacity of tourists.14
1.3
The contribution of tourism to climate change
Tourism and travel contribute to climate change through emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs),
including in particular CO2, as well as methane (CH4), nitrous oxides (NOx), hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).15 There are also various shortlived GHGs that are important in the context of aviation.16 Because tourism is not recognised
within existing industrial classification schemes, estimating tourism-related emissions requires
the integration of information on the range of components that comprise the tourism system.
Tourism-related emissions include all domestic and international leisure and business travel, and
have thus far been calculated for three major subsectors: transport to and from the destination,
accommodation and activities at destinations.17 A more complete analysis would also have to
include food and beverage,18 infrastructure construction and maintenance, as well as tourist retail
and services; all of these including a lifecycle perspective accounting for the energy embodied in
the goods and services consumed in tourism.19
Tourism transport, accommodation and activities were estimated by independent assessments
for the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and World Economic Forum (WEF) to contribute
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approximately 5% to global anthropogenic emissions of CO2 in the year 2005 (see table 1.1).20
Most CO2 emissions are associated with transport, with aviation accounting for 40% of tourism’s
overall carbon footprint, followed by car transport (32%) and accommodation (21%).21 Cruise ships
are included in ‘other transport’ and, with an estimated 19.2 Mt CO2, account for approximately
1.5% of global tourism emissions.22
Table 1.1
Distribution of emissions from tourism by subsector, 2005
Subsector
CO2 (Mt)
%
Air transport
515
40
Car transport
420
32
Other transport
45
3
Accommodation
275
21
48
4
1,304
100
Activities
Total
Total world
Tourism contribution
26,400
5
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme,
World Meteorological Organization (2008).
Significantly, the UNWTO, UNEP, WMO and WEF assessments of tourism’s contribution to climate
change do not include the impact of non-CO2 short-lived GHGs.23 A more accurate assessment of
21
Tourism and climate change: an international overview
tourism’s contribution to global warming should be made on the basis of radiative forcing (RF).24
Given the range of uncertainty with respect to RF, especially for aviation emissions, it is estimated
that tourism contributed between 5.2% to 12.5% of all anthropogenic forcings in 2005,25 with a
best estimate of approximately 8%.26
1.4
Tourism and future emissions
The greatest challenge in tourism’s contribution to climate change lies in managing the
sector’s future emissions development, given forecasted growth in the foreseeable future.
Emissions from tourism will grow because of several trends, including the growing number of
people travelling, increasing frequency of trips as well as growth in the average length of trips
made, and the growing energy intensity of the transport modes used.27 Based on a businessas-usual scenario for 2035, which considers changes in travel frequency, length of stay,
travel distance and technological efficiency gains, UNWTO, UNEP and WMO calculate that
CO2 emissions from tourism may grow considerably in the coming 25 years.28 The scenario shows
that emissions will increase by about 135% compared with 2005,29 reaching 3059 Mt CO2 by
2035. These estimates can be compared with a projection for emission growth by the World
Economic Forum, which estimates that CO2 emissions from tourism (excluding aviation) will grow
at 2.5% per year until 2035, and emissions from aviation at 2.7%, which suggests emissions of
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3.16 Gt CO2 by 2035 (see table 1.2).30
Table 1.2
Year
Tourism sector emissions and mitigation targets (Gt)
Emission estimates and BAU projections (CO2)
Mitigation targets (CO2)
2005
1.301
1.482
-
2020
2.181
2.322
0.983
1.254
2035
3.061
3.162
0.653
0.944
1) World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
2) World Economic Forum (2009).
3) World Travel & Tourism Council (2009).
Aspirational emission reduction targets are -25% in 2020 and -50% in 2035 (both from 2005 levels specified in World Tourism Organization, United
Nations Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
4) Pathway that limits global average temperature increase to below 2° C; assuming CO2 continues to representing approximately 57% (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (2007)) of the median estimate of 44 Gt CO2e total GHG emissions in 2020 and 203531 and the tourism sector continues to
represent approximately 5% of global CO2 emissions (UNWTO, UNEP, WMO (2008); WEF (2009)) over the same time frame.
Source: Gössling, S. et al. (2013).
Most of the growth in tourism emissions will be associated with air travel. The estimates in
table 1.2 are also consistent with those of aviation organizations and aircraft producers, which
project that the global fleet of aircraft will double between 2011 and 2031, while growth in revenue
passenger kilometres will increase by 150%. Airbus and Boeing forecast that growth in passenger
numbers will be in the order of 4.9% per year to 2031.32 Similarly, the International Energy Agency
suggests that air travel will almost quadruple between 2005–2050, with a tripling of energy use and
emissions.33 These trends imply considerable growth in emissions from tourism and air travel in
particular, if travel and tourism remain on a business-as-usual pathway.34 Even if the per capita per
trip contribution of tourists to GHG emissions continues to fall as a result of increased efficiencies
22
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
from technological and management innovations, as suggested by the UNWTO, WEF, WTTC and
International Air Transport Association (IATA), the absolute contribution will continue to grow as a
result of tourism mobility increasing at a faster rate than efficiency gains.35
Importantly, neither the UNWTO, UNEP, WMO nor WEF projections account for lifecycle emissions,
nor appear to have substantially accounted for potential rebound effects.36 The literature on
rebound effects suggests that below-cost efficiency improvements are likely to result in significant
rebound effects that can substantially erode and, in some cases, even negate potential emissions
reductions.37 No studies have yet been conducted on rebound effects specifically in relation to
tourism, although an air transport study observed that increased consumption of air travel and
tourism would potentially be driven by increases in macroeconomic efficiency gains.38 A model
of the potential long-run rebound effects resulting from the global energy efficiency measures
incorporated into the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report39 estimated that for transport, there
would be a worldwide direct rebound of 9.1% in 2020 and 2030, and a macroeconomic rebound
of 26.9% in 2020 and 43.1% in 2030.40 The total rebound effect for transport is 36% in 2020
and 52% in 2030. Buildings have an even higher estimated total rebound of 44.3% by 2020
and 60.6% for 2030. The expected total global rebound effect on the estimates is 31.5% of the
projected energy savings potential by 2020,41 rising to 51.3% by 2030.42 This means that by 2030
the impacts of energy-efficiencies on emissions reduction will potentially be more than halved and
that the reduction in the potential gains in energy efficiencies over the period to 2035 (see box 1.1)
are cut by more than 35%.43 It is therefore essential that future research to update GHG emission
projections and mitigation scenarios for the tourism sector accounts for the most relevant rebound
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effects at different scales of analysis and in different sectors.44
It is also important to note that estimates of future emissions contributions of tourism by UNWTO,
UNEP, WMO and WEF do not include those of emerging forms of tourism such as space tourism,45
which are potentially extremely significant for climate change.46 If the world embarks on an
absolute emission reduction pathway, growing emissions from tourism will likely to be juxtaposed
against declining overall global emissions.47 It is suggested that a business-as-usual scenario for
tourism, even considering energy efficiency gains, would mean that by 2060, the tourism sector
would account for emissions exceeding the emissions budget for the entire global economy.48
Any systematic approach to mitigation needs to be based on a review of emission intensities,
meaning an assessment of where emissions occur as well as an identification of where further
growth occurs, possibly in combination with an evaluation of the underlying reasons for this
growth.49 This will require a focus on the largest emissions subsectors as well as the major growth
subsectors, because addressing less relevant emission subsectors will not be sufficient to achieve
significant emission reductions. For example, even if emission increases from accommodation
and all transport except aviation fell to zero, overall emissions would still increase, given the
strong growth in air travel.50 Similarly, out of 26 mitigation scenarios developed by UNWTO, UNEP
and WMO,51 only one yields absolute emission reductions. This is a scenario combining high
energy-efficiency gains with considerable modal shifts, changes in the choice of destinations,
and increases in average length of stay. The results indicate that only strong pressure on the
subsectors to become more energy efficient, combined with behavioural and structural change in
tourism consumption with respect to where and how people travel, will lead to absolute reductions
in emissions.52
Tourism and climate change: an international overview
23
In combination with other issues, such as the distribution of travel distances among travellers
and the energy intensity of different transport modes, several relationships of relevance for the
development of emission reduction strategies can be identified:53
––
Aviation is the most important tourism subsector for emissions, because it accounts for 40%
of current tourism emissions and up to 85% of the RF caused by them. It is also the sector
showing the strongest growth, with increase in emissions of at least 2% per year, even
in the most optimistic technology development scenario. This means that, while aviation
emissions may be decreasing on a per capita per trip basis, they are continuing to grow in
absolute terms;
––
A minor share of trips, including in particular the longest flights, but also cruise ship journeys,
is accounting for the majority of emissions from tourism. For instance, in the European
Union, 6% of trips cause 47% of CO2-eq emissions;54 in France, 2% of the longest flights
account for 43% of aviation emissions;55 and in the Netherlands, 4.5% of long-haul trips
cause 26.4% of all tourism emissions;56
––
National studies of tourism emissions show that the tourism sector accounts for a share of
at least 4% and up to 6.8% of total emissions. Figures represent conservative estimates,
although these are also dependent on the system boundaries chosen;
––
Growth in tourism emissions is primarily a result of increasing wealth and the adoption of
more consumptive mobility lifestyles. With global incomes and consumerism increasing in
the newly developed and developing countries, there will be an increase in the number of
people travelling, the distances travelled, the number of trips made by each individual per
year, and the energy intensity of the transport modes chosen; and
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––
The combined emissions from tourism are mainly a result of the travel choices made by those
using aircraft. Within the group of air travellers, a minority of highly mobile or ‘hypermobile’
travellers are disproportionally responsible for a considerable share of the overall global
emissions from tourism.57
1.5Conclusion
This brief overview has highlighted some of the most significant dimensions and trends of climate
change at a global level. It has also indicated that tourism is both affected by and contributes
to climate change. Excluding radiative forcing, tourism is currently responsible for about 5% of
emissions. However, growth in tourism until 2035 is likely to exceed developments in efficiencies.
Aviation is the largest contributor to emissions from tourism. Future research will need to therefore
focus on the relative capacities of technological, managerial and behavioural approaches to
emissions mitigation and reduction. In addition, attention needs to be given to life-cycle analysis
and the role of rebound effects in emissions. Furthermore, there is substantial unevenness in
research on climate change via sector, markets and destinations,58 which also limits the capacities
of the tourism destinations and businesses to appropriately respond to climate change while still
seeking the economic benefits of tourism.
24
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Endnotes
1
Scott, D.; Hall, C. M. and Gössling, S. (2012).
2
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
3
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992).
4
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013), p. 2.
5
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013), p. 13.
6
Hall, C. M. et al. (2005).
Gössling, S. and Hall, C. M. (2006).
and Becken, S. and Hay, J. ( 2007).
Hall, C. M. (2010), pp. 131–145.
World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment
Programme (2008).
Scott, D. (2011), pp. 17–34.
Scott, D. and Becken, S. (2011).
Scott, D. et al. (2012).
Gössling, S.; Scott, D. and Hall, C. M. (2013), pp. 525–538.
7
Scott, D. and Lemieux, C. (2009).
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Ibid.
Scott, D. et al. ( 2012).
8
Gössling, S. and Hall, C. M. (Eds.) (2006).
Scott, D. et al. (2012).
Gössling, S. et al. (2013).
9
Parry, M. L.; Canziani, O. F.; Palutikof, J. P.; van der Linden, P.J.
and Hanson, C. E. (Eds.) (2007).
10 Scott et al. (2012).
Scott, D.; Gössling, S. and Hall, C. M. (201b), pp. 213–232.
See also Peeters, P.M. et al. (2007).
21 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
22 Eijgelaar, E.; Thaper, C.; and Peeters, P. (2010), pp. 337–354.
23 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
World Economic Forum (2009).
24 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
25 Scott, D. et al. (2010).
26 Gössling, S. et al. ( 2013).
27 Dubois, G.; Peeters, P.; Ceron, J. P. and Gössling, S. (2011),
pp. 1031–1042.
Peeters, P. and Landré, M. (2011), pp. 42–71.
Scott, D. et al. (2012).
Gössling, S. et al. (2013).
28 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
29Ibid.
30 World Economic Forum (2009).
31 Rogelj, J. et al. (2011), pp. 413–418.
32 Airbus (2012).
Boeing (2012).
33 International Energy Agency (2009).
34 Scott, D. et al. (2010, 2012, 2012).
35 Gössling, S.; Hall, C. M.; Peeters, P. and Scott, D. (2010),
pp. 119–130.
Hall, C. M. (2010, 2014).
11 Gössling, S.; Peeters, P. and Scott, D. (2008), pp. 873–901.
36 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
Gössling, S.; Hall, C .M. and Scott, D. (2009).
Pentelow, L. and Scott, D. (2011), pp. 199–205.
37 Jenkins, J.; Nordhaus, T. and Shellenberger, M. (2011).
Hall, C. M. et al. (2013).
Hall, C. M. (2010, 2011).
38 Sorrell, S. (2007).
World Economic Forum (2009).
Santarius, T. (2012).
12 Gössling, S. and Hall, C. M. (2006), pp. 163–173.
39 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
Gössling, S.; Scott, D.; Hall, C. M.; Ceron, J. P. and Dubois, G.
(2012), pp. 36–58.
40 Barker, T. et al. (2009).
Hall, C .M. (2013), pp. 1091–1109.
13 Scott, D. et al. (2012).
14 Gössling, S. et al. (2012).
15 Scott, D. et al. (2012).
41 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
42 Barker, T. (2009), pp. 411–427.
43 Hall, C.M.; Scott, D. and Gössling, S. (2013).
44 Hall, C. M.; Scott, D. and Gössling, S. (2013), pp. 112–121.
16 Lee, D. S.et al. (2009), pp. 3520–3537.
45 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
17 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
18 Gössling, S. and Hall, C. M. (2013).
19 Gössling, S. (2013, 2010).
Scott, D. et al. (2012).
Gössling, S. et al. (2013).
20 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
World Economic Forum (2009).
World Economic Forum (2009).
46 Ross, M.; Mills, M. and Toohey, D. (2010).
Scott, D. et al. (2012).
47 Scott, D. et al. (2010).
48Ibid.
49 Scott, D. et al. (2012).
50 Scott, D. et al. (2010).
51 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
Tourism and climate change: an international overview
52 Gössling, S. et al. (2013).
Hall, M. C. (2013).
53 Scott, D. et al. (2012).
54 Peeters , P. M.; Szimba , E. and Duijnisveld, M. (2007), pp. 83–93.
Peeters, P. M.; van Egmond, T. and Visser, N. (2004).
55 Dubois, G. and Ceron, J. P. (2009).
56 de Bruijn, K.; Dirven, R.; Eijgelaar, E. and Peeters, P. (2010).
de Bruijn, K.; Dirven, R.; Eijgelaar, E. and Peeters, P. (2008).
57 Gössling, S.; Ceron, J. P., Dubios, G. and Hall, C. M. (2009),
Hypermobile travellers. In Gössling, S. and Upham, P. (Eds.).
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58 Hall, C. M. (2008), pp. 339–350.
Scott, D. and Matthews (2011).
Scott, D. et al. (2012).
25
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T
27
Chapter 2
Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
The Asia and the Pacific region is likely to account for about half (47%) of global carbon emissions
by 2030.1 Because of its rapid rate of growth,2 the Asian tourism industry is a key player in the
regional response to climate change. The Asia and the Pacific was estimated to account for
23% of international tourist arrivals (233 million) in 2012 with a growth rate of 6.8%,3 and the
region is predicted to achieve a 30% global market share by 2030.4 As a result, the Asia and the
Pacific region is, for example, forecast to have the highest rate of accommodation emissions
growth, increasing from 29% of all accommodation emissions in 2005 to 40% in 2035.5 However,
Asian tourism is also especially vulnerable to climate change, since many tourism businesses and
destinations are extremely dependent on natural resources such as coral reefs, forests, alpine
areas and beaches. In many cases, tourism businesses and destinations also demonstrate a
relative lack of adaptive capacity.6
Despite its economic significance, few assessments have been done on the relationships between
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tourism and climate change in an Asian context at a regional or national level.7 Therefore, the
following discussion will cover the potential impacts of climate change on Asian tourism, the
contribution of regional tourism business to climate change with an example from the hospitality
industry, and the local government response to environmental changes and sustainable
development. Finally, future areas of research are suggested in light of the knowledge gaps
identified.
2.1
Climate change
Driven by rapid economic development, Asia has become a significant contributor to climate
change. The Asia and the Pacific region will account for 47% of global carbon emissions by
2030,8 and will simultaneously face temperature increases, sea level rise and a higher frequency
and magnitude of weather extremes.9 Table 2.1 summarizes the IPCC’s (2012) climate predictions
for Asia, which indicate that the expected temperature increase for Asian sub-regions is generally
higher than the expected global average (1.8–4˚ C) by 2100. The highest increase is projected for
North Asia (4.3˚ C), followed by Central and West Asia (+3.7˚ C), East and South Asia (+3.3˚ C), and
South-East Asia (+2.5˚ C).
28
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Table 2.1
Climate change projections for Asian regions, 2100
North Asia
East Asia
South Asia
South-East
Central and
Asia
West Asia
Annual mean
+4.3
+3.3
+3.3
+2.5
+3.7
Annual mean
+
+9
+11
+7
-3
+
+
+
+
+
Heat wave
Frequency
Intensity
Forest
High-precipitation
Strong
Note:
+
Duration
+
Frequency
+
Area
+
Frequency
Intensity
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+10 -20
+10 -20
Frequency
+10 -20
North and Central Asia: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Russian Federation, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
South-East Asia: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand, Timor-Leste and Viet Nam. South and South-West Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Turkey.
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Source: Solomon, S. et al. (2007); Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007); Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2012).
Temperature increases are likely to lead to increased glacier and permafrost melt in the Himalayas,
Xizang Autonomous Region, and the north-western part of China, with potential consequences for
water availability in the long-term,10 as well as for tourism development. The melting of mountain
permafrost will increase natural hazards for mountain communities as well as for infrastructure.
As highlighted by the impacts of Typhoon Haiyan in Philippines in November 2013,11 Asia is affected
by 90% of global climate-related catastrophes,12 and is predicted to be exposed to the highest life
and asset risks in the world as a result of increases in climate extremes.13 Extreme weather events
displaced more than 42 million people in Asia and the Pacific during 2010 and 2011.14 Heat wave
events are likely to increase in frequency and duration region-wide and become more intense
in some areas, such as East Asia, Central and West Asia.15 There is also an increasing trend of
stronger tropical cyclones (also called typhoon or hurricane) in East Asia, South Asia, and SouthEast Asia, and high precipitation events in all sub-regions. Regional sea level rise could reach
40 cm by 2100, which is potentially higher than the estimated global average of 18–59 cm. Given
such conditions, the coastal lowlands of Asia are highly vulnerable to environmental change.16
With a coastal erosion rate of up to four to six metres per year in some locations,17 Asian mega
cities (also recognized as major tourist destinations, transport hubs and source regions), including
Tokyo, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Seoul, Taipei, Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, Jakarta, Manila, Dhaka,
Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Karachi will be potentially highly affected by climate change,
including flooding and landslides.18 Approximately 88% of regional coral reef is also likely to
disappear because of the multiple effects of climate change in the next 30 years,19 creating
significant issues for a number of coastal destinations. However, it is important to stress that the
impacts of climate change will affect tourism not only through its influence on destinations, but
also because of its capacity to reduce economic growth and per capita income, thereby affecting
tourism demand as well.
29
Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
2.2
The impact of extreme weather events on tourism
Although no single extreme weather event can be directly identified as being caused by climate
change, IPCC20 research highlights the likelihood of an increase in the magnitude and frequency of
extreme weather events as a result of climate change. The economically important Asian tourism
industry is especially vulnerable to climate change and extreme weather events in particular
because many local tourism businesses are directly or indirectly dependent on natural tourism
resources and demonstrate a substantial lack of adaptive capacity.21 Asian ski tourism, beach
tourism, and eco-tourism have been identified in IPCC reports as being especially vulnerable to
climate change.22 Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, sand storms, droughts, typhoons,
and extreme rainfall, which are expected to worsen in frequency and intensity, are already reported
to have impacted tourism to some degree, especially in the fields of urban tourism, heritage
tourism, nature-based tourism (e.g., mountain, forest, lake and river), coastal and small islands
tourism, and events that depend on climate influenced attractions (e.g., floral, water, ice and bird
watching festivals) (table 2.2). Further details on the impacts of such extreme events are presented
in the following sections.
Table 2.2
Summary of reported extreme weather events and climate change impacts on Asian tourism
industry
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Type of
Higher temp
Sand
Drought
Typhoon
Sea level rise
✓
✓
v
Urban
✓
Heritage
✓
Hot spring
✓
Mountain
✓
✓
Lake
✓
✓
Coast
✓
✓
✓
Small
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Urban tourism
Much Asian urban tourism is located in highly vulnerable, low-lying mega cities such as
Manila, Ho Chi Minh City, Shanghai, Jakarta, and Calcutta. Flooding events, mainly driven by
typhoons, extreme rainfall and sea level rise are some of the most influential weather events
in Asian urban tourism.23 In Bangkok, 72% of the current city will be affected by sea level rise
within the next 50 years.24 Since these megacities are core tourism destinations and generators
as well as transportation hubs, both domestic and inbound tourism are vulnerable to weather
events. In the 2011 Thailand flood event, inbound tourism suffered a loss of USD 469–781 million
(15–25 billion Thai Baht).25 In contrast, some Asian cities, such as Manila, are also at risk of water
scarcity due to increasing drought events.26 Climate change can also lead to higher energy costs.
For instance, Taipei tourism operators are facing the problem of expensive air-conditioning cost
because of higher temperatures.27
30
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Heritage tourism
Some Asian heritage sites are vulnerable to climate change phenomena.28 For instance, over
20% of Dunhuang Cave in China has been damaged by frequent sand storms, severe floods and
the 15 June 2011 extreme rainfall event, as well as desertification effects resulting from higher
temperatures and excessive water consumption by high numbers of residents and tourists.29
It is also reported that 90% of Ayutthaya, the famous United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO] World Heritage Site in Thailand, was damaged or destroyed by
the 2010 Thailand flood event.30
Hot spring tourism
Hot spring tourism is an important part of the tourism culture in North-East Asia, yet the Taiwanese
experience suggests that this form of tourism may also be vulnerable to weather events. In Taiwan
Province of China, the period of the peak season of hot spring businesses (the winter period)
has been decreasing due to higher air temperatures. Beitou hot spring resorts have lost 30% of
annual business, partially attributed to warmer winters, as well as hotter and longer summers.31
In such conditions, market competition is increased because many hot spring operators promote
lower-price products in an attempt to attract customers. The supply of hot spring water might
also be potentially restricted because of increasing drought periods.32 Hot spring resorts located
in mountain areas, for example the Ku Kuan, Chihpen and Lushan hot spring areas, have also
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experienced monetary and property loss due to extreme rainfall and typhoon events.33 The Lushan
hot spring resorts were forced to close in 2012 after a series of extreme events, such as the July
2004 flood event which damaged eight hotels, the 2008 Typhoon Sinlaku events with a loss of
36 hotels, and the 2008 Super Typhoon Jangmi event.34
Mountain and forest tourism
The development of Asian mountain tourism is also affected by climate change phenomena,
including changing temperatures and the occurrence of extreme weather events. Higher
temperatures have affected biodiversity attractions, infrastructure, seasonality, and water supply
in mountain sites. For instance, the Qinghai-Tibet railway and highway, the major gateway to the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China, is vulnerable to damage from melting permafrost.35 The peak
season of many Asian ski resorts also appears to be shorter. It was predicted36 that the snow
cover period of Yongpyong Ski Resort, Republic of Korea, would decrease 10–40% by 2100
on the basis of the IPCC’s A1B scenario.37 Similarly, Japan’s ski resorts are forecasted to lose
30% of tourists with a temperature rise of 3˚ C, except for Hokkaido and high-altitude areas.38 Some
mountain destinations, such as Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal, are likely to experience water
scarcity as glacier runoff decreases.39 Asian forest destinations are also threatened by typhoons
and extreme rainfall events.40 For instance, because of the 2009 Typhoon Morakot event, Alishan
National Forest Recreation Area in Taiwan Province of China was closed for nine months with a
loss of USD 34 million (TWD 1 billion) of tourism income and 300,000 tourists per month.41
Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
31
Lake and river tourism
Lake and river destinations have been adversely influenced by climate phenomena. Flood and
typhoon events can cause financial loss for operators both from their direct impacts as well as
from their impact on consumer perceptions. In 2008, hotels in Sun Moon Lake, Taiwan Province
of China experienced a cancellation of 80% of room bookings as a result of news that a typhoon
was predicted.42 Climate events have also left long-term or unrecoverable impacts on water-side
infrastructure and attractions in Asia. For instance, 80% of park facilities and 60 riverside hotels
in the Swat Valley, Pakistan, were destroyed by the 2010 flood.43 In Japan, the iconic drift-ice
scenery in Lake Suwa is disappearing with the increasing temperatures.44
Small island and coastal tourism
The future of Asia’s small island and coastal tourism becomes challenging with the change of
climate. The common regional issue is the deterioration of marine resources, which is mainly
caused by higher temperatures, frequent droughts, typhoons and heavy rainfall.45 18 dive sites
in Krabi, Thailand, have been closed as a result of severe coral bleaching.46 Coastal erosion,
mainly driven by sea level rise,47 threatens the operation of 45% of tourist resorts in Maldives as
well as infrastructure.48 Thua Thien-Hue, Viet Nam’s central province is forecast to lose 28.8% of
its tourism revenue with the disappearance of four iconic beaches in the next decade due to sea
level rise.49 Coastal and island tourism businesses are especially vulnerable to typhoon events,
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especially when transport is closed for safety reasons. Penghu Island in Taiwan Province of China
lost 2,000 visitor arrivals and USD 6.7 million (NTD 200 million) of tourism income as a result of the
closure of the air and marine transport network in the 2008 Typhoon Sinlaku event.50
2.3
Tourism’s contributions to climate change
Transport
The growth in tourism transport as a result of Asia’s economic development will be a major driver
in greenhouse gas emissions from tourism in the region in coming years. Boeing’s 2013 annual
forecast suggested that 35,000 new aircraft, worth perhaps USD 4.8 trillion, will be needed to meet
forecast demand in the period 2013–2032. Of these, almost 12,820 will be single aisled planes of
which more than one third will be used in Asia.51 Similarly, the ADB52 predicts that private vehicle
ownership will double every five years in many Asian countries, with growth in many larger urban
areas often doubling every two to three years. As a result of car growth, many city governments
have invested in public transport systems such as the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) networks in Tokyo;
Hong Kong, China; Bangkok; Jakarta; Taipei; Beijing and Hangzhou, China. These systems are
beneficial in terms of mitigating traffic congestion, air pollution and carbon emissions from the
transport sector.53 The reduction of aviation emissions on the other hand, has proven to be more
controversial; with some countries, such as China, refusing to allow its airlines to participate in the
European Union’s emission control schemes.
32
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Accommodation and hospitality
It is predicted that hospitality businesses will soon account for nearly one-quarter of the tourism
industry’s carbon emissions, because of the high growth in hotel establishments and their energyintensive nature.54 The WEF55 estimates that, even allowing for greater energy efficiencies, carbon
emissions from accommodation are forecast to grow at 3.2% per year, reaching 728 Mt CO2 by
2035. The Asia and the Pacific region is expected to have the highest rate of accommodation
emissions growth, increasing from 29% of all accommodation emissions in 2005 to 40% in 2035.
Carbon emissions from the accommodation sector depend on the level of energy consumption,
which varies with floor area, room number, occupancy rate, facility standard, service quality,
energy source, energy price and climatic location of hotels as well as water and material usage
and level of waste production.56 Asian three to five star lodging facilities generally have higher
energy consumption levels than European hotels, and it is usually thought that the use of airconditioning services is the key reason for their intensive energy consumption.57
Asian hotels are likely to use more water than other lodging facilities. The average water
consumption of Taiwanese hotels is about 902 litres per night,58 which is one of the highest rates
of use among international hotels. In addition, liquid and solid waste produced by lodging facilities
also contributes to deteriorating water and ecosystem quality.59 In Hong Kong, China for example,
the hotel industry generated more than 12 million m3 of sewage and 59,716 tonnes of solid waste
in 2003, at an environmental cost of USD 16.5 million (HKD 128 million).60 Nevertheless, the
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availability of data and a lack of standardized units to estimate hotel resource usage mean that a
region wide overview is not possible.
Consumers
Global surveys indicate that public awareness of climate change and its impacts is higher in
Eastern Asia than in South and South-East Asia. However, the whole region generally has lower
levels of support for climate change policies and lifestyle adjustments than other areas, except
for African and Middle Eastern countries.61 It was also found that Asian air passengers had the
lowest recognition of the relationship between flying and climate change, related problems, the
Kyoto protocol and carbon taxes;62 as well as the impact of their willingness to pay among global
air travellers.63
A Hong Kong, China, household study showed that participants had low awareness and
participation levels in carbon offset projects by airline companies. Particularly frequent travellers
showed a lower willingness to voluntarily modify their travel behaviours than inactive travellers,
although they were highly aware of climate change issues.64 It was suggested that Taiwanese
air travellers had moderate to high environmental knowledge and a positive attitude toward
environmental issues, and that this was the case especially for female, older and well-educated
customers.65 However, they rarely considered environmental factors in their travel decisions, even
though they perceived environmental behaviour as being a part of their daily lives. These results
also correspond to the behaviours of Taiwan Province of China and Malaysian hotel guests.66
Research has also indicated that Indian customers have positive attitudes toward green hotels, as
long as such hotels do not lower service quality nor charge higher prices.67 Overall studies from
the region have only identified limited willingness to pay more for green hospitality products.68
Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
2.4
33
Tourism government response to climate change
The issue of climate change has provided a focal point for Asian government policy with respect to
sustainable tourism. Although there is a lack of agreed international measures on climate change,
national governments have utilised a range of policy instruments in order to adapt to and mitigate
climate change.
Table 2.3 provides examples of tourism-climate change policies in Asian countries that have been
identified on the basis of an analysis of the available reports and websites of regional tourism
governments and climate change authorities. Although sustainable tourism policies have been
adopted in the region,69 only a few countries, such as Lao PDR and Viet Nam, have introduced
specific climate change adaptation strategies into tourism legislation. Many Asian countries utilise
soft instruments to manage climate change related issues, such as energy-saving practices,
infrastructure reinforcement, coastal destination protection, climate impact assessment and
disaster management. Some countries have been supported by international organizations to
conduct climate change impact assessment or carbon-neutral programmes, such as Sri Lanka’s
Tourism Earth Lung initiative.70 Several countries have also initiated green mark schemes. For
example, by 2011, 1,778 lodgings were participating in China’s Green Hotel initiative, accounting
for 12.6% of the hotel industry.71
The rapid expansion of tourism is often based on sensitive natural and cultural zones.72 Although
itself threatened by climate change, the Maldives’ Third Tourism Master Plan73 proposed the
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‘deep-sea disposal of waste’ regulation for island resorts, and the construction of ten domestic
airports.74
Table 2.3
Examples of Asian tourism planning and policy responses to climate change per category
and country
Country
Tourism
Authority
Legislation and regulation
India
Guidelines for the ‘Approval of Hotel Projects:’ addressing issues of the
Ministry of Tourism
eco-friendly and energy saving measures.
Ministry of Tourism, Government of India (2011)
China
Seven-point strategy as the basic framework of sustainable tourism.
National Tourism Administration
United Nations (2001)
Nepal
National Eco-Tourism Strategy (2004) for Biodiversity Conservation.
Ministry of Culture, Tourism
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Nepal (2008)
and Civil Aviation
Mountain Entrance Permit: Charging trekkers entrance fees for protecting
of Annapurna Conservation Area.
Bajracharya, S. B. (2009)
Guidelines of Tourism District Committee, Humla: Regulating new
District Development
establishments to apply for climate-proof facilities and activities.
Commission of Humla
Roman, C. and McEvoy, D. (2010)
Bhutan
Low-volume, high-yield tourism policy (1974).
Nyaupane, G. P. and Timothy, D. J. (2010)
Tourism Council of Bhutan
34
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Country
Sri Lanka
Maldives
Tourism
Authority
Tourism development guidelines: highlighting the potential climate change
Sri Lanka Tourism Development
impacts for tourism investors and adopting climate change adaptations in
Authority,
tourism planning.
Ministry of Economic
Government of Sri Lanka and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2012)
Development
Tourism Law (Law no. 2/99): Extensive environmental controls on resorts and
Ministry of Tourism, Arts and
coastal developments including mandatory environmental impact
Culture (2012)
assessments.
United Nations Environment Programme (2005)
Maldives Third Tourism Master Plan 2007-2011:
–– Environmentally Sustainable Tourism Policy (limits on built-up space to
protect the environment;
–– Limits on tourist numbers;
–– Reef-protection measures;
–– Environment regulatory regime of tourism products and facilities;
environmental monitoring of coral reefs, dive sites and marine protected
area; and
–– Identify and enforce adaptation measures for climate change and
disaster mitigation for the tourism industry from Strategic National Action
Plan (SNAP).
Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Maldives (2007)
Ministry of Tourism Arts and Culture, Maldives (2012)
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National Adaptation Plan of Action:
–– Coastal protection and coastal zone management to protect tourist
infrastructure;
–– Diversify the tourist product to reduce over-dependency on marine
environment; and
–– Develop climate change adaptation policy and strategy for tourism.
Ministry of Environment, energy and Water, Maldives (2007)
Thailand
The Seven Green Policies: conducting programs like Green Heart, Activity,
Ministry of Tourism ans Sports
Community, Logistics, Service, Attraction and Green Plus to encourage
tourism sectors against global warming.
Mingmethaporn, K. (2009)
Viet Nam
–– Tourism Law Articles 5, 6, 15, 18, 19 (2005): Consider the adverse
impacts of climate change in sustainable tourism development and
tourism resource management;
–– Tourism Law Articles 7, 9, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 64, 66, 68 (2005):
Stakeholders have responsibility to protect tourism environment and
enhance capacity of managing the adverse climate change impacts on
tourism resources;
–– Tourism Law Articles 10, 14 (2005): Conduct surveys to investigate the
impacts of tourism on climate change; and
–– Tourism Law Article 76 (2005): Promote environmentally friendly tour
programs, and discourage tourism activities that may contribute to
climate change.
United Nations Environment Programme (2011)
Viet Nam National
Administration of Tourism
Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
Country
Indonesia
35
Tourism
Authority
–– Law No. 10/2009 on Sustainable Tourism Development;
Ministry of Culture and Tourism
–– Law No. 27/2007 on Coastal Areas and Small Islands; and
–– Law No. 32/2009 on Environment Protection and Management Republic
of Indonesia (2011).
Lao PDR
–– Tourism Law Articles 1, 4, 5, 52, 69, 72, 74 (2005): Stakeholders should
take measures to adapt the adverse impacts of climate change in
Lao PDR national Tourism
Administration
tourism development; and
–– Tourism Law Article 60 (2005): National Tourism Fund shall conduct the
research of climate change impact on tourism and adaptation measures.
United Nations Environment Programme (2011)
Licenses, permits, consents
Turkey
Certificate of Environmentally Responsible Accommodation Facilities
The Ministry of Culture and
(Green Star): 22 certificated hotels.
Tourism
Özden, M. S. (2012).
Thailand
Green Label Scheme.
Thailand Environment Institute
United Nations Environment Programme and World Tourism Organization (2012)
Japan
Green Leaf Program.
Tourism Authority of Thailand
Green Leaf Foundation (2013)
and Thai Hotels Association
Eco Mark.
Eco Mark Office
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Eco Mark Office (2013)
India
China
Hong Kong
Eco Mark Scheme.
Ministry of Environment and
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2013)
Forests
Green Hotel Label.
National Green Hotel
National Green Hotel Association (2013)
Association
Green Label Scheme.
Green Council
Green Council, Hong Kong (2013)
Singapore
Green Label Hotel Certification.
Singapore Environment Council
Singapore Environment Council (2013)
Project and programme initiatives
Sri Lanka
Coastal nourishment plan.
Ministry of Fisheries and
Government of Sri Lanka and UNDP (2012)
Aquatic Resources
National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (Thrust 4): Identification of
Sri Lanka Tourism Development
major food-borne diseases and their severity in tourism areas of Sri Lanka in
Authority, Ministry of Economic
relation to climate changes.
Development
Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka (2010)
India
Capacity Building Scheme for Service Providers: Training to tourism sectors
Ministry of Tourism
to use energy-saving techniques.
Ministry of Tourism, Government of India (2011)
Maldives
Maldives Third Tourism Master Plan 2007-2011: Establishing a Tourism
Emergency Operation Centre; and Disaster Response Team (DRT) for
preparing for resort-specific crises and industry-wide disasters.
Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Maldives (2007)
Ministry of Tourism Arts and Culture, Maldives (2012)
Ministry of Tourism, Arts
36
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Country
Nepal
Tourism
Authority
The Tourism for Rural Poverty Alleviation Programme (TRPAP): Enhancing
Ministry of Culture, Tourism
tourism and environmental awareness, waste management, the adoption of
and Civil Aviation
renewable/alternative energy technology in remote, high tourism-potential
areas.
Pandey, R. J. (2009)
Cambodia
Computer-based information system for assessing sea level rise in coastal
Royal Government of Cambodia
areas.
United Nations Environment Programme (2011)
Coastal protection infrastructure.
United Nations Environment Programme (2011)
Water Management Project for tourism use.
United Nations Environment Programme (2011).
Philippines
Low-carbon initiative of Climate Friendly Cities Program: Electric Jeepneys
Province of Palawan
(Greening public transport).
Matias, D. M. (2011)
Save the Climate Save Boracay project: Organizing workshop to provide
Department of Tourism
resorts options for lessening their carbon footprint.
Philippines Today (2009)
National Disaster and Calamities Preparedness Plan: Organizing tourism
National Disaster Coordinating
operators to join disaster control groups and reaction team.
Council, Secretary of Tourism
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Duhaylungsod, N. C. and Mendoza, R. B. (2009)
Zero Carbon Resorts project with 26 participants in Puerto Princesa.
Province of Palawan
Matias, D. M. (2011)
Thailand
Phuket Island Project: Enhancing low season (monsoon season) demand
Phuket Island Province
(e.g., non-climate related activities) and managing water shortage issues,
and conducting Tourism Risk Management Strategy 2007-2012.
Raksakulthai, V. (2003)
The assessment of impact of climate change on Thailand tourism clusters:
Ministry of Tourism and Sports
Identifying highly vulnerable tourism businesses to climate change, such as
hot springs, adventure tropical forests, the central region river basin, the
coast, the Jewel track and agro tourism.
South-East Asia START Regional Centre (2010)
Viet Nam
Indonesia
Disaster prevention plan in coastal tourism areas.
Viet Nam National
Socialist Republic of Viet Nam (2007)
Administration of Tourism
Bali Green Province Project.
Bali Province
Matias, D. M. (2011)
Lao PDR
Singapore
Flood Management project for scenic areas.
Lao PDR National Tourism
UNED (2011)
Administration
Southern Islands Development Plan: Energy-efficient and clean
Singapore Tourism Board
transportation systems and flora and fauna survey.
Cruz, R. G. (2005)
Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
Country
Tourism
37
Authority
Public-private partnership
Sri Lanka
Tourism Earth Lung initiative: Building a carbon neutral destination by 2018.
Sri Lanka Tourism Development
United Nations Environment Programme (2007)
Authority, Ministry of Economic
Development
Thailand
The Program for Energy Efficiency in Kho Khao and Kho Lak (PEEK):
Ministry of Tourism and Sports
Assisting Thai Andaman coast hotels to reduce GHG emissions and energy
costs by energy-saving technologies with UNWTO.
World Tourism Organization (2011)
Indonesia
UNWTO joint programs:
Ministry of Culture and Tourism
–– Tourism-Development Linking Biodiversity;
–– Energy Efficiency for Sustainable Tourism; and
–– Coral Adoption in Pangandaran.
Republic of Indonesia (2011)
Singapore
Tourism Compass 2020: Developing environmentally sustainable tourism
Singapore Tourism Board
attractions, including green project of Resorts World Sentosa, solar-powered
eco-cooling systems at Universal Studios Singapore, and Gardens by the
Bay.
Singapore’s Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources
Promotion
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Sri Lanka
Maldives
Tourism Development Strategy 2011-2016: Initiating “Beach Conservation
Sri Lanka Tourism Development
Day”.
Authority, Ministry of Economic
Ministry of Economic Development, Sri Lanka (2010)
Development
–– Maldives Green Resort Award; and
Ministry of Tourism Arts and
–– Awareness campaigns of resource management for tourism staff and
Culture
guests.
Ministry of Environment, energy and Water, Maldives (2007)
Maldives Third Tourism Master Plan 2007-2011: Promoting environmental
conservation through marketing and awareness programs.
Ministry of Civil Aviation, Maldives (2007)
Ministry of Tourism Arts, and Culture, Maldives (2012)
Indonesia
Citra Pesona Wisata Awards for tourism sustainability; Aceh Green Project;
Ministry of Culture and Tourism
Green Hotel Award.
Ministry of Environment
Republic of Indonesia (2011)
Aceh Province
2.5Conclusion
The Asian tourism industry will be profoundly affected by climate change related impacts, including
higher temperatures, sea level rise and extreme weather events.75 Growth in domestic and
international tourism in the region will also be a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.
However, despite the significance of tourism to many of the region’s economies, there is a relative
dearth of research on the impacts of climate change and tourism on Asia and the Pacific countries
as compared to Europe and North America. This relative lack of knowledge characterises both the
production and supply dimensions of tourism as well as consumers’ understandings of climate
38
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
change and the long-term impacts of demand.76 Currently, though there is some understanding
of emissions and responses with respect to the accommodation and transport sectors, little is
known about other tourism sectors. Major challenges remain at the destination level to understand
the implications for different markets and develop strategies to respond to climate change.
Nevertheless, on the positive side, the existence of a range of sustainable tourism measures
enacted by governments in the region arguably provides a basis for greater efforts with respect to
the climate change and tourism relationship in the future.
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Endnotes
1
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
MCOT Public Company Limited (2010).
2
World Tourism Organization (2012.
Mingpao News (2011).
3
World Tourism Organization (2013).
29 Xinhua News (2007); Mingpao News (2011).
4
World Tourism Organization (2012).
30 MCOT Public Company Limited (2010).
5
World Economic Forum (2009).
31 China Times (2007).
6
Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007); Simpson, M. C. et al. (2008);
Asian Development Bank (2012).
32 Taipei Water Department (2003).
7
Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007); Hall, C. M. (2008); Simpson, M. C. et al.
(2008); Amelung, B.; Moreno, A. and Scott, D. (2008); Gössling, S.
et al. (2009); Scott, D.; Hall, C. M. and Gössling, S. (2012).
8
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
34 Water Resource Agency (2010, 2012); Nantou County Government
(2012).
9
Li, C.; Su, Y. P. and Hall, C .M. (2012), pp. 45–65.
35 Xinhua News (2009).
33 Liberty Times (2004); Taiwan Panorama (2009);
East Rift Valley National Scenic Area (2012);
Nantou County Government (2012).
10 Whaley, F. (2008); Asian Development Bank (2012).
36 Heo, I. and Lee, S. (2008), pp. 715–727.
11 Vidal, J. (2013).
37 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
12 Greater London Authority (2007); Kreft, S. and Eckstein, D. (2013).
38 Fukushima, T. et al. (2002).
13 Hanson, S.; Nicholls, R.; Ranger, N.; Hallegatte, S.; Corfee-Morlot, J.;
Herweijer, C. and Chateau, J. (2011), pp. 89–111.
39 Nyaupane, G. P. and Chhetri, N. (2009), pp. 95–119.
41 National Policy Foundation (2009).
Asian Development Bank (2012).
40 Khan, A. et al. (2010).
14 Asian Development Bank (2013).
42 Now News (2008).
15 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2012).
43 Khan, A. et al. (2010).
16 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
44 Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology,
Japan Meteorological Agency and Ministry of the Environment (2009).
17 Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007).
18 Asian Development Bank (2012).
19 Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007); Scott, D. et al. (2012).
20 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007, 2012, 2013).
21 Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007); Simpson, M. C. et al. (2008);
Asian Development Bank (2012).
22 Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007).
23 Liberty Times (2007, 2009); China Times (2007); Kumar, R. et al.
(2008); World Wide Fund for Nature (2009); Bangkok Metropolitan
Administration,Green Leaf Foundation, and United Nations
Environment Programme (2009); Marks, D. (2011).
45 Raksakulthai, V. (2003); Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water,
Maldives (2007); ETtoday (2007); World Wide Fund for Nature (2008);
China Times (2009); Liberty Times (2009); Ministry of Housing,
Transport and Environment, Maldives (2009); Athulathmudali, S.;
Balasuriya, A. and Fernando, K. (2011).
46 World Wide Fund for Nature (2008).
47 Kelkar, U. and Bhadwal, S. (2007); Athulathmudali, S.; Balasuriya, A.
and Fernando, K. (2011).
48 Kelkar, U. and Bhadwal, S. (2007).
49 Viet Nam Business Forum (2010).
24 Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, Green Leaf Foundation and
United Nations Environment Programme (2009).
50 Penghu Daily News (2008).
52 Asian Development Bank (2013).
Marks, D. (2011), pp. 229–258.
51 Boeing (2013).
25 Bangkok Post (2011).
53 Zhang, Z. (2008), pp. 3905–3924.
26 World Wide Fund for Nature (2009.
54 World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment
Programme (2008).
27 Liberty Times (2007, 2009).
55 World Economic Forum (2009).
28 Xinhua News (2007).
56 Deng, S. and Burnett, L. S. (2003); Önüt, S. and Soner, S. (2006);
Bohdanowicz, P. and Martinac, I. (2007); Hsieh, M. J. (2010); Wang,
J. C. (2012); Su, Y. P., Hall, C. M. and Ozanne, L. (2012).
Shankar, L. J. (2011).
57 Deng, S. and Burnett, J. (2000, 2003); Priyadarsini, R.; Xuchao, W.
and Eang, L. S. (2009).
67 Manaktola, K. and Jauhari, V. (2007), pp. 364–377.
58 Lin, Y. J. and Lee, J. Y. (2008).
68 Hsieh, C. L. (2006); Manaktola, K. and Jauhari, V. (2007).
59 Gössling, S. et al. (2012).
69 Nyaupane, G. P. and Timothy, D. J. (2010), pp. 969–988.
60 Chan, W. W. (2005), pp. 517–531.
70 United Nations Environment Programme (2007).
61 Kim, S. Y. (2011), pp. 319–331.
71 Wu, P. and Shi, P. (2011), pp. 733–745.
62 Brouwer, R.; Brander, L. and Van Beukering, P. (2008), pp. 299–313.
72 Taipei Times (2008); Gaughan, A. E.; Binford, M. W. and
Southworth, J. (2009); Zhang, Z.; Liu. L. and Li, X. (2009);
Kuvan, Y. (2010).
63 Chan, W. W. (2005).
64 McKercher, B.; Prideaux, B.; Cheung, C. and Law, R. (2010),
pp. 297–317.
65 Chen, F. Y.; Hsu, P. Y. and Lin, T. W. (2011), pp. 78–86.
66 Yeh, P. H.; Tsai, C. F. and Huan, T. C. (2003); Kasim, A. (2004);
Kung, F. C. and Tseng, Y. F. (2004); Tsai, C. W. and
Tsai, C. P. (2008).
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Climate change and tourism in Asia: a review
See also other similar findings form (e.g.) Kim and Heesup (2010).
73 Maldives’ Third Tourism Master Plan (2007–2011).
74 Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, Maldives (2007); Ministry of
Tourism, Arts and Culture, Maldives (2012)
75 Cruz, R. V. et al. (2007); Li, C. et al. (2012).
76 Hall, C. M. (2008), pp. 339–350.
39
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T
41
Chapter 3
Pacific tourism building resilience and
adaptive capacity to climate change Small island developing states and territories (SIDST) in the Pacific face a range of development
challenges and are subject to continual environmental change and multiple risks to their
livelihoods.1 The Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (PIFS) notes that, as a whole region, the Pacific
region’s development towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has been “slow and
uneven.”2 With direct impacts on livelihoods and therefore impeding progress of MDGs in the
region, climate change is one of the most pressing environmental and economic issues facing the
Pacific SIDST.3
Tourism is a key economic sector for many developing countries and especially least developed
countries with limited alternative development options.4 As the largest export sector, a major
job creator and a key contributor of gross domestic product (GDP) for most Pacific Island
countries, tourism makes a crucial contribution to human development, economic growth and
foreign exchange earnings in the region.5 During the global financial crisis commencing in 2008,
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tourism sustained many Pacific Island economies.6 Tourism remains the biggest single contributor
to the ‘Pillar 1’ (Economic Growth) of the current Pacific Plan, the master strategy for regional
cooperation and integration in the Pacific.7 Tourism is strategically endorsed within the Pacific
Tourism Ministers Vision that “tourism will inspire sustainable economic growth and empower the
Pacific people”.8
Pacific tourism is considered to be highly vulnerable to climate change impacts due to its climate
sensitive nature as well as the characteristics of SIDST, ranging from limited natural resources to
limited funds and human resources.9 Sea level rise, storm surges, more frequent and/or intense
tropical cyclones, warming sea temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns affect the physical
attributes of destinations and tourism infrastructure in the Pacific. This has consequent influences
on destination attractiveness and tourists’ patterns of travel.10 It is imperative for the tourism
sector in the Pacific to adapt to climate change impacts which local communities are on the front
line to face.
A research project was undertaken to assist the Pacific Island tourism sector to build their
resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change so that tourism can continue to assist Pacific
communities in maintaining and growing their livelihoods. The project attracted funds from
the Australian International Development Research Awards (ADRA) provided by the Australian
Agency for International Development (AusAID) which, apart from managing most of the official
aid programs of the Australian Government, also funds practical research to reduce poverty
and achieve sustainable development and to “[…] help inform where and how our own and our
partners’ resources can most effectively and efficiently be deployed”.11
While the formal title of the research project was ‘Applying innovative sustainability science to
develop effective climate change adaptation policies and strategies for the South Pacific Island
42
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
tourism sector to protect and grow local livelihoods’,12 the three year project (2009–2012) became
known as Pacific Tourism – Climate Adaptation Project (PT-CAP). The research project developed
a tourism adaptation toolkit framework to assist tourism destinations in the Pacific to adapt to
climate change risks. This chapter provides an overview of the PT-CAP research and the toolkit
framework which was developed during the project.
3.1
Tourism and climate change in the Pacific
In the global context, the tourism sector in the Pacific destinations is small, but, nevertheless,
vitally important to the small island developing economies. The most recent Annual Pacific
Plan Progress Report13 confirmed that tourism remained a key driver of economic growth in the
Pacific region. This is supported by the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) 2013 report on
Other Oceanic States which reported the direct contribution of travel and tourism to GDP was
USD 3,619.5 million (12.5% of total GDP) in 2012. Table 3.1 illustrates the direct contribution
of tourism to regional GDP is forecast to continue to rise at a rate of 5.4% per annum over the
next decade (to USD 6,459.6 million in 2023 based on constant 2012 prices). Travel and tourism
directly supported 66,000 regional jobs in 2012, representing 17.2% of total regional employment.
This is expected to rise by 1.6% annually to 79,000 jobs (18.8% of total employment) by 2023.
If indirect employment is taken into account this figure increases to 40.5% of total employment
(156,000 jobs) in 2012 with projected increases of 1.6% annually to 186,000 jobs in 2023 (44.4%
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of total jobs).
Table 3.1
Economic impact of tourism Other Oceanic States
2012
GDP contribution
Direct employment
Total employment
direct and indirect
12.5%
USD 3,619.5 mn
17.2%
of total employment
66,000 jobs
40.5%
of total employment
156,000 jobs
2023 forecast
Per annum rate of increase
(in constant 2012 prices)
(%)
USD 6,459.6 mn
5.4
79,000 jobs
1.6
18.8% of total employment
186,000 jobs
1.6
44.4% of total jobs
Source: World Travel & Tourism Council (2013).
Pacific Island nations are at the forefront of climate change impacts. As the South Pacific Regional
Environment Program (SPREP) agency recently reported, a range of quality scientific sources
continue to confirm the evidence of the earth’s rapidly changing climate. This is contributing to
heating of the oceans and air, rainfall patterns changing, rising sea levels and climate induced
changes in life cycles, distribution of plants and animals, and threats to the food supplies,
freshwater and livelihoods of Pacific Islanders. In fact Pacific Islanders are considered to be “on
the frontline of humanity’s efforts to combat and adapt to climate change”.14 In 2009, the individual
leaders of member countries of the Pacific Islands Forum noted: “For Pacific Island states, climate
change is the great challenge of our time. It threatens not only our livelihoods and living standards,
but the very viability of some of our communities. Though the role of Pacific Island States in the
causes of climate change is small, the impact on them is great. Many Pacific people face new
challenges in access to water. The security of our communities and the health of populations is
placed in greater jeopardy. And some habitats and island states face obliteration”.15
Pacific tourism building resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change 43
Pacific Islands have limited natural resources, face isolation and remoteness, high susceptibility
to natural hazards, high population densities and have limited funds and human resources, which
combined make them particularly vulnerable to many risks including those from climate change.16
The high coastline to land area ratio of these nations, and the often low-lying nature of the coastal
lands, make them susceptible to sea level rises,17 cyclones and storm surges.18 Furthermore,
the majority of tourism infrastructure is located in coastal areas,19 highlighting another vulnerable
aspect of tourism.
3.2
The project
Led by Victoria University’s Centre for Tourism and Services Research (CTSR) in collaboration
with the University of New South Wales Natural Hazards Research Laboratory and the University
of the South Pacific School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, PT-CAP also involved nongovernmental organization (NGO) and industry partners such as the Foundation of the People’s
of the South Pacific International (FSPI), South Pacific Tourism Organisation (SPTO) and Pacific
Asia Tourism Pty Ltd (PAT) – all participating organizations in the Oceania Sustainable Tourism
Alliance (OSTA). The overall aim of the project was to develop climate change adaptation policies
and strategies to assist the Pacific Island tourism sector protect and grow local livelihoods. There
were four main steps of research activities as below.
Step 1: policy analysis in six Pacific Island countries (Fiji, Samoa, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea,
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Solomon Islands, and Tonga) to evaluate the conduciveness of policy environments for tourism
adaptation to climate change.
Vulnerability is “the degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with, adverse
effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes”.20 Understanding tourism
vulnerability requires an understanding of public policies because as part of governance
processes, policies are a key determinant of the vulnerability of a tourism destination. Four key
policy areas in the six Pacific countries were analysed, including climate change, environment,
tourism development and risk and disaster management, to achieve the following five objectives:
1.
To create an inventory of policies pertinent to tourism adaptation to climate change;
2.
To examine the policy-making environment that provides the context for future policy
recommendations;
3.
To examine the policy-making mechanisms that have significant implications for policy
making and implementation;
4.
To identify policy gaps in tourism adaptation;
5.
To provide input into the overall destination vulnerability assessments.
Step 2: development of a vulnerability/resilience framework for tourism adaptation to climate
change.
Adaptation frameworks in the existing literature were comprehensively reviewed. A Destination
Sustainability Framework (DSF) was modified to serve as a conceptual framework of tourism
vulnerability assessments. The DSF is essentially a vulnerability assessment framework, but
beyond vulnerability research, it draws upon the advances and innovation in sustainability science
and resilience theory, and designed for a specific tourism focus.21 The following figure shows the
modified DSF.
44
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Figure 3.1
Modified DSF for the context of Pacific tourism vulnerability to climate change
Exposure and sensitivity Decrease
EXPOSURE
SENSITIVITY
SYSTEM ADAPTEDNESS
Tourism System Characteristics
(who)
Tourism-specific Sensitivities
Impact and Coping Responses (S/T)
–– Tourism seasonality;
–– Emergency responses
–– Tourism system stakeholders;
–– Markets (tourist types and origins);
–– Size and characteristics of
destination population; and
–– Immediate aid provisions
–– Destination positioning;
–– Main destination attractions.
Biophysical Environment
–– Natural terrain;
–– Climate;
–– Ecosystem characteristics; and
–– Usage patterns of natural
resources.
Built Environment
–– Settlement location; and
–– Development patterns: type and
location.
–– Marketing strategies;
–– Destination history; and
–– Destination image sensitiveness.
Economic
Adjustments and Adaption (L/T)
–– Livelihood portfolios;
–– Behavioural and social changes
–– Liquid and fixed assets;
–– Structural and technical
alterations
–– Credit history and insurance; and
–– Job security and welfare safety
nets.
–– Business management changes
–– Governance alterations
Human and Social
–– Improved research
–– Knowledge and skill levels
–– Improved education
–– Labour capacity
Vs
–– Information on risks and trends
–– Kinship networks and groups
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Physical and Environmental
–– Access to natural resources
–– Lack of adaption, slow recovery
or failure of adaption strategies
and consequences
–– Infrastructure and transport
options
–– Biophysical alterations and
changes
Governance Processes
–– Government responsibilities
–– Laws, policies and rights
–– Cultural governance processes
–– Tourism business networks and
representative organizations
–– Levels of stability and change
Stressor (rapid-onset) Characteristics (to what)
Stressor (slow-onset) Characteristics (to what)
–– Coral bleaching;
–– Economic downturns;
–– Man-made disasters;
–– Environmental degradation;
–– Tsunamis andstorm surges;
–– Sea-level rise;
–– Health epidemics;
–– Political unrest; and
–– Cyclones.
Source: Calgaro, E. (2010).
–– Climate extremes e.g., drought;
–– Coastal erosion; and
–– Biodiversity loss.
Pacific tourism building resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change 45
Step 3: in-depth climate change vulnerability assessments in three Pacific Island destinations
(Samoa, Tonga, and Vanuatu).
Tonga’s nature-based tourism, Samoa’s community-based tourism, and Vanuatu’s dive tourism
were selected as three in-depth case studies involving extensive local stakeholder interviews and
focus group discussions. The modified climate change DSF was applied in the three cases to
understand the vulnerability level of the destinations and identify possible adaptation solutions.
Qualitative data collected from interviews and focus group discussions were analysed using a
thematic analysis approach in NVivo.22
Step 4: development of a tourism adaptation toolkit framework.
A tourism adaptation toolkit framework was developed to provide tourism destination communities
with a practical tool to build their resilience to a range of risks including climate change. The
framework was designed to be generic and provide a guide for further development of detailed,
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bespoke stakeholder toolkits to be used by different tourism stakeholder groups such as:
3.3
1. Destination planners and managers;
2. Government policy makers;
3. Tourism, hospitality and tour operator sector associations;
4. Local government;
5. Villages involved in community tourism;
5. Large resort operators; and
6. Small scale tourism, hospitality and tour operators/businesses.
The tourism adaptation toolkit framework
Acknowledging the impacts of climate change on Pacific Island tourism, the toolkit was developed
to assist tourism destinations in building their resilience to a range of climate risks. Drawing on
the PT-CAP research foundation, the toolkit was designed to be useful for a variety of Pacific
Island stakeholders, facilitating collaboration across private and public sectors. It aimed to
help tourism destination communities in assessing and understanding their vulnerability and
identifying strategies that would help build their resilience to the effects of climate change. The
guide was designed to be used by community groups, tourism operators and businesses, sector
associations, non-governmental organizations, local, regional/provincial, national government
bodies, consultants and anyone interested in building the resilience of tourism destinations to the
effects of climate change.23
The tourism adaptation toolkit framework provides a number of benefits to the various stakeholders,
but first and foremost it offers a four-step guide for building the resilience of the tourism destination
to the effects of climate change now and in the future.24 It provides ways to both identify the
different stakeholders and elements that make up the tourism destination’s supply and demand
system, and ways to identify risks, and it also provides an overview of how the vulnerability of the
tourism destination can be assessed. Taking all these steps into consideration, a range of options
for the development and implementation of adaptation can be provided.
46
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Step 1: identifying the tourism system.
Climate change risks contribute to the overall vulnerability level of a destination, and it is important
to identify the key players of the tourism system in the destination who will potentially be exposed
to these risks, as their understanding of and perceptions about climate change can have an
impact on the destination’s overall response to climate change related threats. The identification
of the tourism system components also helps to scope out the stakeholders that are potentially
responsible for, and able to take adaptation actions. The toolkit framework provides a tourism
system model including tourism destination region, tourism generating region, and transit route.25
Step 2: identifying the risks.
There are two types of risks: shocks and stressors. Shocks are rapid and immediate events while
stressors are slow-onset ones that affect the tourism system.26 This differentiation is important
when resources for adaptation are limited and decisions have to be made to prioritise the responses
to the most relevant risks in the destination. An open-ended list of potential risks can be scoped
out through desktop literature analysis and further added by incorporating local stakeholders’
feedback. A ranking practice is recommended to engage local stakeholders, as these are the
people who are exposed to the risks and who will be affected by future adaptation policies.
Step 3: assessing vulnerability and resilience.
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Three components of vulnerability, namely exposure, sensitivity, and system adaptiveness have
to be fully understood to inform the development of adaptation strategies.27 Exposure presents
an inventory of the destination’s defining physical characteristics, and an understanding of how
these are exposed to certain shocks and stressors identified in the previous step. Sensitivity
captures the pre-existing economic, social, political and environmental conditions that shape how
the destination is affected by the risks. System adaptiveness emphasises how the system and its
people respond to the risks and the consequences of these responses.
Step 4: developing and implementing adaptation.
The climate adaptation portfolio for the tourism-recreation sector established by Scott et al.28 is
utilised in this step to categorise the types of adaptation responses for tourism: technical and
structural, behavioural and social, business management, governance and policy, and research
and education.29 The categorisation of adaptation options provides a systematic approach to
identifying adaptation gaps in the existing system and incorporating adaptation into policy and
business.
3.4Conclusion
PT-CAP was able to contribute to the outcomes of the AusAID Research Strategy 2012–2016 by:
––
Its research evidence informing and improving AusAID and partner country development
decision-making;
––
Supporting Australia’s lead role in finding solutions to global development problems;
––
Developing new knowledge to predict and respond to development challenges and
opportunities;
Pacific tourism building resilience and adaptive capacity to climate change 47
––
Strengthening partner countries’ capacity to do and use research;
––
Increasing access to research results; and
––
Building the capacity of researchers and research users in Australia and in partner countries.
It is clear that due to its dependence on the environment and climate, the Pacific Islands tourism
sector is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Therefore, concerted efforts are
required to strengthen the resilience of the tourism sector to these challenges and risks.
Working with government and private sector tourism partners in Fiji, Samoa, the Solomon Islands,
Tonga, and Vanuatu and guided by a steering group from the partners as well as SPREP and UNDP,
the project reviewed the policy environment in Pacific Island Countries for its conduciveness for
the tourism sector to adapt to climate change. It also reviewed and modified existing vulnerability/
resilience models suitable for tourism destinations to use to adapt to climate change risks and
applied the modified vulnerability/resilience model to case study tourism destinations in Samoa,
Tonga, and Vanuatu. A tourism adaptation toolkit framework was developed, suitable for tourism
destinations to manage multiple risks (e.g., from natural hazards, global financial crises, health
epidemics, terrorism, changing market demand as well as climate change) and adapt to future
climate change risks.
The PT-CAP activity was an investment in developing strategic knowledge and a practical, easyto-use and innovative toolkit, titled Building Resilient Tourism Destinations. The toolkit is designed
to provide an easy to use step by step guide for a variety of tourism stakeholders to understand
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tourism vulnerability to climate change and take adaptation measures to build their resilience
where resources are available. It is worth noting that PT-CAP was a research project, not a
development assistance project, and therefore no work has been done on specifically assessing
the toolkit framework’s usefulness to destination stakeholders to devise adaptation strategies. It
is important that further work is done to test and operationalize the toolkit framework, and explore
practical application within the tourism sector in the Pacific and beyond.
48
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Endnotes
1
Briguglio, L. (2003); Guillaumont, P. (2010);
Preston, B. L. et al. (2006).
15 Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, Forum Leaders Communique
(2009).
2
Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (2012).
3
Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (2012).
16 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007); Sem, G. and
Moore, R. (2009).
4
Mitchell, J. and Ashley, C. (2010).
17 Gössling, S. and Hall, C. M. (Eds.) (2006).
5
Australian Agency for International Development (2009).
18 Belle and Bramwell (2005).
South Pacific Tourism Organisation (2007).
19 Scott, D. et al. (2008).
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2013).
20 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007), p. 6.
6Ibid.
21 Calgaro, E. (2010).
7
Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (2012).
22 Patton, M. Q. (2002).
8
South Pacific Tourism Organisation (2013), p. 3.
9
Sem, G. and Moore, R. (2009).
23 Klint, L.; Jiang, M.; Dominey-Howes, D.; DeLacy T. and van der
Veeken, S. (2012).
10 Becken, S. and Hay, J (2007).
Jiang, M.; Wong, E.; Klint, L.; DeLacy, T. and Dominey-Howes, D,
(2012), PP. 238–260.
25Ibid.
26Ibid.
11 Australian Agency for International Development (2012).
27Ibid.
12 Australian Agency for International Development (2013).
28 Scott, D.; de Freitas, C. and Matzarakis, A. (2009),
pp. 171–194.
13 Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat (2012).
14 Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (2012).
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24Ibid.
29 Klint, L. et al. (2012).
T
49
Chapter 4
Climate change and tourism policy in
Asia and the Pacific: a review of some
Asian Pacific UNWTO Member States
Climate change is considered to be one of the biggest challenges facing the tourism industry
globally.1 For Asia and the Pacific, a 2012 report entitled the World Risk Report identified that
seven out of the ten nations at greatest risk to climate change are in region.2 Government level
policy that sets out adaptation and mitigation objectives is increasingly important, and this is
extending to the development of more specific policy that addresses climate change in the context
of the tourism industry.
This chapter provides a review of government policy responses to climate change and tourism
from a selection of UNWTO Member State countries in Asia and the Pacific. The country profiles
were constructed by extracting projections from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of Working Group II (2007), cataloguing the data by
country, examining the impacts to the tourism sector, and analysing the country’s policy response
where such information was available online. While many countries across Asia and the Pacific
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address climate change in environmental departments and other policy instruments, a more
focused review of the country’s tourism policy shows that across the region for many countries
climate change is not yet overtly integrated into national tourism policies.
While every attempt was made to construct a thorough review it may be that some policies or
initiatives were overlooked or omitted. For some countries only a selection of relevant policies and
programs was included, similarly a detailed review of all climate related issues for each country
in the region was not possible due to the scope of the publication. As such this should be treated
as a sample of the government climate change and tourism policy responses in the region rather
than an exhaustive policy catalogue.
4.1Australia
It has been suggested that Australia is one of the most vulnerable developed nations to global
warming, due to its low latitudinal positioning.3 The temperature of Australia has increased
between 0.4˚ C and 0.7˚ C, with maximum temperatures up an average of 0.6˚ C, and minimum
temperatures increasing by 1.2˚ C on average since 1910.4 In February 2004, an Eastern Australian
heat wave caused record maximum temperatures across two thirds of the continent.5
Australia is also likely to experience an increase in the intensity of weather systems, including
associated storms and droughts.6 On average, droughts since 1973 have been hotter, with ensuing
consequences. The estimated cost of a drought in 2002-2003 was USD 7.6 billion. Similarly,
extreme weather events have also proved expensive; for instance the numbers of extreme events
in recent years such as flooding, cyclones, and fires in the country have seen business and
personal insurance premiums increase dramatically.
50
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
A number of Australian ‘hotspots’ identified as being highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate
change include the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland’s Wet Tropics, the Kakadu wetlands, SouthWest Australia, the alpine regions and the Murray-Darling Basin.7 With the exception of the MurrayDarling Basin, it has been predicted with high confidence that these regions will experience
significant biodiversity loss over the next half-century. By 2020, 60% of the Great Barrier Reef is
likely to experience regular coral bleaching. This is likely to occur annually on 58-80% of the reef
by the year 2030, and increase to 97% by the year 2050.8
Numerous fragile ecosystems in Australia identified as being highly vulnerable ‘hotspots’ are
also major tourism attractions for the country, most notably the Kakadu Wetlands and the Great
Barrier Reef. Reduced climatic attractiveness of these destinations will shape future tourism
flows. Ironically, this will be most pronounced during the destinations’ international high season.9
A rise in temperature will impact numerous tourism segments within Australia, and one sector
in particular: the Australian winter alpine segment, which is highly vulnerable. A study analysing
visitation trends to the Australian Alps after an uncharacteristically warm season in 2006 identified
a linear relationship between reduced snow and visitation patterns.10 A projection to the year 2040
indicated Australia would have 57-78% of its current snowfall.11 By 2070, snow cover in Australian
winter destinations was predicted to be 39-96% less than the current level.12
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
Climate change is addressed in both environmental policies and more recently tourism planning
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documents in Australia. For instance, climate change is identified as a material threat and key
challenge for the tourism industry.13 The Plan recognises the importance for tourism businesses
to adapt to the impacts of climate change. This is also a focus of the 2011 update in the national
tourism policy document, Tourism 2020.
Adaptation to climate change is generally presented as an opportunity for the tourism industry
to enhance environmental protection and ensure appropriate management of Australia’s tourism
product, of which natural assets are a significant component. Furthermore, the 2020 Plan suggests
that mitigation through the protection of these natural assets and the promotion of environmentally
sustainable experiences should be considered as a point of market differentiation to enhance
Australia’s status as a green destination. It also includes links to resources and support to help
businesses prepare for a carbon-constrained future, and move toward a low-pollution economy.
Box 4.1 includes a selection of key Australian Government policy documents and relevant
publications for climate change and the tourism industry.
Box 4.1
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Australia
Access Economics Pty Ltd. (2007), Analysis of aviation specific climate change policies on developing countries dependent on
long haul travel, Canberra, Department of Industry, Tourism and Resources.
Department of Climate Change (2009), Climate change risks to Australia’s coast, Canberra, Department of Climate Change.
Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2009), Climate change guide: Mitigation and adaptation measures for Australian
tourism operators, Canberra, Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism.
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
51
Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2008), Tourism and climate change – a framework for action, Canberra,
Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism.
Donnelly, D. (2008), Propensity for UK and German travellers to adapt to travel intentions due to rising awareness of climate
change issues, Surry Hills, New South Wales, Prepared by Instinct and Reason for Department of Resources, Energy
and Tourism.
Dunlop, M. and Brown, P. R. (2008), Implications of climate change for Australia’s National Reserve System: A preliminary
assessment, Report to the Department of Climate Change, February 2008, Department of Climate Change, Canberra,
Australia, (online), available: www.climatechange.gov.au/~/media/publications/adaptation/nrs-report.pdf
Forsyth, P.; Dwyer, L. and Spurr, R. (2007), Climate change policies and Australian tourism: Scoping study of the economic
aspects, Gold Coast, Australia, Centre for Tourism Economics and Policy Research, Sustainable Tourism Cooperative
Research Centre.
Forsyth, P.; Hoque, S.; Dwyer, L.; Spurr, R.; Van Ho, T. and Pambudi, D. (2008), The carbon footprint of Australian tourism,
Gold Coast, Australia: Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre
Hoque, S.; Forsyth, P.; Dwyer, L.; Spurr, R.; Van Ho, T. and Pambudi, D. (2010), The carbon footprint of Queensland tourism,
Gold Coast, Australia, Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre.
Hyder Consulting (2008), The impacts and management implications of climate change for the Australian Government’s
protected areas, Canberra, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts and the Department of Climate
Change.
Turton, S.; Hadwen, W. and Wilson, R. (Eds.) (2009), The Impacts of climate change on Australian tourism destinations:
Developing adaptation and response strategies – a scoping study, Gold Coast, Australia: Sustainable Tourism Cooperative
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Research Centre.
4.2Bangladesh
Bangladesh is predicted to be severely negatively impacted by climate change-induced
phenomenon. Already, there have been average temperature increases, and precipitation changes
are predicted to occur in the form of increased annual rainfall across the country. Increased rainfall
could further contribute to the frequency of serious floods, repeating the damaging floods in
the country of 2002, 2003 and 2004.14 However, in the delta regions, precipitation declines and
ensuing droughts are predicted. This will have a likely drying effect on traditional wetland regions,
which in turn will lead to the degradation of related ecosystems. Under such projected climate
change scenarios, rice production and wheat production could fall by 8% and 32% respectively
by 2050.15
Sea level rise is also a serious issue for Bangladesh, as it is predicted to be the most inundated
country in the region with an expected 1 m sea level rise.16 As a result, Bangladesh is predicted to
bare the majority of an expected 1,000 km2 of land and sea areas currently used for cultivation to
become salt marsh. Sea level rise will also cause salt water intrusion in mangrove regions, as well
as increase the salinity of groundwater sources.17 By 2050, it is predicted that approximately one
million people will be directly impacted by sea level rise alone in Bangladesh.
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
The Bangladesh Ministry of Environments and Forests released an information brief (undated)
on climate change and the tourism industry in Bangladesh. The brief outlines the current market
and the potential impacts of climate change, and analyses how these impacts may affect the
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
industry. The brief highlights coastal flooding, sea level rise and extreme weather and their
implications for the tourism industry. Furthermore, an analysis identifies the risks, direct and
indirect impacts on major tourism spots in Bangladesh. This is followed by adaptation measures,
with recommendations for each level of industry stakeholder, including local government bodies
and tourists. Related policies and institutional agreements are identified, before final conclusions
and recommendations are provided.
This document provides a situational analysis and overview of climate change and its effect on
the tourism industry in Bangladesh. The newly established Bangladesh Tourism Board identifies
strategies of industry development and growth, however, climate change is not yet addressed by
Bangladesh tourism strategies. Box 4.2 highlights the government’s policy documents.
Box 4.2
Selected climate change and tourism documents: Bangladesh
Agrawala, S.; Ota, T.; Ahmed, A. U.; Smith, J. and Van Aalst, M. (2003), Development and climate change in Bangladesh,
Focus on coastal flooding and the Sunderbans, (online), available: www.oecd.org/env/climatechange/21055658.pdf.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (n.d.), Climate change and tourism industry in Bangladesh, Information brief, (online),
available: http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/tourism.pdf.
World Bank (2012), Annual Report 2011: Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund, (online), available: Delivered by http://www.e-unwto.org
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www.wds.worldbank.org.
4.3
Cambodia
Climate change predictions for Cambodia include expectations that the country will experience
an increase in extreme weather events, specifically tropical cyclones.18 Cyclones in the region are
expected to increase in frequency and intensity. With this increasing intensity, damage caused
by cyclones is also expected to increase. Excessive rainfall, as an element of extreme weather,
may also present challenges for Cambodia in the future.19 A foreshadowing of potential future
scenarios was witnessed in 2000, when extreme rainfall triggered flooding in the country.
Despite the existence of some climate projections for Cambodia, the IPCC20 highlighted the
need for more relevant information on Cambodia to best identify the most plausible adaptation
methods. There is similarly little specific information on the impacts of climate change on the
tourism systems.
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
There are two main bodies addressing climate change in Cambodia: the Climate Change
Department within the Ministry for Environment, and the Cambodia Climate Change Alliance,
stemming from the Global Climate Change Alliance. The two bodies are currently working together
to develop a comprehensive national plan entitled the Cambodia Climate Change Strategic Plan
(CCCSP). The plan will be aligned with Cambodia’s goals of sustainability, with the aim of improving
the economy’s resilience to climate change.
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
53
The tourism industry in Cambodia contributes approximately 12% of overall gross domestic
product (GDP), and as such, is an important revenue-generating industry. While Cambodia
continues to grow in popularity as a destination, it is important that this growth is met with solid
planning to ensure that the industry is not negatively affected in the long term by climate change.
Box 4.3
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Cambodia
Cambodia Climate Change Alliance (2012), Global Climate Change Alliance, (online), available:
www.gcca.eu/national-programmes/asia/cambodia-climate-change-alliance.
Ministry of Environment, Royal Government of Cambodia (2006), National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change
(NAPA), (online), available: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/napa/khm01.pdf.
4.4China
China spans a vast land area, and as such, is expected to experience a range of impacts from
a changing climate. China is expected to be impacted by climate change through changes in
temperature, precipitation, sea level rise and extreme weather patterns. Between 1961 and 2000,
the average annual temperature in North-West China rose by 0.7˚ C and over the past few decades
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there have been more frequent heat waves.
Rapid glacial melting is a concern, notably in the Tibetan Plateau. An estimated glacial area decline
of 27%, or 16 184 km3 ice volume, is predicted under scenarios of expected rises in surface air
temperatures. The reduction of glacial runoffs could severely impact communities dependent on
these water flows for survival, an estimated 250 million people in China. Seasonal snowfall is also
predicted to contract in certain areas, thus causing spring droughts.21
Sea level rise is predicted to affect millions of people across Asia including China, with an estimated
81,348 km2 of Chinese coastal areas becoming inundated in the event of a 30 cm rise. China is
identified as being particularly vulnerable to increasing groundwater salinity, due to a combination
of drought, over-use of groundwater supplies and sea level rise.
Precipitation changes are likely throughout China, with increased annual rainfall in some areas,
but a decreasing trend overall. North East and East China have experienced increased flooding
since the 1990s. Precipitation declines have led to droughts and ecosystem degradation across
China’s delta regions. Furthermore, rising temperatures coupled with reduced precipitation and
growing demand for water will continue to result in water shortages and the drying up of lakes and
rivers. Thus, water scarcity will pose an increasingly significant challenge to China in the future.
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
Despite the significant and diverse implications of a changing climate in China, the country does
have high emissions and energy consumption and, alongside the United States, is one of the
largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions.22 From 2000 to 2010, 68% of the increase in
global energy-related CO2 was attributable to China.23 China experienced substantial development
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
and urbanisation in the final quarter of the 20th century. During this time, rapid urbanisation hubs
along the Pearl River Delta including Hong Kong, China; Guangzhou and Shenzhen contributed to
increasingly poor air quality.24
Air pollution is considered a key environmental concern in China, and is inextricably linked to
emissions from coal combustion.25 As a result, the country’s policy response is focused on
mitigation efforts, specifically clean air and carbon trading initiatives. Carbon Markets and Climate
Policy in China outlines recent developments in China’s climate policy, as well as potential avenues
for carbon trading schemes. The document, released by The Climate Institute in 2012, focuses on
the development of the country’s renewable energy sector and carbon auditing.
To further address concerns over air quality, the State Council formulated the Action Plan for Air
Pollution Prevention and Control, which was released in late 2013. The Action Plan sets specific
targets for reducing air pollution, focusing on three key regions: the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region
(Jing-Jin-Ji), the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta. This Plan is in direct response to
predictions of increasingly poor air quality partly due to the rapid urbanisation that occurred in
these regions.
The importance of addressing climate change is gaining momentum in China, with the need
to develop policies on the issue becoming more apparent. The Policy Climate website26 which
presents overviews of climate change policy issues around the world, highlighted industry ‘phase
out targets’ identified by the Chinese Government for specific high-emission industries, including
iron and charcoal. Furthermore, the site analyses the impact of policies focused on energy
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reduction, which include retrofitting, renewable energy and pricing reforms. However, despite the
development of China’s Action Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Control, climate change is yet
to feature in China’s tourism policies.
Tourism is highly dependent on the quality management of environmental systems.27 Through
improving the air quality in major cities, China is inadvertently addressing destination attractiveness
of the urban tourism market. Climate policy in China is still in its developmental stages, and it is
yet to be integrated into tourism policy and destination management.
4.5India
It has been predicted that India will experience an array of impacts associated with climate change.
For instance, overall decreasing annual rainfall is predicted with fewer rainy days and droughts
in most delta regions, leading to drying wetlands and ecosystem degradation.28 In some parts of
the country, an increase in extreme rain associated with the monsoon season is likely. Already in
2005, Mumbai experienced extreme rainfall, receiving 944 mm over two days, resulting in over
1,000 deaths and significant financial losses.29
A sea level rise scenario of 1 m would likely flood a region of 5,763 km2 in India, impacting
communities in low-lying areas. India has also been identified as being particularly susceptible to
the risk of salinity of groundwater resources through sea level rise.30
A trend of increasing annual mean temperatures is likely to continue, with warming expected to
be more pronounced in winter and the post-monsoon season.31 Some impacts of this trend are
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
55
already being observed, such as the increased frequency of multi-day heat waves and hot days,
as well as deaths associated with heat stress.
Arguably the most damaging impact of climate change occurring in India is the rapid melting of
Himalayan glaciers, which are currently melting at a rate three times faster than in the early 20th
century. Glacial water feeds into numerous river systems, sustaining millions of communities in
the region – approximately 10%, or 500 million people reside in the Gangetic Basin alone.32 With
rapid melting, rivers may become seasonal, and thus livelihoods and economies in the region may
become unviable. The Himalayan glaciers are likely to melt entirely by 2035 if warming trends
continue at their current rate.33
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
India’s developing climate strategy has been recognised in the country’s attempts to address the
issue. The development of the National Action Plan on Climate Change in 2008 was identified as
a turning point for the country’s perspective on the issue.34 The Plan identifies a number of both
adaptation and mitigation efforts. In 2009, the Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment
was launched as a platform for national institutions and scientists to assess specific aspects of
climate change and its relation to India.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests’ Climate Change Division is the government body
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dedicated to addressing the issue. The Division’s work includes the development of state and
national action plans on climate change. The Division has also released numerous papers,
including a discussion paper on the state of the Himalayan Glaciers and the role of climate change
in the Himalayan landscape,35 as well as a summary of 24 initiatives relating to climate change in
progress as of 2010.
In 2005, India’s Ministry of Tourism released a two-volume study reviewing best practices in
the development of tourism by state governments. This series showcases efforts such as the
development of ecotourism, energy saving practices, and environmental conservation and
protection as commendable measures in the development of tourism. While not explicitly stated,
these measures represent actions to mitigate the sector’s contribution to climate change. This is
also the case in the Ministry of Tourism’s Strategic Action Plan, released in 2011. The introduction
of policy initiatives to promote green technologies, responsible tourism and sustainable tourism
reflect an awareness of the need to mitigate the sector’s contribution to greenhouse gases and
unsustainable practices. However, due to the importance of the Himalayan region to the tourism
sector, it is imperative for the tourism industry to also recognise the need to adapt to climate
change.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Box 4.4
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: India
Indian Network of Climate Change Assessment, Ministry of Environment and Forests (2010), Climate change and India:
A 4x4 assessment, (online), available: http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/fin-rpt-incca.pdf.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2010), India: Taking on climate change. 24 recent initiatives related to climate change,
(online), available: http://moef.nic.in/sites/default/files/24_Recent_Initiatives_CC.pdf.
Ministry of Tourism (2011), Strategic action plan, (online), available: www.tourism.gov.in.
Ministry of Tourism (2005), Volume 1: Best practices adopted. Final report. New Delhi, Intercontinental Consultants and
Technocrats Pvt. Ltd. (online), available: www.incredibleindia.org/.
Ministry of Tourism (2005), Volume 2: States profile and tourism development. Final report. New Delhi, Intercontinental
Consultants and Technocrats Pvt. Ltd. (online), available: www.incredibleindia.org.
Raina, V. K. (n.d.), Himalayan glaciers: A state-of-art review of glacial studies, glacial retreat and climate change, MoEF
discussion paper, (online), available: http://moef.nic.in/sites/.
4.6Indonesia
It is predicted that Indonesia will experience future changes in precipitation with an overall
reduction in average annual rainfall across the country.36 Droughts are also likely in the future,
specifically in relation to the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) weather pattern.37 These changes
in precipitation will have implications for various sectors, including tourism, specifically regarding
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water availability.38
Indonesia witnessed an example of the potential impacts of ENSO-related drought in 1997–1998.
The drought triggered severe forest fires, which in turn temporarily increased air pollution in
the region.39 Estimates of total economic losses from the fires ranged from USD 4.9 million to
USD 19.6 million for the tourism industry alone.40 The 1997–1998 ENSO system also impacted coral
ecosystems in the region through coral bleaching, including some popular tourist destinations
such as Eastern Sumatra, Java, Bali and Lombok.41
Sea level rise will also impact low-lying communities in Indonesia. According to the IPCC, it is
expected that the number of people annually affected by flooding globally will increase to 94 million
by the end of the 21st century. 20% of this is expected to occur in South-East Asia, including
Indonesia.42 Indonesia has approximately 81,000 km of coastline, and in 1997, it was estimated
that 2 million Indonesians lived along this coastline, within an elevation of 0–2 m above sea level.43
Many coastal communities are dependent on a few key sectors including fishing and tourism,
while these sectors also operate within this coastal environment. Under a scenario of a 1 m rise
in sea level, an estimated 40,500 hectares of Indonesia’s coastal areas would be breached, with
some smaller islands completely submerged.44 Tourism is a key source of income for Indonesia,45
and the existence of coastal communities, which are dependent on sectors including fishing and
tourism, are therefore threatened by sea level rise.
Climate change and tourism: Policy responses
The Indonesian Government in 2009 committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by
26% by the year 2020. To implement this plan, the Indonesian Climate Change Trust Fund (ICCTF)
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
57
was established in 2009. The purpose of ICCTF is to mainstream climate change into specific
government divisions, so the issue is adequately represented in policies implemented throughout
the country.46
Publications available through the Ministry of Environment website focus on educating the public
about the threats and challenges associated with climate change, with the intention of increasing
awareness and encouraging people to make more sustainable life choices. In collaboration with
the availability of assistance materials, the Ministry has also launched the program, Toward
Green Indonesia. This program supports the Ministry’s policy of awareness and green living while
encouraging community involvement. Furthermore, the Ministry offers guidelines for Corporate
Social Responsibility, with a manual to aid implementation.
In December 2012, the Ministry of Environment held its second annual National Summit of Climate
Change, which united ministers and representatives from various industry sectors to develop
common goals and strategies to address the issue nationwide. The Summit aims to ensure that
climate change is being equally addressed across all sectors, without being stereotyped as an
environmental issue. In the 2010–2014 National Plan, the President of Indonesia recognises
climate change’s interrelation with, and impact on, all sectors. The potential for extreme weather,
availability of food, and economic stability and longevity are highlighted as key focal points which
are directly influenced by climate change.
The importance of the issue to the tourism industry is gaining momentum in Indonesia. At the 15th
General Assembly of Asia-Pacific Parliamentarians’ Conference on Environment and Development
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(APPCED) in 2011, a report on climate change and tourism was presented by the Indonesian
delegation. The report highlighted key predictions for Indonesia under scenarios of a changing
climate, and the consequences for the tourism industry. The report also summarised policies in
development designed to address the issue.
The STREAM initiative in Indonesia is one example of the integration of climate change into
the management of a destination. The project, Sustainable Tourism through Energy Efficiency
with Adaptation and Mitigation Measures (STREAM) was implemented successfully in the
coastal destination of Pangandaran, and this project demonstrates the benefits of public-private
partnerships while also acting as a ‘best practice’ template for grassroots adaptation and
mitigation efforts.
Box 4.5
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Indonesia
Government of Republic of Indonesia (2007), Indonesia country report: Climate variability and climate changes, and their
implication. Jakarta, Ministry of Environment, (online), available: www.undp.or.id/pubs/docs/.
Indonesian Climate Change Trust Fund (2012), Indonesian climate change trust fund, (online), available:
www.icctf.or.id/.
Republic of Indonesia (2011), Country report on climate change and tourism in Indonesia. Report presented at the 15th General
Assembly of Asia-Pacific Parliamentarians’ Conference on Environment and Development, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
(online), available: www.parlimen.gov.my/.
STREAM (2013), Sustainable tourism through energy efficiency with adaptation and mitigation measures in Pangandaran,
(online), available: www.streamindonesia.org/.
58
4.7
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Japan
According to the IPCC, the impact of climate change in Japan will include temperature change,
typhoons and sea level rise. During the 20th century, Japan experienced an approximate 1˚ C
temperature rise across the country, and a 2–3˚ C rise in its largest cities. The occurrence of
maximum daily temperatures above 35˚ C has increased in recent years, and heat waves are likely
to become more common due to the frequency of warmer weather.
Precipitation changes will also impact the country, with an already measured increase in maximum
rainfall from 1961 to 2000. Precipitation is also likely to increase in conjunction with typhoons:
Over the past century, extreme rainfall has been triggered by typhoons, with only one example
being the 2004 flood, which was a result of ten typhoons. Naturally, the amount of damage caused
by typhoons will also rise. Disasters induced by extreme weather and typhoons are likely to have
a negative impact on international tourist flows to Japan, as is observable for tourist responses
to any disaster.47
Some of Japan’s cities are at risk of inundation in sea level rise scenarios. A 1 m rise could impact
over four million Japanese people, inundating an estimated 2,330 km2 of land. Furthermore,
861 km2 of land across Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya is located below the high water level of sea
level rise predictions, thus presenting a considerable threat to these cities, not least because of
the damage to accessibility for these destinations.
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Finally, Japan is a popular destination in the winter months, with various mountain activities
available. Studies have already identified a significant relationship between temperature, snow
depth and visitation to mountain resorts,48 and for Japan, the predicted rise in temperature may
have consequences for winter destinations in the country. One particular study considered air
temperature on visitation rates for some winter resorts in Japan, and predicted a drop in visitation
by 50% in some areas in a 2˚ C warming scenario.49
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
Demonstrating awareness of the impact of extreme weather, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism released a policy report in 2008, entitled Climate Change Adaptation
Strategies to Cope with Water-related Disasters due to Global Warming. The report covers
predicted impacts of climate change relevant to Japan, with a focus on water-related disasters
such as storm surges, floods and extreme weather. The report continues by discussing adaptation
policy and specific strategies for water-related disasters. A goal of ‘zero victims’ is identified for
the Ministry’s adaptation policy.
4.8
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Climate-related predictions for the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) are centred on
the global weather system ENSO, with the country expected to suffer from a variety of impacts
of the weather pattern.50 Traditionally, Lao PDR has experienced droughts associated with ENSO.
For example, in 1997–1998, it experienced severe droughts which in turn triggered forest fires,
water shortages and crop failures throughout the country.51
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
59
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
It has been predicted that Lao PDR, will be disproportionately affected by climate change. The
Lao PDR Global Climate Change Alliance Programme was formulated to address the situation,
focusing on adaptation and disaster risk reduction. The programme employs a grassroots
approach by aiming to strengthen community capacity to respond to climate challenges.
The Department of Environment has also released the Strategy on Climate Change for the Lao
PDR. This document focuses on providing adaptation and mitigation strategies for sectors
which are likely to be most affected. These include agriculture and food security, forestry and
land use change, water resources, energy and transport, industry, urban development and public
health. Eco-tourism is recommended as an alternative livelihood to economies dependent on
deforestation. As such, tourism is recognised for its potential as a long-term solution to addressing
climate change without compromising economic stability. Furthermore, the Ministry of Information,
Culture and Tourism outlined their goal to develop tourism as a major national industry in the Lao
PDR Tourism Strategy 2006–2020. Despite this, climate change adaptation or mitigation has not
been integrated directly into tourism strategy or national policy.
Box 4.6
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Lao PDR
Department of Tourism Marketing, Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism (2006), Lao PDR tourism strategy 2006–2020,
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(online), available: www.tourismlaos.org/.
The Lao PDR global climate change alliance programme (online), available:
www.gcca.eu/national-programmes/asia/gcca-lao-pdr.
Lao, PDR (2010), Strategy on climate change of the Lao PDR, (online), available:
www.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/12679_1_595432.pdf.
4.9
Malaysia
The major impacts of climate change in Malaysia are likely to be from the effects of sea level rise,
(including beach erosion) and the salinity of coastal water supplies.52 Sea level rise, along with
global predicted increases in sea-surface temperatures, are also major stressors on Malaysian
coastal ecosystems, with low lying coastal plains and islands being particularly vulnerable.53 This
is also likely to impact the health of Malaysia’s coral reefs and marine ecosystems.54 Malaysian
reefs already experienced widespread bleaching during the unusual El Niño 1997/1998 cycle,55
and similar events are predicted to occur more often in the future.
Drought has also been identified as an impact of future concern specific to the Sabah region.
With such changes in weather, global crop yields are predicted to change. However, despite
agricultural losses in many countries, it has been predicted that a rise in temperature may increase
the potential rice yield in Malaysia.56
Finally, South-East Asia is a popular destination for dive tourism. The Coral Triangle in SouthEast Asia covers reefs in various countries in the region, including Malaysia.57 Popular dive spots
include the east coast of Sabah, and Layang Layang. It is likely that the dive tourism industry
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
of Malaysia will be increasingly negatively impacted by future frequent coral bleaching events.
Reduced overall health of marine ecosystems as well as coral reefs will likely impact the attraction
of the destination for dive tourism, as healthy reefs are paramount in attracting divers.58
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
The Malaysian Government has identified several national policies, laws and regulations that
address adaptation to climate change. The broadest of these is the National Policy on Climate
Change, created by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. The policy identifies
three key objectives that include mainstreaming the issue, integrating sector responses and
strengthening the country’s capacity to implement these policies.
As a nation with a significant amount of coastal areas and dwellings, the Department of Town and
Country Planning released the National Coastal Zone Physical Plan 2010 to aid coastal communities
and their adaptive capacities while also providing guidelines for future developments.
As well as these, a number of policies have been released which address mitigation efforts,
including green technology and reduced emissions. The National Green Technology Policy and the
National Green Technology Roadmap from the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water,
and the National Roadmap to Reduce the Emission Intensity of GDP are some such policies.
Furthermore, the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water developed the Green Township
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and Green Buildings Initiatives to help encourage communities to address climate change through
mitigation.
Box 4.7
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Malaysia
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2010), National policy on climate change, (online), available:
www.nre.gov.my/.
Publications and useful documents available via the: Division of Environmental Management and Climate Change,
Department of Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
4.10
Maldives
Maldives is considered a country particularly vulnerable to climate change. Concern centres on
loss of land area, beach erosion, reef damage, increasing food and water insecurity, and potential
adaptive capacity.59
Sea level rise is widely accepted as the most immediate threat of climate change to Maldives. Of
small island states around the globe, Maldives has been identified as being particularly vulnerable,
as it is a low-lying atoll state.60 From 1950 to 2001, the capital Male experienced an average 4 mm
rise in sea level per year. A rise in sea level of 50 cm in Maldives is considered likely for the 21st
century.61 Such sea level rise is likely to severely impact the key economies in Maldives, which are
tourism and fishing, potentially reducing the country’s GDP by 40%.62
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
61
Climate change is viewed as one of the biggest challenges to sustainable development in
Maldives. However, it is important to note that the IPCC Working Group II Report recognises the
Maldives’ awareness of climate change impacts, and highlights the adaptive measures that were
already in place at the time of the AR4 in 2007. While fresh water availability and shortages are of
increasing concern for small island states in general, Maldives has been addressing this through
water harvesting and storage reservoirs which have been in place since the 1900s.63 Furthermore,
efforts to minimise the impacts of climate change have addressed coastal and reef protection,
economic diversification, and increasing infrastructure elevation in future developments. This
has been coupled with a focus on maximising adaptive capacity, including activities such as
observation and research, and increasing public awareness.
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
Tourism is one of the largest sectors and a core component of the economy of Maldives.64 Arguably,
the most threatening impact of climate change on Maldives’ tourism sector is sea level rise. With a
peak elevation of less than 3 m above sea level, and many islands less than 1 m above sea level,
the predicted rise in sea level would inundate various smaller islands, eventually resulting in the
inaccessibility of these islands as potential destinations. Furthermore, due to the low-lying nature
of the islands, storm surges will become increasingly catastrophic for remaining destinations as
the heightened sea level will increase the reach of potential surges.
Recognising the threat of climate change makes adaptation a national priority. For instance in
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the Maldives’ Fourth Tourism Master Plan 2013–2017, The Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture
recognises that Maldives is considered as one of the world’s most vulnerable countries to climate
change impacts. It is also suggested that the threat is so severe that the long-term survival of the
country is in question.
The Fourth Tourism Master Plan specifically addresses climate change in its Strategy 2.5,
implementing climate change adaptation programme for tourism industry (2013). Following
the strategy, the Plan identifies actions to ensure the strategy is successfully implemented.
Recommendations for action include performance measures and guidelines for stakeholders.
Performance measures focus on industry awareness and investment options, whereas guidelines
highlight capacity building through policy and guideline development.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has partnered to implement a Tourism
Adaptation Project called Increasing Climate Change Resilience of Maldives through Adaptation in
the Tourism Sector. The aim of this project is to strengthen the tourism industry’s overall capacity
to adapt to climate change.65
Box 4.8
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Maldives
Hay, J. E. (2006), Climate Risk Profile for the Maldives. Republic of The Maldives, (online), available: http://mycn.mv/.
Maldives Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture (2012), Fourth tourism master plan 2013–2017, (online), available:
www.tourism.gov.mv/.
The World Bank (2013), Climate change in the Maldives, (online), available: http://web.worldbank.org/.
62
4.11
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Mongolia
Climate change in Mongolia will be observable through a change in temperature and a decline in
precipitation. Mongolia has already experienced an average temperature rise of 1.8˚ C since midlast century.66 Warmer temperatures have caused early thaws to seasonal snow, and this, coupled
with a 17% decline in precipitation, has led to a shrinking volume of snow cover and water runoffs, thus leading to severe spring droughts.67 The combination of reduced precipitation and a rise
in air temperature will continue to have negative effects on the pasture productivity in Mongolia’s
Steppe.
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
In 2009, the Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism released an assessment report on
climate change in Mongolia in collaboration with UNEP and UNDP. As an assessment report, the
situation of climate change in Mongolia was presented, predictions for future implications were
discussed and an analysis of future scenarios was conducted.
This assessment report was a necessary first step to addressing climate change in Mongolia.
However, further work is needed within the Ministry to assess the implications of climate change
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on the future of the tourism industry.
4.12
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is likely to experience temperature rise, precipitation increases, sea level rise
and ocean acidification. The temperature in Papua New Guinea has risen 0.11˚ C per decade on
average from 1950,68 and it is likely that this temperature rise will continue throughout the 21st
century, consistent with global warming scenarios. For Papua New Guinea, this translates to a
mean temperature increase of between 0.4˚ C and 1˚ C by 2030, with more extreme hot days and
less cool weather.69 Annual rainfall is projected to increase over the 21st century in Papua New
Guinea, with the potential for more extreme rainfall events.70
Since 1993, Papua New Guinea’s sea level have risen an average of 7 mm per year; almost
double the global average of 2.8–3.6 mm per year. Under a high emissions scenario, Papua New
Guinea could experience a rise between 4–15 cm by the year 2030.71 While it is likely that this is
exacerbated by natural fluctuations in global weather systems such as ENSO, a rising sea level
will increase the impacts of storm surges and the likelihood of coastal flooding.
Ocean acidification has also been an issue for the health of Papua New Guinea’s marine ecosystems,
and this is likely to continue in the future, consistent with global acidification.72 Acidification will
negatively affect the health of reef ecosystems, the impacts of which are negatively compounded
by coral bleaching, storm damage and fishing pressures.
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
63
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
The Papua New Guinean Office of Climate Change and Development is responsible for establishing
and analysing climate change policies in the region. The Office is divided into three departments,
focusing primarily on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing
countries (REDD), low carbon growth, adaptation strategies, and measurement reporting and
verification (MRV) along with national consulting. The latter department is primarily responsible
for reporting all initiatives and activities to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). The department offers background information regarding climate change and
its potential impact, including a detailed list of specific implications climate change will have on
Papua New Guinea. The Office has identified flooding, malaria, and potential agricultural yield
among other factors which Papua New Guinea must address as a result of climate change.
In the Papua New Guinea Vision 2050, tourism is identified as one of five industries with major
growth potential. The report specifically identifies as one objective to “improve understanding
on environmental sustainability and climate change, with educational awareness on economic
activities, such as carbon trade and tourism”.73 On top of the strategic direction of Vision 2050 to
focus on developing tourism, Environmental Sustainability and Climate Change is listed as one of
seven pillars of the vision.
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Box 4.9
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Papua New Guinea
Department of National Planning and Monitoring, Papua New Guinea (2010), Papua New Guinea development strategic plan
2010-2030. (online), available: www.occd.gov.pg/.
National Strategic Plan Task Force, Papua New Guinea (2010), PNG Vision 2050, (online), available: www.occd.gov.pg/.
Office of Climate Change and Development, Papua New Guinea (2010), Interim action plan for climate compatible development,
(online), available: www.occd.gov.pg/.
Papua New Guinea Office of Climate Change and Development: Publications and useful documents available online at:
www.occd.gov.pg.
Papua New Guinea Tourism Promotion Authority and the Independent Consumer and Competition Commission (2007). Growing
PNG Tourism as a sustainable industry: Papua New Guinea tourism sector review and master plan 2007–201, (online),
available: www.iccc.gov.pg/docs/.
4.13Philippines
Precipitation change and extreme weather is likely to impact Philippines under future climate
projections. Decreasing annual rainfall is expected for some parts of the country, while increased
rainfall is predicted along the western coast. Philippines has experienced increasing rainfall since
the 1980s and a higher frequency of rainy days since the 1990s.74 The impact of this was felt in
1990 and 2004, when severe rains caused floods and landslides in some areas.
Philippines is susceptible to the ENSO weather pattern and its extremes. The country suffered
severe droughts in 1997 and 1998 associated with ENSO, which in turn triggered forest fires,
water shortages and mass crop failures.75 Extreme weather, specifically cyclones, will continue to
impact the country, with noted damages caused by intense cyclones increasing over recent years.
64
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
The frequency of cyclones to cross the Philippines Area of Responsibility has risen significantly
between 1990 and 2003, to average at 20 cyclones per year.76
It has been estimated that 20% of people worldwide who are likely to be flooded by sea level
rise reside in South-East Asia. Included in this, low-lying communities in Philippines are at risk,77
especially as many coastal communities in the country are dependent on tourism and fishing for
their income.78 Sea level rise, along with marine ecosystem health, will shape the future prospects
of such communities and their ability to rely on tourism for survival.79
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
Philippines’ response to climate change is one of the most advanced in the region. The Department
of Tourism identified changing climatic patterns and extreme weather as the most pressing
issue to face the tourism industry by 2020.80 In 2009, The Philippine Government released the
Climate Change Act to address the issue. Through this Act, The Climate Change Commission
was established. The Climate Change Act of 2009 states that it is: “an Act mainstreaming climate
change into government policy formulations, establishing the framework strategy and program
on climate change, creating for this purpose the Climate Change Commission, and for other
purposes”.81
The National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) was established by the Climate Change
Commission as a national framework and strategy for addressing climate change. As tourism is
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considered a major industry in Philippines, it was considered in the construction of the Plan.82
As identified in the Plan, food security, water sufficiency, ecological and environmental stability,
human security, climate-smart industries and services, sustainable energy and knowledge and
capacity development are defined as areas for strategic direction. Tourism is noted within the Plan
to be a climate-smart industry.
While this policy exists on a national level, the Department of Tourism is working on various
initiatives to implement the policy in the tourism sector. The Department has developed the
Green Hotel Standards and is looking at pathways to enhance ecotourism, as two mechanisms to
implement mitigation strategies.
The People’s Survival Fund is designed to “[…] provide long-term finance streams to enable the
government to effectively address the problem of climate change”.83 The fund has been identified
by the Department of Tourism as assistance for local government units to enhance climaterelated capacities and hazard awareness, and may be used specifically by the tourism sector for
assistance in mitigation and adaptation.84
4.14
Republic of Korea
The predicted impacts of climate change on the Republic of Korea include sea level rise and
changes in temperature. The Republic of Korea has experienced an increase in mean temperature
of 0.23˚ C per decade in recent years. The frequency of extreme maximum temperatures is likely
to increase, as is indicated by high values witnessed in the 1980s and 1990s. Similarly, a decrease
in the frequency of record low temperatures experienced between 1958 and 2001 suggests a
continuation of the trend.85
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
65
Sea level rise will likely have a negative impact on popular destinations in the Korean Peninsula.
Global sea level rise predictions equate to an approximate 1.2%, or 1,643 km2 of territory in the
Korean Peninsula to become inundated in a storm surge at high tide in a 1 m rise scenario.86
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
In an effort to address the issue of climate change, a number of government offices in the Republic
of Korea jointly established the Framework Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth, implemented in
2010. As suggested by the title, mitigation strategies focus on reducing carbon dependence and
GHG emissions through the development of green technologies and the ‘greening’ of existing
industries.
Domestic policies for climate change in the Republic of Korea were highlighted in a report by
The Asia Climate Change Policy Forum.87 The report outlines the strategies and objectives of key
mitigation policies in the country, which focus on implementing green growth. The report further
identifies the national climate change ‘vision’ of low carbon and green growth.88
National policies addressing climate change in The Republic of Korea have a stronger focus on
mitigation strategies than adaptation strategies. However, the National Climate Change Adaptation
Plan 2011–2015 was established jointly by 13 government offices as a Clause of the Framework
Act on Low Carbon, Green Growth. This Plan identifies adaptation measures and goals for each
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participating government office, for example the Public Health Sector and Marine and Fishery
Industries.
4.15
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is susceptible to a number of climate change impacts.89 The country has experienced
temperature increases over recent decades and the coastline is at risk of flooding induced by sea
level rise. Unprecedented severe weather has caused flooding in the southern province, notably
in May 2003, when the region received 730 mm of rain in one day. Such extreme weather events
are likely to become more frequent in the future.
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
In 2010, the Sri Lankan Government drafted the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy
for 2011–2016. The report outlines key impacts which are of high concern to Sri Lanka, while
also aiming to raise awareness about climate vulnerability in key economic sectors. The report
identifies tourism as a key economic driver in Sri Lanka. Further, the correlation between natural
resources and destination attractiveness is also recognised in the report.
The Sri Lankan Government aims to implement a strategy which will encourage the protection and
efficient management of natural resources, thus protecting the longevity of the tourism industry. In
this adaptation strategy, it is suggested that an integrated approach across all sectors in Sri Lanka
is necessary to ensure the country’s resilience to climate change. As tourism is a key economic
sector, the Sri Lankan Tourism Development Authority acknowledges that the national strategy
must be applied to Sri Lanka’s tourism industry.
66
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Box 4.10
Selected climate change and tourism policy and documents: Sri Lanka
Climate Change Secretariat, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Sri Lanka (n.d.), Sri Lankan approach to climate
change, (online), available: www.climatechange.lk/.
Climate Change Secretariat, Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka (2011), Sri Lanka’s Second National Communication on Climate
Change, (online), available: www.climatechange.lk/.
Institute of Policy Studies (2009), IPS CLIMATEnet, (online), available: www.ips.lk/climatenet/.
Ministry of Environment, Sri Lanka (2013), Climate Change Secretariat Website, (online), available:
www.climatechange.lk/About_us.html.
Mawilmada, N.; Atapattu, S.; Dela, J.; Gunawardene, N.; Weerasinghe, B.; Nandana, M. and Kumari, N. (2010), National Climate
Change Adaptation Strategy for Sri Lanka, 2011–2016, (online), available: www.climatechange.lk/.
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Sri Lanka (n.d.), The National Climate Change Policy of Sri Lanka, (online),
available: www.climatechange.lk.
Ratnayake, U. (n.d.), A collaborative approach between tourism and coastal communities: A present-day need and opportunity
for mangrove management and conservation in Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority,
(online), available: www.sltda.gov.lk.
4.16Thailand
The effects of climate change in Thailand are predicted to severely impact certain ecosystems
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throughout the country, such as the country’s coastal regions. Coastal lowlands across Thailand
and other countries in the region lie below the elevation of the 1000 year storm surge. Thus, these
areas are vulnerable to increasingly erratic weather, storm surges and sea level rise.
Ocean acidification is also predicted to negatively affect the reefs and marine ecosystems in
Thai waters, with coral bleaching presenting a major concern. An assessment conducted by
the International Water Institute suggested that coral reefs in the Andaman Coast and the Gulf
of Thailand are at risk of continued degradation, with an estimated 80% and 50% respectively
currently in ‘fair’, ‘bad’ or ‘very bad’ condition, identified by the proportion of dead coral in the
regions.90
Coastal tourism is a strong component of the tourism product in Thailand. It has been suggested
that Thailand is one of the most popular dive destinations in South-East Asia.91 In fact, the Andaman
Coast and the Gulf of Thailand are internationally recognised dive sites, and two of the most
popular in Thailand. With severe reef degradation likely to continue in these tourism hotspots,
the World Bank estimated reef degradation could equate to losses in revenue of approximately
USD 8.5 million.92
Climate change and tourism: policy responses
The TAT displays a strong focus on the responsible management of natural resources in its
tourism strategy. The Authority’s 2011 Annual Report was opened with a statement reaffirming the
Authority’s commitment to encouraging responsible tourism practices with protecting Thailand’s
natural and cultural assets:
Climate change and tourism policy in Asia and the Pacific
67
“When a society takes good care of its environment, tourism is a constant source of pride
and benefits. With this tenet in mind, the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) is committed
to being the bridge that links responsible tourism with conservation of Thailand’s nature,
environment and human heritage of priceless value for now and forever”.
Tourism Authority of Thailand (2011)
Similar to other policies in the region, there is a strong focus on the tourism industry’s contribution
to climate change and its negative impacts on the environment.
The TAT has followed through on this commitment to encouraging responsible tourism, with the
launch of Tourism Thailand’s 7Greens concept (https://7greens.tourismthailand.org). 7Greens is
an initiative which encourages all stakeholders in tourism to make more responsible choices,
including operators, tourists and local communities. The initiative is a direct reflection of the
government’s awareness and concern about climate change, as it aims to address perceived
challenges and impacts caused by tourism upon natural resources such as water and air quality.
The 7Greens initiative acts as a platform for tourism operators and communities to benchmark
their operations, and provides guidelines and advice to ensure all sectors are contributing to the
overall vision for Destination Thailand. Each of the 7Greens addresses a core issue which must be
considered for the tourism sector as a whole to reduce its impact on the environment.
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4.17Conclusion
It has been predicted that the tourism sector will be negatively impacted by climate change.93 A
review of the predicted impacts on countries in Asia and the Pacific,94 reveal certain hotspots in
the region, as well as within individual countries. Sea level rise is a major threat to island states
in the region, which encompasses some of the lowest lying countries in the world. Urban areas
are threatened by increasingly intense heat waves and reduced air quality in some parts of the
region. South-East Asia is particularly susceptible to increasingly extreme weather and its related
implications include storm surges and severe damage to infrastructure. Furthermore, many of
the sub-regions impacted by these changes are tourism-dependent, such as the numerous small
island states scattered throughout the region.
Despite these predictions and their implications for the tourism industry, the integration and
recognition of the impact of climate change is in its preliminary stages in tourism policy. A review
of policies in the region highlights the strong presence of climate change in some environmental
departments. The implications of a changing climate on livelihoods dependent on tourism requires
further recognition, as the impacts can no longer can be considered isolated from economic and
social systems.
While this chapter is by no means exhaustive or representative of all countries within the region, it
presents a situational overview of climate change recognition in tourism policy. It is imperative that
tourism representatives across the Asia and the Pacific region continue to focus on the impacts
of a changed climate on the future landscape of the tourism industry. However, it must also be
noted that the region is not exclusively lagging in tourism and climate change initiatives; rather, it
remains a global challenge to further integrate implications of climate change into tourism policy.
68
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Endnotes
1
World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment
Programme (2008).
49 Fukushima, T.; Kureha, M.; Ozaki, N.; Fujimori, Y. and Harasawa, H.
(2002), pp. 173–189.
2
Alliance Development Works (2012).
50 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
3
Pittock, A. B. (2009).
51Ibid.
4
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007.
52Ibid.
5Ibid.
53 International Fund for Agricultural Development (2009).
6Ibid.
54 Dearden, P. and Manopawitr, P. (2011).
7Ibid.
55 International Fund for Agricultural Development (2009).
8Ibid.
56Ibid.
9
57 Dearden, P. and Manopawitr, P. (2011).
Amelung, B. and Nicholls, S. (2014), pp. 228–244.
10 Pickering, C. M. (2011), pp. 767–781.
58Ibid.
11 Hendrikx, J.; Zammit, C.; Hreinsson, E. O. and Becken, S. (2013),
pp. 965–978.
59 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
12 Hendrikx, J.; Zammit, C.; Hreinsson, E. O. and Becken, S. (2013).
61Ibid.
13 National Long-Term Tourism Strategy, Department of Resources,
Energy and Tourism (2009).
62Ibid.
14 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
15Ibid.
16Ibid.
17Ibid.
18Ibid.
19Ibid.
20Ibid.
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21Ibid.
22 Ren, X.; Zeng, L. and Zhou, D. (2005), pp. 185–198.
23 The Policy Climate (2013).
24 Chan, C. K. and Yao, X. (2008), pp. 1–42.
25Ibid.
26 Action Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Control (2013).
27 World Tourism Organization (2009), pp. 1–56.
28 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
29Ibid.
30Ibid.
60Ibid.
63Ibid.
64 United Nations Development Programme (n.d).
65 United Nations Development Programme( n.d).
66 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
67Ibid.
68 Pacific Climate Change Science Program, Papua New Guinea (2011).
69Ibid.
70Ibid.
71Ibid.
72Ibid.
73 Papua New Guinea Vision 2050 (p. 42).
74 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
75Ibid.
76Ibid.
77Ibid.
78 Christie, P. (2005), pp. 252–270.
79Ibid.
31Ibid.
80 Philippine Department of Tourism, personal communication
(September 22, 2013).
32Ibid.
81 Congress of the Phillipines (2009).
33Ibid.
34 Rastogi, N. P. (2011), pp. 127–141.
82 Philippine Department of Tourism, personal communication
(September 22, 2013)
35 Raina, V. K. (n.d.).
83 Republic Act No. 101741, 16 August 2012.
36 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
37Ibid.
84 Philippine Department of Tourism, personal communication
(September 22, 2013).
38 Ministry of Environment (2007).
85 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
39 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
86Ibid.
40 Ministry of Environment (2007).
87 Jung, T. Y. and Ahn, J. E. (2010).
41Ibid.
88Ibid.
42 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
89 Baba, N. (2010).
43 Ministry of Environment (2007).
90 Dearden, P. and Manopawitr, P. (2011).
44Ibid.
91Ibid.
45Ibid.
92 World Bank (2006).
46 Republic of Indonesia (2011).
93 World Tourism Organization and United Nations Environment
Programme (2008).
47 World Tourism Organization (2009).
48 Shih, C.; Nicholls. S. and Holecek, D. F. (2009), pp. 359–372.
94 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change AR4 (2007).
T
69
Chapter 5
Air travel, emissions, and tourism growth
in the Asia and the Pacific region Tourism and travel depend on fossil fuels and other sources of energy, and contribute to climate
change through emissions of various greenhouse gases (GHGs), including in particular carbon
dioxide CO2, as well as methane (CH4), nitrous oxides (NOx), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). There are also various short-lived GHGs
that are important in the context of aviation, including in particular NOx and water, both of which
increase radiative forcing when emitted at flight altitude.1 Tourism-related energy use/emissions
include all domestic and international leisure and business travel, and have thus far been calculated
for three major subsectors: transport to and from the destination; accommodation; and activities
at destinations.2
Taken together, tourism’s contribution to energy use is about 435 Megatonnes (Mt) of fuel, or
about 17,500 Petajoule (PJ) of energy, i.e. the equivalent of CO2 emissions of 1,304 Mt CO2
corresponding to a share of 4.95% of all anthropogenic emissions of CO2 in the year 2005.3 Most
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energy use and CO2 emissions are associated with transport, as aviation accounts for 40% of
tourism’s overall CO2 footprint (515 Mt CO2), followed by cars (32%) and accommodation (21%).
Cruise ships account for an estimated 19 Mt CO2 or 1.5% of global tourism emissions of CO2.4 All
calculations5 represent energy throughput, and exclude the impact of short-lived GHG.6 Adding
these effects, tourism may be responsible for 8% (best estimate) of global warming in the year
2005.7 A more complete analysis of tourism-related GHG emissions would however also have
to include food and beverages, infrastructure construction and maintenance, as well as tourist
retail and services; all of these on the basis of a lifecycle perspective accounting for the energy
embodied in the goods and services consumed in tourism.8 This would further increase the share
of tourism in total anthropogenic emissions.
While the contribution of the tourism sector to climate change is already considerable, the main
challenge is the sector’s growth, which will result in considerably higher energy use and emissions
in the future.9 Tourism is expected to grow because of several trends, including growth in the
number of people travelling for employment, business, leisure, education and health services;
continuing declines in the real cost of travel; increases in per capita disposable incomes leading
to a growing number of trips made per capita; and growth in the average distance per trip made.10
Based on a business-as-usual growth scenario to 2035, which considers changes in travel
frequency, length of stay, travel distance and technological efficiency gains, and it is projected that
CO2 emissions from tourism will grow approximately 135% by 2035, compared with 2005 (totalling
3.059 Gt CO2).11 These estimates are very similar to the World Economic Forum12 projection for
tourism emissions growth, reaching 3.164 Gt CO2 by 2035. Notably, neither of these projections
of future emissions from the tourism sector accounts for rebound effects, i.e. the behavioural
or other systemic responses to the introduction of new technologies that stimulate resource
consumption,13 and gains in energy efficiencies over the period to 2035 may be significantly lower
70
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
than expected. Most of the growth in energy and emissions will be associated with air travel, with
emission growth in the order of 290–670% by 2050 being anticipated.14 Note that current tourism
is still an activity of a relatively small wealthy minority: only an estimated 2.5% of the world’s
population are participating in international air traffic in a given year.15 All projections of tourism
growth and associated emissions of greenhouse gases are thus in stark contrast to mitigation
targets, as for instance presented by the World Travel & Tourism Council (table 5.1).
Table 5.1
Year
Tourism sector emissions and mitigation targets (Gt)
Emission estimates and BAU projections
Mitigation targets
(CO2)
UNWTO–UNEP
WEF
WTTC
5% allocation of overall
(2008)
(2009)
(2009)*
GFG emissions
to tourism**
2005
1.304 Gt
1.476 Gt
-
2020
2.181 Gt
2.319 Gt
0.978 Gt
1.254 Gt
2035
3.059 Gt
3.164 Gt
0.652 Gt
0.940 Gt
*
World Travel & Tourism Council (2009) Aspirational emission reduction targets are -25% in 2020 and -50% in 2035 (both from 2005 levels specified
in Gössling (2013).
**
Pathway that limits global average temperature increase to below 2° C; assuming CO2 continues to representing approximately 57%
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(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007) of the median estimate of 44 Gt CO2e total GHG emissions in 2020 and 203516 and the
tourism sector continues to represent approximately 5% of global CO2 emissions (UNWTO, UNEP, WMO (2008), WEF (2009), over the same time
frame.
Source: Gössling, S. et al. (2013).
With other major emitting sectors such as manufacturing, energy supply, housing, and so forth
looking to stabilize or reduce emissions in many regions of the world over the next 30 years, if
travel and tourism remain on a business-as-usual pathway, the sector will become an increasingly
important source of GHG emissions.17 These findings for global tourism have recently been
confirmed at the country scale in a review of the emissions from tourism in 22 countries, including
several OECD countries.18 Tourism contributes the equivalent of between 4% (Suriname) and
150% (Turks and Caicos) of national emissions as assessed on the basis of the Kyoto Protocol
guidelines for national GHG inventories (i.e. a calculation excluding international bunker fuels from
shipping/aviation). In particular Small Island Developing States often have economies that are far
more energy intense than Kyoto-based assessments suggest, with tourism dwarfing energy use
in all other sectors.
However, other national assessments also show that tourism is an economic sector with a low
carbon-efficiency. For instance, the carbon-efficiency of the Dutch economy is approximately
0.3 kg CO2 per euro, while for tourism the average value is 1 kg CO2 per euro.19 In Australia,
tourism is the fifth most emission intense sector (of 17 sectors)20 and the fourth in Switzerland (of
22 sectors).21 In Sweden, tourism accounted for 11% of national emissions in 2001, a figure that
is expected to increase to 16% by 2020.22 The United Kingdom Department of Transport23 predict
that, taking radiative forcing into account, the 9% contribution of aviation to total United Kingdom
emissions in 2005 will grow to approximately 15% in 2020 and 29% in 2050. Likewise, the
Australian government’s energy white paper estimates that air transport will more than quadruple
by 2050.24
71
Air travel, emissions, and tourism growth in the Asia and the Pacific region
This leads to various conclusions: first, tourism is more energy intense than other economic
sectors, and hence more vulnerable to changes in the cost of energy and fossil fuels. Second,
this vulnerability is likely to increase, given tourism’s growth and increasing competition over
increasingly scarce fossil fuel resources. Third, if efforts to reduce absolute global emissions of
GHG are to be achieved, in line with calls by, for example, the OECD25 or the International Energy
Agency (IEA)26, costs of CO2 emissions due to market-based measures (taxes, duties, removal of
subsidies) will become increasingly relevant for tourism. Together, both fuel cost developments
and climate policy may thus affect the global tourism system in a way that would imply changing
travel patterns.
5.1
Energy use and emissions in Asia and the Pacific
Large and growing tourism numbers imply that energy consumption for tourism and associated
emissions are growing as well. Currently, there is no data on these in the Asia and the Pacific
region. Contrary to global assessments, regional assessments of emissions need to be based
on specific system boundaries, such as the emissions from bunker fuels bunkered in countries
in the region; emissions related to a region’s residents, even including their travel abroad; or
the emissions caused by a region’s tourism system.27 Some limited data has been published by
UNWTO, UNEP and WMO, including data on outgoing tourism, i.e. emissions by region of origin
and destination (table 5.2). Specifically, emissions have been calculated for air travel, including
127 million day trips (domestic and international), corresponding to 303 billion passenger
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kilometres, with an average trip length of 2,400 km (return). These day trips accounted for
emissions of 42 Mt CO2, or 0.33 t CO2 per trip. Added to this are 41 million international trips
within the region, corresponding to 318 billion pkm at an average return distance of 7,800 km per
trip, accounting for 40 Mt CO2, or 0.97 t CO2 per trip. Unknown in this calculation is the number of
trips made outside the region (international travel).
Table 5.2
Approximation of trip volume and tourism transport emissions by region of origin and
destination, 2005
Total
By air
Trips
(million)
CO2
emissions
(total Mt)
Trips
(million)
Km
(billion)
Km
(avg
return)
Total
9,750
981
870
3,984 4,600 Same-day (dom. and int.)
5,000
133 50 60 Tourists 4,750
848
820 Within regions 4,615
630
Domestic
4,000
Europe
CO2 emissions
Total Mt
Kg/km
T/trip
515 0.129 0.59 1,200 11 0.177 0.21 3,924 4,800 506 0.129 0.62 695 2,173 3,100 289 0.133 0.42 478 480 1,340 2,800 185 0.138 0.39 -
-
66
122
1,900 17 0.138 0.26 Americas
-
-
272 888 3,300
123
0.138
0.45
Asia and the Pacific
-
-
127
303
2,400
42 0.138 0.33 Middle East
-
-
8
14
1,700
2.0 0.138 0.24 Africa
-
-
6
11
1,800
1.5
0.138
0.25 72
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Total
Trips
(million)
International within own region
By air
CO2
emissions
(total Mt)
Trips
(million)
Km
(billion)
Km
(avg
return)
CO2 emissions
Total Mt
Kg/km
T/trip
615
153 215 833 3,900 104 0.125 0.48 366
-
126
313
2,500
39 0.125 0.31 96
- 37 178 4,900 22 0.125 0.61 117
-
41
318
7,800
40
0.125
0.97
Middle East
18
-
7
14
2,100
1.8
0.125
0.27
Africa
16
-
5
10
1,900
1.2
0.124
1.74
135
218
125
1,751
14,000
217
0.124
1.74
30
11
20
77
3,900
10
0.125
0.32
104
208
104
1,674
16,000
208
0.124
1.99
High income-developing
40
79 40 639 16,000 79 0.124 1.99 Developing-developing
5
9
5
76
16,000
9
0.124
1.99
Developing-high income
24
49
24
392
16,000
49
0.124
1.99
High income-high income
35
70
35
567
16,000
70
0.124
1.99
Europe
Americas
Asia and the Pacific
Between regions
Short-haul
Long-haul, predominantly from-to
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Source: World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization (2008) p. 135.
As no exact data is available on energy use and emissions from tourism in the region, which also
includes other transport modes and tourism consumption, a rough estimate may be made on the
basis of the region’s current share of all tourism, i.e. 21.7% of all international tourism flows in
2010. Applying this share to tourism’s 2005 energy use/emissions,28 tourism in the region would
have used 94.4 Mt of fuel, causing 283 Mt of emissions of CO2. By 2035, with expectations of
tourism’s emissions to grow to 3.164 Gt CO2 and the Asia and the Pacific share to account for at
least 29.6% of international tourism flows (2030 estimate), the amount of emissions caused by
Asia and the Pacific in worldwide emissions would more than triple to 936.5 Mt CO2 in a period of
about 20 years. How relevant is this for climate change?
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has presented, in its Fifth Assessment
Report (AR5), four different Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) for atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that would cause different degrees of
radiative forcing/global warming. RCPs are identified by their approximate contribution to total
radiative forcing in the year 2100 relative to 1750, i.e. pre-industrial times. Radiative forcing
values are: 2.6 Watts per square metre (Wm-2) for RCP2.6 (CO2 concentration in the atmosphere:
421 parts per million (ppm), 4.5 Wm-2 for RCP4.5 (630 ppm), 6.0 Wm-2 for RCP6.0 (800 ppm) and
8.5 Wm-2 for RCP8.5 (1313 ppm).29 As shown in table 5.3, the various RCPs are estimated to
result in different degrees of warming in the two periods considered, 2046–2065 and 2081–2100.
As table 5.4 shows, only RCP2.6 and RCP4.5 would provide relative certainty that warming will
not exceed 2˚ C by 2100 as compared to pre-industrial levels, with 2˚ C representing the global
political consensus regarding maximum acceptable warming.30
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Air travel, emissions, and tourism growth in the Asia and the Pacific region
Table 5.3
Global mean surface temperature changes depending on RCPs
Variable
2046–2065 2081–2100 Scenario
Mean
Likely range
Mean
Likely range
RCP2.6
1.0
0.4 to 1.6
1.0
0.3 to 1.7
Global mean surface
RCP4.5
1.4
0.9 to 2.0
1.8
1.1 to 2.6
RCP6.0
1.3
0.8 to 1.8
2.2
1.4 to 3.1
RCP8.5
2.0
1.4 to 2.6
3.7
2.6 to 4.8
temperature change
˚C
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
Based on these figures, it is possible to calculate the amount of emissions of CO2 that would be
“permitted” in the period 2012–2100 without exceeding RCP4.5. As shown in table 5.4, this may
correspond to 780 Gigatonnes of carbon (GtC) or 2,863 Gt CO2 (mean estimate), i.e. 32.5 Gt CO2
per year, if linearly integrated over 88 years. Clearly, if tourism continued to grow as projected,
while global emissions of CO2 remained stable around 32.5 Gt CO2 by 2030 (or even declined,
as anticipated in most scenarios), then tourism would, by 2030, account for about 10% of global
emissions of CO2, and a higher share of radiative forcing. About one third of this would be falling
on Asia and the Pacific, underlining the region’s future importance in generating tourism-related
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greenhouse gas emissions.
Table 5.4
Representative concentration pathways and corresponding CO2 emissions
Scenario
Cumulative CO2 emissions 2012-2100
(in GtC1)
Mean Range RCP2.6 270
140 to 410
RCP4.5
780
595 o 1,005
RCP6.0
1,060
840 to 1,250
RCP8.5
1,685
1,415 to 1,919
1) Gigatonne of Carbon corresponds to 3.67 Gt CO2.
Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
5.2
Climate policy implications
As shown in the previous sections, continued growth in tourism in the Asia and Pacific region
will mean that emissions from tourism will continue to grow rapidly. This should be of concern
to policy makers, as it will mean greater dependence of the region on fossil fuel resources, and
hence vulnerabilities in terms of energy security. With regard to climate change, there are various
implications. First of all, there is a clear mismatch between climate mitigation objectives, as stated
by governments and industry, and tourism emission scenarios, given global growth in the sector.
Clearly, global tourism will be increasingly at odds with mitigation objectives, even considering
optimistic scenarios on technological progress.31 There is thus a key role for climate policy in
tourism.32 Such policies are, however, only insufficiently developed at this point.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
The European Union (EU) is currently the only region in the world that has included aviation in an
Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), and there has been a cap on CO2 emissions from flights arriving
at or departing from EU airports since the beginning of 2012. Due to international resistance to
emission trading, the ETS only currently applies to flights within and between the 30 European
countries in the EU ETS, and has been postponed for airlines from outside the EU until 2014.33
For participating airlines, the ETS has however had a very limited impact, because of a growing
surplus of allowances in the European carbon market and prices of about € 4 per t of carbon
in July 2013. The cost of emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) thus remains very low, giving aviation a
very limited incentive to reduce energy use, also because improving fuel efficiencies in aviation is
comparatively costly. To assess the impact of the EU ETS on aviation, the European Commission34
produced four different scenarios looking at EU ETS prices of € 15 and € 6 per t of CO2, and
including or excluding international carbon credits. These translated into cost increases in the
price of a typical return flight within the EU in the order of € 1.8 and € 9 by 2020, (i.e. modest
price increases), and actual emission reductions for 2020, compared to business-as-usual, were
2.8% for € 15 and 1.1% for € 6. Similar findings resulted from a scenario using permit prices of
€ 25 per t of CO2, i.e. seven times the current permit price, suggesting that the cost of flying would
increase by just about € 3 per 1,000 passenger kilometers.35 A conclusion is that the carbon
cost of tourism has to be far more significant and proportional to energy use in order to make a
contribution to emission reductions.36 This is also true for other transport modes, as well as nontransport tourism consumption.37
Yet, to achieve emission reductions, a wide range of market-based, command-and-control and
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soft policy measures are theoretically available. There are various examples of such policies that for
instance have been successful in changing transport use behaviour.38 Market-based instruments
include taxes, subsidies or duties, which affect behaviour because of rising or declining costs
for travel. Control-and-command instruments, sometimes also referred to as hard policy,39 set
standards for products and services as well as behaviour, and they steer transport behaviour directly
through urban design and land use planning or investments in specific transport infrastructure.
Soft policy measures have the objective of supporting decisions that are more socially desirable,
generally relying on the distribution of information on more sustainable transport choices.
While there is ample research on the effects of specific measures within these three categories,
there exists a major “implementation gap”40, specifically with regard to transportation, which
accounts for 75% of emissions from tourism. Various explanations have been provided for the
existence of such a gap, including a societal and political focus on ecological modernization and
a belief in technological innovation, (limited) market-based measures, and (voluntary) behavioural
change, ultimately resulting in “path dependency” and social lock-in, i.e. a situation where
inactions of the past determine future outcomes.41 Tourism and transport policy makers will have
to face the difficult choice: to either see the sector contribute to rapidly rising emissions both in
absolute volumes and as a share of overall emissions, or to engage in the more difficult transition
towards a low-carbon tourism sector, which will require far reaching and ‘serious’ climate policy.
Air travel, emissions, and tourism growth in the Asia and the Pacific region
75
Endnotes
1
Lee et al. (2009).
23 UK Department of Transport (2007).
2
World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
24 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2012).
26 International Energy Agency (2012).
4
Eijgelaar, E. et al. (2010).
27 Incoming/outgoing; for a discussion see Gössling, S. (2013).
5
World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
28 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
6
Scott, D.; Peeters, P. and Gössling, S. (2010).
29 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013), pp. 22–26.
7Ibid.
30 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2009).
8
Gössling, S. (2013).
31 Gössling, S.; Scott, D. and Hall, M. C. (2013).
9
Gössling, S.; Scott, D. and Hall, M. C. (2013).
32 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and United
Nations Environment Programme (2011).
10Ibid.
11 World Tourism Organization, United Nations Environment Programme
and World Meteorological Organization (2008).
33 EC (2013).
12 World Economic Forum (2009).
35 Scott, D. et al. (2010).
13 Jenkins, J. et al. (2012).
14 European Commission (2011).
36 see also Tol, R. S. J. (2007);
Mayor, K. and Tol, R. S. J. (2007, 2008 and 2009).
15 Scott, Peeters and Gössling (2010).
37 Gössling, S. (2010).
16 Rogelj, J. et al. (2011).
38 E.g., Friman, M. et al. (2012); Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development and United Nations Environment Programme
(2011); Sterner, T. (2007).
17 Hall, M. C. (2011)
18 Gössling, S. (2013).
19 de Bruijn, K. et al. (2010).
20 Dwyer, L. et al. (2010).
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25 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2013).
3Ibid.
21 Perch-Nielsen, S. et al. (2010).
22 Gössling, S. and Hall, M. C. (2008).
34 EC (2006).
39 E.g., Friman, M. et al. (2012).
40 In the words of Banister, D. et al. (2012), p. 292.
41 Schwanen, T. et al. (2011).
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T
77
Chapter 6
Tourism vulnerability, resilience,
and adaptation to climate change in China
Following more than a decade of flourishing growth, China’s tourism sector has become a
leading power not only for the country’s own economy but also for the international tourism
economy. In 2012, travel and tourism contributed, either directly or indirectly, USD 756,5 billion
(CNY 4,783 billion) towards the Chinese economy, which is 9.3% of China’s gross domestic
product (GDP).1 The sector created approximately 63.8 million jobs, contributing 8.3% of total
employment in 2012.2 Internationally, China received the third highest number of international
arrivals (58 million) in the world, and ranked fourth in the world for international tourism receipts
(USD 50 billion)3. In 2012, China became the number one tourism source market in the world,
spending USD 102 billion on international tourism.4
As a climate sensitive sector and a contributor to carbon emissions, tourism’s relationships with
climate change have emerged as a major topic in tourism studies.5 While researchers and policy
makers historically paid more attention to mitigation, it is widely recognised that it is imperative
for all economic sectors, including the tourism sector, to adapt to unavoidable climate change
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impacts. Mirroring the broader growth of interest in adaptation, specific efforts are observable
in tourism adaptation issues. Despite the growing body of literature around tourism and climate
change, studies into tourism adaptation remain restricted in scope and depth, leaving the sector
lagging behind other economic sectors and considered one of the least prepared for climate
change adaptation.6 There are still major geographical gaps remaining in the climate change and
tourism literature, especially at the destination level, with China considered ‘poor’ in terms of
relative level of tourism-specific climate change knowledge.7
As China continues to grow as a powerful player in tourism, it becomes increasingly crucial to
understand its tourism vulnerability and enhance its resilience and adaptive capacity to climate
change. In response to the knowledge gaps in Chinese tourism and climate change, a vulnerability
study was undertaken in a Chinese tourism destination, Jiuzhaigou, Sichuan Province in 2012, to
assess its vulnerability, and based on this, to identify opportunities and challenges in adaptation
to climate change for China. This chapter presents the key findings of this study and discusses
implications for future research.
6.1
Understanding vulnerability as an approach to climate change
adaptation
The tourism adaptation research has focused on tourism specific adaptation frameworks,8
assessment and review of tourism adaptation strategies, and destination or sub-sector based case
studies (e.g., ski tourism, coastal tourism, island tourism) that are often associated with assessing
adaptation strategies.9 The growing literature in tourism and climate change has focused more
on the risks/hazards or impacts-based approach to climate change adaptation.10 This approach
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
identifies and assesses risk from a particular climate feature, and based on this, develops possible
options to address the specific risk.11
The other dominant strand and new wave of adaptation theory, policy and practice is the
vulnerability or resilience based approach, which accepts future uncertainty and change,12 and
seeks to understand the complex interactions between climate change impacts and a coupled
human-environment system’s social, economic, environmental, and political conditions.13 The
current tourism and climate change research makes very limited inquiry into the vulnerability/
resilience approach to adaptation.14
Against the backdrop of increasing recognition of the need to address the knowledge gaps in
tourism adaptation, this study seeks to explore the vulnerability/resilience approach in Chinese
destinations. A system’s vulnerability is a function of its exposure to climate change impacts, its
sensitivity (shaped by economic, social, environmental, governance and institutional factors), and
its adaptive capacity.15 As a direct expression of the strength of a coupled human-environment
system,16 resilience refers to the system’s ability to “absorb disturbances while retaining the same
basic structure and ways of functioning, the capacity for self-organization, and the capacity to
adapt to stress and change”.17 As a process of adjustment to actual or expected climate, and in
an effort to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities, adaptation focuses on reducing
exposure and vulnerability and increasing resilience of a system to climate change impacts.18
As an essential factor of a tourism system, governance processes can be key determinants of
tourism’s vulnerability. There is a recent emergence of studies on governance in tourism and
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climate change, in which researchers have examined the conduciveness of policy environments
for tourism adaptation,19 and the roles of networks and public-private relationships in mitigation
and adaptation.20 However, the existing literature is yet to unpack the contribution of governance
to system vulnerability, and its potential to facilitate the combination of technological, behavioural,
and managerial changes that the tourism system will need to make to adapt to climate change.
While aiming to grasp an overall understanding of the destination’s vulnerability and resilience to
climate change, this study also attempts to addresses this knowledge gap by highlighting how
governance characterises tourism vulnerability and its implications for adaptation in the context
of a Chinese tourism destination.
6.2
Study Context and Methods
China is one of the most vulnerable countries to the adverse effects of climate change.21
Temperature increases, changes in water availability, and increases in frequency and intensity
of climatic extremes have been evidenced and projected to continue in the future.22 Although
the ways in which these climate change projections affect China’s tourism are yet to be fully
understood, it is clear that Chinese tourism destinations are likely to be negatively affected by
climatic and environmental impacts arising from climate change.
Listed as a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World
Heritage Site and World Biosphere Reserve, Jiuzhaigou has a broad variety of natural and cultural
attractions including waterfalls, forests, snow-topped peaks, lakes, pandas, and Tibetan villages,23
which are potentially vulnerable to a variety of direct and indirect climate change impacts. Located
in the Aba prefecture of Sichuan Province, the South-Eastern part of Qinghai Tibet Plateau (see
Tourism vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation to climate change in China
79
figure 6.1), Jiuzhaigou is highly exposed to landslides, which can be exacerbated by climatic
extremes and changes in precipitation patterns as a result of climate change. There are a
population of more than 1,000 Tibetan communities that reside within the Jiuzhaigou National
Park, many involved in tourism-related activities such as operating tourism souvenir booths in
the tourist reception centre and hosting tourists in the Tibetan villages.24 After ten years of rapid
growth, Jiuzhaigou National Park is now one of the most popular tourism destinations in China,
having received more than 3.6 million tourists in 2012.25 The park’s daily number of arrivals in
peak season (between late April and late October) can reach up to 52,000,26 which puts massive
pressure on its tourism infrastructure, ecosystems, and the environment.
To understand Jiuzhaigou’s vulnerability in governance processes and identify their potential to
facilitate adaptation to climate change, the study aims to seek answers to the following questions:
––
What are the key sensitivities in Jiuzhaigou’s tourism system that makes Jiuzhaigou
vulnerable to climate change?
––
What are the strengths in Jiuzhaigou’s tourism system that makes it resilient to climate
change?
––
What are the implications of Jiuzhaigou’s vulnerability and resilience for its adaptation
development?
Map of Jiuzhaigou, Sichuan, China
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Figure 6.1
Source: Adapted from Wikimedia Commons (n.d.).
80
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Multiple research methods included legal and policy analysis and qualitative social science
approaches such as semi-structured interviews and participation observations (recorded in field
diaries).27 The research team visited Chengdu (the capital city of Sichuan Province) and Jiuzhaigou
between 9 and 20 July 2012. A total of 23 face-to-face interviews (average 45 minutes in length)
were conducted in Jiuzhaigou and Chengdu with local stakeholders representing government, the
tourism industry, communities, and other organizations. The following table 6.1 shows the sample
of interview participants in Chengdu and Jiuzhaigou.
Sample of interview participants
Table 6.1
Stakeholder group
Government
9
Tourism industry
9
Communities
3
Other
2
Total
23
6.3
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Number of interviews
Vulnerability: what key sensitivities make Jiuzhaigou vulnerable?
The system’s pre-existing economic, social, political and environmental factors play critical roles
in determining how it is affected by a range of risks including climate change impacts, and shape
its response capabilities to the risks. The findings of this study have shown that the tourism sector
in Jiuzhaigou is vulnerable in a number of areas.
Heavy reliance on the nature-based tourism economy
Jiuzhaigou’s main tourism attractions are nature-based attractions, which may be highly vulnerable
to climate change. The ecosystem components are composed of mountain lakes, waterfalls, snow
peaks, primeval forests and rare wildlife. There are over 220 bird species found inhabiting in
Jiuzhaigou National Park as well as a number of endangered plant and animal species, including
the Giant Panda, Sichuan Golden Monkey and the Sichuan Takin.28 Heavy reliance on natural
attractions makes the destination vulnerable to tourism activities and other external factors
such as climate change and natural disasters. Earthquakes, mud-rock flows, health epidemics,
environment degradation, extreme climatic events and biodiversity loss are the most concerning
risks which could or have previously negatively affected the destination, the interview participants
identified. Water bodies in Jiuzhaigou National Park, for example, have had eutrophication
problems.29 As an interviewee from the public sector commented:
“The main attraction of Jiuzhaigou is its immeasurable beauty of water scenes […]. As
long as they don’t disappear, we won’t lose our job […]. In the 1990s, due to the decreased
precipitation, some waterfalls went dry […]. We had some disappointed tourists”.
Tourism vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation to climate change in China
81
Tourism is Jiuzhaigou county’s pillar economic sector, representing 55% of its GDP.30 In 2005,
the annual average per capita income of the local community residents reached CNY 20,000
(USD 3,165), which was over nine times higher than the rest of Jiuzhaigou County and seven times
higher than other counties in Sichuan. Some local Tibetan families even became millionaires,
which is quite rare in Western Sichuan.31 The contribution of Jiuzhaigou’s tourism sector is vital
not only to the county’s economy but also the whole prefecture’s economy. Tourism is the main,
if not the single, livelihood option for many local Tibetan communities that are directly involved
in tourism by running small scale accommodation businesses, restaurants and souvenir shops.
Jiuzhaigou’s high dependence on the tourism economy, coupled with its heavy reliance on natural
attractions, makes the destination very vulnerable to climate change impacts.
High seasonality of tourism activities and limited transport options
While Jiuzhaigou is an all-year-round destination, its high season for tourism is between late April
and late October. Tourist arrivals during the peak season can reach up to more than 50,000 per
day, compared to only a few hundred per day during the low season. Heavy daily tourism arrivals
push the carrying capacity of the tourism infrastructure, the environment and ecosystems in
Jiuzhaigou to their limit, posing challenges in safety and security issues which require cooperative
and coordinated management. The latest statistics showed that, on 3 October 2012, Jiuzhaigou
National Park received 52,935 tourists,32 and on 9 January 2013, there were only 383 visitors.33
In other words, the lowest visitor arrival number is less than 1% of its highest. Such a large gap
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could result in many managerial and environmental problems, and also indicates the marketing
strategy may need to be enhanced to attract more low season tourism flows. A government
marketing officer stated that “Jiuzhaigou doesn’t need much marketing during the peak season,
because there are already so many tourists […]. The marketing strategies mainly focus on winters
and springs (low season), including holding the Ice Waterfall Festival, inviting international tourists
and tourist agents to visit Jiuzhaigou […]. But the current marketing strategies don’t seem to be
working well”.
The extremely small arrival numbers in the low season may also be attributed to limited transport
options. Although Jiuzhaigou is only a 400 km drive from Chengdu, the capital and major gateway
city of Sichuan, the drive normally takes more than eight hours, and can be quite dangerous
because of its high exposure to landslides and floods. The new airport was built in 2003, which
significantly improved the destination’s accessibility. However, as a government representative
commented, the majority of the tourists (around 80%) to Jiuzhaigou still prefer land transport for
its low costs and opportunity to enjoy the scenic drive along river valleys and mountains. Naturally,
the destination is faced with serious challenges in attracting tourists arriving by land transport in
the cold months of winter and spring.
Low awareness of climate change among local tourism stakeholders
Local tourism stakeholders, especially those from the public sector who are responsible for
developing climate change adaptation policy, have shown very low awareness of climate change
issues. One interviewee from the government stated that “climate change hasn’t influenced
Jiuzhaigou yet. And I don’t think it would have impacts on Jiuzhaigou in the future because
Jiuzhaigou has plenty of forests”. On one hand, some stakeholders are sceptical of climate
change, commenting for example that:
82
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
“The climate change phenomenon is just a part of the earth’s climate variability. I’m not
convinced that carbon emissions since the industrial revolution cause global warming as
one volcanic explosion would emit just as much as carbon […]”.
Some government and community representatives did express their concerns about climate
change and believed Jiuzhaigou has already been, and will be, impacted negatively by climate
change. As an interviewee from the local communities observed, “Jiuzhaigou is getting warmer
and warmer every year, and it doesn’t snow as much as before”. Another local resident running
an accommodation business noted that “climate variation has been unusual, especially after
the earthquake in 2008, some ice-capped mountains started to melt down”. However, there is a
definite lack of knowledge of what these changes mean to the destination.
Absence in governance and policy to facilitate tourism adaptation
At the country level, China has developed a range of national policies and actions to respond
to climate change which mostly address both mitigation and adaptation issues.34 Agriculture,
forestry, water and coastal resources have been identified as the four priority sectors that are
most likely to be affected by climate change, and which urgently need to reduce vulnerability
and build resilience.35 The tourism sector is not at the forefront in the national adaptation policy
agenda, although these four sectors are closely related to tourism and therefore their adaptation
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will definitely contribute to the resilience building of the tourism sector.36 In 2008, China National
Tourism Administration (CNTA) promulgated “Suggestions on Tourism Responding to Climate
Change”. This is an initial effort that the Chinese tourism sector has made to mainstream climate
change issues into its sectorial policies, which provides generic guiding principles on how Chinese
tourism should respond to climate change.37
Mirroring the lag in tourism adaptation policy development at the national level, destination level
governance and the policy environment present some constraints for the tourism sector to adapt
to climate change. Leadership groups for “responding to climate change” have been established
both at the provincial and prefecture levels as a part of the planning department, and these
groups are responsible for the formulation and implementation of climate change mitigation and
adaptation policies.38 In 2010, Sichuan Provincial Government developed a draft of Measures
to Address Climate Change (not in effect yet), which states that county level governments are
responsible for addressing climate change issues within their jurisdictions. At the county level,
however, there is currently no policy-making leadership group in place in Jiuzhaigou,39 which
indicates that climate change is yet to be considered as a policy priority. More recently, in July
2011, an international collaborative project was initiated by Sichuan Environmental Protection
Bureau and Norway Government, which attempts to, by the end of 2013, develop strategies and
actions to address climate change impacts on biodiversity in Sichuan Province.40 To summarise,
the development of climate change adaptation policies is still in the very early stage in Sichuan.
According to the 2010 draft of the provincial Measures to Address Climate Change, climate
change impacts on economic and social development should be taken into consideration, and
the meteorological department and experts should be consulted, for the development of tourism
plans.41 Nevertheless, climate change is yet to be incorporated and mainstreamed into the tourism
policies in Sichuan.
6.4
Tourism vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation to climate change in China
83
Resilience: what strengths make Jiuzhaigou resilient?
Jiuzhaigou has shown resilience to environmental changes and destabilising events in the past.
Understanding what makes the destination resilient can help to inform the development of welldesigned adaptation strategies which will further enhance its resilience in the future.
Sufficient financial support
Jiuzhaigou County is an economic driver for Aba Prefecture for the fact that it represents a large
proportion of the prefecture’s total tourism revenue. In 2012, Jiuzhaigou County generated more
than USD 917.7 million (CNY 5.8 billion) in tourism revenue, accounting for 32% of the prefecture’s
total tourism income.42 Between January and November of 2012, Jiuzhaigou National Park’s
earnings from entry ticket sales alone reached USD 102.8 million (CNY 650 million).43 A total of USD
79.1 million (CNY 500 million) were invested into the projects of upgrading tourism infrastructure
during the past decade, including the tourist reception centre, mud-rock flow defence systems
and environmental conservation toilets.44
Enhanced natural disaster preparedness and environmental conservation
On 12 May 2008, Sichuan Province was affected by an 8.0 magnitude earthquake which has had
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considerable impacts on the whole tourism sector in Sichuan. Although Jiuzhaigou was not heavily
damaged by the quake, its entryway was destroyed as the epicentre was only 200 kilometres
away.45 The destination experienced a dramatic drop in visitor numbers in 2008 and the importance
of preparing for natural disasters became more obvious following the earthquake. As a result, the
Government of Jiuzhaigou County is more committed to strengthening emergency management
in all sectors in its economic, social and environmental priority areas. Emergency offices have
been set up to cope with emergencies in relation to geological disasters, meteorological disasters,
health epidemics, traffic accidents, and so forth. The responsibilities of emergency offices are
clearly specified in the form of policy documents including emergency response coordination,
evaluation of emergency levels, training, and the formulation of contingency plans.46
A range of environmental conservation measures have been implemented in Jiuzhaigou. In 1999,
in order to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and protect the environment of Jiuzhaigou
National Park, the JNNRA replaced all the old tour buses operating inside the park with more
advanced emission standards vehicles. Ecological toilets were also introduced to reduce air and
water pollution.47 In the past, local Tibetan inhabitants ran home stays and guesthouses inside
the park and tourists were allowed to stay overnight in the park. In 2003, tourists were prohibited
from staying in the park and a total of 100,000 m2 of business buildings inside the park were
dismantled.48 Moreover, in order to monitor tourism activities and environmental changes inside
the park, the national park’s ticketing, environmental monitoring, and surveillance systems are now
equipped with advanced technologies, such as a Geographic Information System , an Electronic
Ticketing System, and Intellectualized Technology.49
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Well-functioning tourism governance
The Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration is the key management agency for the
national park. The JNNRA is in charge of the management, maintenance and construction, protection
and coordination of Jiuzhaigou National Park. Its 20 departments cover Planning and Construction,
Scientific Research, Conservation, Marketing, Ticketing, and Residents Management. The JNNRA
has executive mandates in developing and implementing policies related to the management of
the national park. It is worth mentioning that the Resident Management Office was established
to focus on relationships between the Administration and 3,000 local Tibetan people residing
inside the park. Interviewees from both the JNNRA and local Tibetan communities stated that the
Tibetan inhabitants inside the park share the profit from ticket sales.
6.5Conclusion
The application of the tourism vulnerability/resilience approach to climate change adaptation in
Jiuzhaigou suggests that tourism vulnerability is shaped by a range of human and natural factors
that together contribute to its exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Positive signs have
been observed in Jiuzhaigou’s tourism system which make it resilient and which facilitate its future
adaptation to climate change. These strengths include sufficient financial support, enhanced
natural disaster preparedness and environmental conservation, and well-functioning tourism
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governance.
However, the tourism system in Jiuzhaigou has shown vulnerabilities in its physical, environmental,
economic, social, and institutional areas. One of the big challenges seems to be the need to put
a more conducive policy environment in place for the tourism sector to adapt to climate change.
While the drafted provincial Measures to Address Climate Change provides a good starting point
to further develop adaptation strategies, the tourism sector needs to raise awareness of climate
change issues, better understand the local implications of climate change impacts, and make
concerted efforts in integrating climate change into tourism planning processes. As Jiuzhaigou
as a tourism destination is heavily dependent on natural resources and the environment, its
tourism system will benefit from adaptations of other related sectors such as water, environmental
conservation, and disaster risk management, which are comparatively better, addressed both
theoretically and practically than tourism in China. Given the growing significance of tourism to
China’s economic and social development and increasingly observed climate changes threatening
the sustainable growth of China’s tourism industry, it is imperative for China’s tourism sector to
catch up on developing adaptation strategies informed by good understanding of its vulnerability
and resilience.
More knowledge is therefore required to identify adaptation opportunities and challenges for
Chinese destinations in the face of climate change. Comprehensive destination level vulnerability
assessments are needed to investigate how climate change risks/impacts are relevant to the
localised context of the destination’s system. However, to work with the uncertainty of climate
change projections and the low awareness of tourism stakeholders about climate change, it is
suggested that the vulnerability/resilience approach may be a better option to engage Chinese
tourism stakeholders for adaptation to climate change.
Tourism vulnerability, resilience, and adaptation to climate change in China
85
Governance processes, as essential components of a tourism system, are key determinants of its
vulnerability. They can represent both facilitating and hindering factors in a tourism vulnerability
assessment through their hierarchy and network aspects. From an international perspective,
at the centre of building resilient destinations, more research needs to be conducted to fully
understand the complexity of governance across the interactions between tourism development,
environmental conservation, and climate change.
Endnotes
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1
World Travel & Tourism Council (2013).
25 Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration (2012).
2Ibid.
26 Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration (2012).
3
27 Berg, B.L. (2007); Patton, M.Q. (2002).
World Tourism Organization (2013).
4Ibid.
28 Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration (2013).
5
Scott, D. et al. (2012); Becken, S. and Hay, J.E. (2012);
Weaver, D. (2011).
29 Li, M. et al. (2008).
6
Scott, D. et al. (2012).
31Ibid.
30 Yang, J.C. et al. (2007).
7Ibid.
32 Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration (2012).
8
Jopp, R. et al. (2010); Scott, D. et al. (2009);
Simpson, M.C. et al. (2008); Becken, S. and Hay, J.E. (2007).
33Ibid.
9
E.g., Jiang, M. et al. (2012); Turton, S. et al. (2010);
Buckley, R. (2008).
35 NDRC (2007).
34 Jiang (2011).
10 E.g., Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2007).
36 Jiang, M. (2011).
11 Bonyhady, T. et al. (2010).
37Ibid.
12Ibid.
38 Sichuan Provincial People’s Government (2007);
Aba Prefecture Government (2009).
13 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
14 With few exceptions, including Moreno, A. and Becken, S. (2009);
and Urwin, K. and Jordan, A. (2008).
39 Jiuzhaigou County Government (2012).
40 Environment China (2012).
15 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
41 Sichuan People’s Government Legal Information Network (2011).
16 Carpenter, S. R. et al. (2001).
42 APG (2013).
17 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007), p. 37.
43 China Economy (2012).
18 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2011).
44 Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration (2010)
19 Jiang, M. et al. (2012); Klint, L. et al. (2012); Wong, E. et al. (2012).
45 APG (2013).
20 Zeppel, H. (2012); Wong, E. et al. (2012).
46 Jiuzhaigou County Government (2009).
21 China State Council (2011).
47 Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration (2010).
22Ibid.
48Ibid.
23 Li (2006).
49Ibid.
24 Ren (2005).
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T
87
Chapter 7
Twenty-five years of Australian federal climate
change policy: implications for tourism
The Australian tourism industry1 makes a considerable contribution to the national economy. For
example, in 2011-2012, tourism accounted for approximately AUD 87.3 billion of GDP.2 However,
the industry’s economic importance is under substantial threat given its vulnerability to climate
change as a highly climate dependent sector, coupled with the fact that it is one of the most
distant long-haul destinations from European, American and Indian subcontinent markets.3 In
addition, many natural tourist attractions (e.g., the Great Barrier Reef) and human-made tourist
attractions (e.g,. beach resorts and marinas) could either be destroyed entirely or have their quality
compromised under climate change scenarios. In addition to being vulnerable to climate change,
the industry also contributes to the climate change problem both directly (e.g., through the use of
fossil fuels for transport) and indirectly (e.g., a hotel’s use of electricity).4
Minimising the impacts from and upon climate change is an imperative that, to a large extent, will
be determined by an effective and consistent government policy framework.5 In Australia, all three
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levels of government, federal, state/territory and local, have various responsibilities in responding
to climate change, however it is the consistency of the national government’s approach that has
the most important influence and is therefore the focus of this chapter.
Since the late 1980s, when climate change first emerged as a public issue in Australia,6 there
have been a number of climate change policies introduced by the various national governments.
However, individual sectors need to implement these generic policies and ensure that their specific
needs are not compromised by them. The tourism industry has often found it difficult to adopt
sector specific responses to generic policy due its fragmented character. The many and varied
stakeholders involved in the industry, both directly and indirectly, make reaching a consensus
difficult. However, achieving consensus to at least some degree is crucial to effectively addressing
climate change, and the industry must find a way to consolidate its position in order to present a
united front from which to lobby government.7
The importance of an effective national policy agenda for the industry in Australia cannot be
underestimated, since addressing climate change provides an opportunity for the industry “to
become more systematic, smart, strategic and sustainable”.8 The state working in partnership
with industry to develop a cleaner, low cost future will be good for both business and the
environment. In other words, this would be a ‘no-regrets’ approach.9 A failure to do this will almost
certainly result in increased long-term costs, loss of destination appeal and reduced international
competitiveness. Despite the importance of the relationship between climate change policy and
the response of the industry, academic research on the topic is still sparse.10
This chapter reviews the Australian Federal Government’s climate change policy framework
since 1988 and its implications for the tourism industry. Since 1988, there have been six prime
ministers and seven governments formed from both the Australian Labor Party (ALP) and Liberal
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
National Coalition Party (LNP) and this has contributed to a national climate framework that
has been characterised by inconsistencies and sharp divergences. In addition, the emphasis of
the policies has been on mitigation, and not adaptation. The direction and depth of the policy
approach adopted by the different governments appear to have been influenced by a combination
of the prime minister and political party at the time, the vagaries of the bicameral nature of the
Parliament, the changing attitudes of the electorate, the economic situation at the time, and the
influence of powerful lobby groups. The chapter outlines the different policy approaches of the
seven governments that have been in power since 1988 and discusses the implications of the
policy approaches for the tourism industry.
7.1
Climate change policies
1988–1991: Bob Hawke – Australian Labor Party
Climate change first emerged as a public issue in Australia in 1988, catalysed by a major national
conference on the issue in that year.11 At the time, the Hawke ALP government had been in power
since 1983 and had a reputation for environmental protection.12 This also coincided with the time
that that the environmental movement had gained substantial momentum in Australia. In relation
to climate change, Hawke noted in a media release in 1989, that “[…] it has the potential to change
fundamentally within a single lifetime the way all nations and peoples live and work. It clearly
signals that we must reassess the way in which we use the earth’s resources”.13 In the same year,
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the government established the National Greenhouse Advisory Committee and a Prime Ministerial
Working Group to assess achievable greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets.14 The formal
recognition of climate change sparked what was labelled as a period of ‘naïve altruism’ where the
government ‘overoptimistically’ committed, in October 1990, to an emissions cut of 20% on 1988
levels by the year 2005 (the ‘Toronto target’).15 The 20% reduction in emissions was adopted as
an Interim Planning Target but was never entrenched in law.16 _ENREF_23 In addition, there was
an important caveat attached – the target would not be met at the expense of the economy.17 This
became a reoccurring theme in the climate change policy debate.
The release of the Our Country, Our Future statement in 1989, as a precursor to the 1990 election,
gave further acknowledgment to the issue of climate change. Our Country, Our Future addressed
many traditional ‘green’ issues but gave prominence to climate change, supported international
action on the issue and promised to look for ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions.
The Hawke government, in addition to committing to the emissions reduction, played a supportive
role in the negotiation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Then, to secure the support of the environmental movement at the 1990 election, Hawke used the
full prestige of his office as prime minister to block the development of a gold mine at Coronation
Hill in Kakadu. This produced a strong backlash from the mining industry, however was popular
with the electorate and helped him win the 1990 election.18 However, Hawke’s decision has been
seen to have contributed to the end of his prime ministership, and Staples19 believes it may also
have contributed to the formation of the ‘carbon lobby’.
Twenty-five years of Australian federal climate change policy
89
1991–1996: Paul Keating – Australian Labor Party
In December 1991, Paul Keating replaced Hawke as prime minister after a successful leadership
challenge. Keating had been treasurer of Australia since 1983, and under his prime ministership
the government’s focus turned very much to the economy as a consequence of a prolonged
economic recession. Environmental policy, including climate change, lost its urgency and no
enabling legislation was produced during Keating’s term.20
Despite the lack of urgency, Australia was one of the first states to join the UNFCCC and became an
annex 1 party to the treaty.21 The Convention was ratified in December 1992.22 During the process
of energy-market reform in the early 1990s there were some attempts to consider greenhouse and
to ensure that prices reflected the costs associated with carbon, however this was “effectively
removed by Keating” according to a senior energy policy advisor in the Keating government, who
also added “we were all sceptics” of climate change and peak oil.23
The Keating government’s implementation of the National Greenhouse Response Strategy (NGRS)
was strongly criticised for failing to make any impact on Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions
and for replacing the concept of ‘no regrets’ measures with ones that excluded actions that
would impose costs on any interest group, especially the coal industry.24 It severely constrained
greenhouse action by providing that measures would minimise disruption “to the wider community,
any single industry sector, or any geographical region”.25 Ultimately, the NGRS explicitly recognised
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the “primacy of economic objectives in the formation of climate change policy”.26
1996–2007: John Howard – Liberal National Coalition
The period of ‘fossil fuel pragmatism’ begun by Keating was continued with the election of the
Howard coalition government in 1996. During this period, which lasted until 2000, the climate
change issue was framed in terms of economic costs and national interests.27
Howard’s personal goals and convictions shaped the culture of climate change denial within the
LNP.28 Others in the government were also sceptics, as the LNP leader in the Senate, Nick Minchin
noted: a majority of his colleagues did not believe humans were causing climate change.29 On
taking office, the coalition government began to wind back or abolish a number of federal programs
aimed at reducing emissions including the National Energy Efficiency Program, the Enterprise
Energy Audit Program, and the Energy Research and Development Program.30 A more modest
National Greenhouse Strategy was adopted in 1998 and the Australian Greenhouse Office was
created to collect emission data and implement the Greenhouse Challenge, a voluntary reduction
program for industry.31
In 1997, Howard stated that Australia should never have signed the UNFCCC32 and subsequently
the government did not ratify the Kyoto Protocol; considered to be a key piece of international
climate policy. The government’s submission to Kyoto was based largely on economic modelling
provided by the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE)33 which had
strong links to industry.34 During this time the government appeared to be actively seeking to avoid
imposing any costs on industry.35
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After rejecting the Kyoto Protocol the government continued with its approach until 2006. This
year marked a ‘policy frenzy’ period where the government attempted to appease the increasing
public concern about the impacts of climate change with a ‘blizzard’ of policies in 2006 and
2007.36 The concerns arose due to various factors such as the severe and extended drought
that had affected much of the country, the release of the Stern (2006) and International Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007) reports as well as the release of the popular climate film An
Inconvenient Truth featuring Al Gore.37 Inaction on climate change was seen to be damaging
the Government’s popularity and was later attributed as an important reason for its loss at the
November 2007 federal election.38
2007–2010: Kevin Rudd – Australian Labor Party
Kevin Rudd became prime minister on 24 November 2007 in an election landslide underpinned
by an election campaign promise to “ratify Kyoto without delay […] implement real greenhouse
gas targets, and increase renewable energy like solar”.39 Therefore, the new government came
into power on a platform which included climate change action.40 Their climate change advisor,
economist Ross Garnaut, echoed in various reports the findings of the Stern review.41 Rudd’s first
act after being sworn in as prime minister was to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. In its first year the
government undertook a number of steps to make up for the existing lack of policy on climate
change.42 The National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility (NCCARF), established
in May 2008 in response to a recommendation in the 2007 Council of Australian Governments
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(COAG) Framework for “a facility to coordinate Australia’s climate researchers and to deliver
information to support decision makers in adapting to climate change”,43 led to five years of
sustained adaptation research in Australia. Importantly, a key piece of Rudd’s agenda was the
proposed introduction of an Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).
Rudd’s actions on climate change, among other policies, were viewed positively and in April 2008
he recorded the highest approval rating of any Australian prime minister (73%).44 However, in 2008,
Australia was facing the impacts of the global financial crisis which resulted in a period of worldwide
economic downturn and the prospect of rising unemployment in many countries, including
Australia.45 Moreover, the government’s promise to deliver an ETS was mired with difficulties and
the integrity of a proposed Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS) was undermined by its
concessions to industry groups.46 In April 2010, Rudd suspended the introduction of a CPRS
until 2012.
2010–2013: Julia Gillard – Australian Labor Party
Gillard became Australia’s first female prime minister on 24 June 2010. During the 2010 election
campaign, despite rejecting the introduction of carbon pricing during the next term of government,
she listed climate change as one of her top three priorities. She indicated that she planned to
establish a committee of scientists to advise the government on climate change as well as the
formation of a ‘citizens’ assembly’ of up to 200 people to provide community views about pricing
carbon.47
Climate change, and how to regulate it, re-emerged on the federal political agenda following the
August 2010 election with the hung parliament and “when it became apparent that the Gillard ALP
Twenty-five years of Australian federal climate change policy
91
government would need the support of the Greens party and independent members in the lower
house of parliament in order to form government”.48 Part of the negotiations and concessions
to the Greens and independents resulted in the introduction of a carbon tax.49 A carbon tax of
AUD 23 per t of emitted CO2e on selected fossil fuels consumed by major industrial emitters
and government bodies was introduced from July 2012. In addition, the price was to rise to
AUD 24.15 each for 2013–2014, and AUD 25.40 each for 2014–2015, and then to be set by the
market from 2015–2016. It is argued that while the tax was a good start, it was not optimal from an
environmental and economic standpoint as it gave “too many exemptions to too many industries
or polluting activities”.50 There was also criticism from the coalition leader, Tony Abbott, claiming
an ‘historic betrayal’, given Gillard’s promise before the 2010 election that her government would
not implement a carbon tax.51
In addition to the tax, the government introduced an independent Clean Energy Regulator, Clean
Energy Finance Corporation, Australian Renewable Energy Agency, Climate Change Authority,
Clean Technology Program, Jobs and Competitiveness Program, Energy Security Fund, and
Carbon Farming Initiative. 52
The introduction of the carbon tax, in part, resulted in the unpopularity of Gillard and her government
and with a looming election she was replaced as prime minister by Kevin Rudd in late June 2013.53
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2013–2013: Kevin Rudd – Australian Labor Party
In an attempt to diffuse the controversy over the carbon tax, the government suggested that it
would switch from a carbon tax to a carbon trading scheme from 2014, a year earlier than in the
previous policy. The scheme was forecast to raise revenue of AUD 16 billion over four years, to
be invested in commercialising renewable energy (AUD 10 billion over five years) and provide
AUD 1 billion in grants to manufacturers and food processors. In contrast, the coalition’s promise,
and arguably the cornerstone of their campaign, was to remove ALP’s carbon tax with a Direct
Action Plan. This Plan involved paying companies for emissions reduction through competitive
government grants in the hope that this would encourage businesses to reduce their carbon
emissions. It also involved the funding of programs such as tree planting.54
2013: Tony Abbott – Liberal National Coalition Party
Tony Abbott became Australia’s prime minister in September 2013 and his prime ministership is
expected to mark another sharp policy shift. Since gaining power he has claimed a mandate to
transform climate change policy. Interestingly, Abbott has appeared to have had contradictory
views on human induced climate change and the introduction of an ETS.55 It was noted that the
politics of climate change are ‘tough’ since 80% of people believe climate change is a real and
present danger.56
Given their claimed mandate, the current LNP Government wasted little time in changing the
administration of carbon abatement schemes. It was reported that the 33 climate change
schemes run by seven departments and eight agencies under Labor were to be collapsed into
just three bodies run by two departments.57 The government has also indicated the Climate
Change Authority, which sets emissions caps, the Climate Commission, which has conducted
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research into climate change, and the Clean Energy Finance Corporation, which funds renewable
technologies, will be abolished as a priority.58 In addition, the government announced a cut of
AUD 320 million from its Direct Action Plan, halving solar rebates for households and cutting
spending on geothermal and tidal power.
7.2
Implications for tourism
As the IPCC59 notes, it is important to provide a long-term global solution to climate change in
order to avoid environmental, social, and economic dislocation. To prevent global dislocation,
individual national governments need to adopt a consistent and long-term vision and provide
an effective and efficient policy framework that is consistent with the vision. Governments that
provide this framework are also more likely to have tourism-specific climate change policies.60
However, climate change has proved to be a ‘wicked’ policy issue because it is difficult to
define, complex, interconnected, and many proposed solutions may have unintended negative
consequences.61 For example, in relation to tourism, if Australia (or any other country) choses to
introduce a mitigation measure such as a carbon tax and its competitor destinations do not chose
to do so then the relative costs of tourism will increase in Australia. Therefore mitigation attempts
are highly likely to encourage tourists to switch their choice of destination away from Australia.62
The introduction of a carbon tax is also likely to result in a small reduction in real disposable
incomes across the local economy and this is also likely to reduce demand for domestic tourism
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in Australia, a very important component of the industry.63
This ‘wicked’ nature of climate change action has resulted in Australian climate law and policy
development being characterised as “one of discontinuity, with sharp divergences in law and
policy in response to political changes”64 and influenced by economic and political considerations.
As a consequence there has been a deleterious impact on the tourism industry. The constant
changes to government policies, in addition to the uncertainties around the science of climate
change, have hampered the efforts of tourism stakeholders to make effective decisions around
adaptation and mitigation activities.65 This uncertainty may also have resulted in some tourism
stakeholders underestimating the challenges of climate change.66
The uncertainty and relative inactivity illustrated in generic federal government climate change
policy resulted in slow recognition and a lack of emphasis on climate change in federal tourism
planning. There has also been a lack of research into climate change impacts on the industry. While
the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) Tourism Research
Department first funded a project in 1996 investigating the impact of climate change on coastal
resorts, generally there has been little research on its implications for the industry and possible
responses.67
The slow response to research has been matched by the lack of attention to climate change within
the Federal Tourism Department. The Tourism White Paper: A Medium to Long Term Strategy for
Tourism68 outlined measures focused on industry and market needs, underpinned by structural
reform, to position Australia as a world leader in tourism goods and services. However, no mention
was made of climate change in the document. In an acknowledgment of the issue, the Tourism
Ministers Council established a National Tourism and Climate Change Taskforce in 2007. Also in
2007, the National Long-term Tourism Strategy Discussion Paper69 was released and included
climate change as a supply side issue with minimum accompanying discussion. In 2008, DRET
Twenty-five years of Australian federal climate change policy
93
released a national action plan entitled Tourism and Climate Change – A Framework for Action
Plan that was “designed to deliver five outcomes:
1.
Improved understanding of tourism’s vulnerability to the physical and economic impacts of
climate change;
2.
A tourism industry prepared for future constraints on carbon but still able to contribute
economically;
3.
Repositioned marketing strategies that address the challenges and opportunities of climate
change;
4.
An industry informed by effective outreach and communication; and
5.
A nationally consistent, inclusive and cooperative approach to implementation”.70
An action arising from the Action Plan was the publication of the Climate Change Guide: Mitigation
and Adaptation Measures for Australian Tourism Operators71, which explained the issues around
climate change. The Guide was accompanied by a series of national workshops for the industry.
In 2009, the National Long-Term Tourism Strategy72 was released, which noted that “consumers
in key Australian tourism markets are increasingly focusing on climate change and environmental
sustainability when making purchasing decisions” and that, by counteracting negative consumer
perceptions and purchasing behaviours, the industry could gain significant economic, social and
cultural benefits. Despite this acknowledgement, the only action related to climate change in the
document was: “Through the Tourism Ministers’ Council, continue to deliver the actions of the
Climate Change Taskforce to improve industry understanding of the impact of climate change,
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and to prepare the Australian tourism industry for a carbon-constrained future”.73
The 2009 Tourism Strategy was updated by the National Long-Term Tourism Strategy: Tourism
2020 in 2011. The only reference to climate change action in this strategy was listed under the
objective of building industry’s resilience, productivity and quality. The action was to “Engage
tourism businesses in climate change adaptation through the CSIRO Climate Change Adaptation
project (Resilience Working Group)”.74 Yet the Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate
Change, Science, Research and Tertiary Education (DIICCSRTE) in its Australia’s Sixth National
Communication on Climate Change75 suggested “that engaging tourism businesses in climate
change adaptation had been prioritised in the Tourism 2020 plan”. They also noted that The
Industry Resilience Working Group, established between 2011 and 2012 as part of the Strategy,
had “compiled a comprehensive list of programs designed to best deliver on industry needs and
assist businesses in meeting the challenges of adaptation, enhancing resilience and addressing
crisis management”.76
Fortuitously for Australia, tourism’s role as a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions has only
recently gained institutional attention,77 and therefore tourism in many other countries has also been
slow to adopt policies to manage the risks of climate change.78 The tardy response internationally
means the Australian industry may not be too disadvantaged by its relative inactivity. However,
the election of the Abbott government and its stance on climate change may delay Australia’s
response even further.
In order to move forward it is important that industry leaders take a proactive approach. Hopefully
this will occur. For example, in 2011, in its submission to the Department of Climate Change
and Energy Efficiency, the Transport and Tourism Forum79 noted that Australian Government
action on climate change was overdue and that the country could not wait for other countries
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
to move first. It is noted that “failure to improve carbon efficiency could result in long-term
economic disadvantages, amongst others because of rising oil prices, and taxes imposed on the
emission of carbon dioxide”.80 In addition, failure to address climate change is likely to reduce
the industry’s international competitiveness as other countries increasingly decarbonise their
economies thereby reducing their costs. Failure to address climate change may also result in
reduced competitiveness since there is a perception that that tourists are becoming increasingly
cognisant of the ‘greenness’ of destinations and tourist activities and will base their decisions and
behaviours on these assessments.81 The adoption of ‘climate change friendly’ policies may also
provide a valuable marketing tool that allows a destination to effectively differentiate itself from its
competitors.82
7.3Conclusion
Addressing climate change would appear to be a fundamental economic, social and environmental
imperative, yet in Australia, the policy approach by the various federal governments since 1988
has been inconsistent. This will have particularly deleterious impacts on the Australian tourism
industry which has been identified as one key sector in Australia that is especially vulnerable to
the impacts of climate change. It is important that government policies assist tourism industries
to transform and adapt to climate change issues.83
The minimal attention to meaningful mitigation policy measures has overshadowed attention to
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adaptation. A lack of effective adaptation measures is unhelpful for tourism industries which are
expected to feel the impacts of climate change before any effects of mitigation are realised. While
mitigation is intended to slow global warming, it is doubtful that any noticeable climate effect from
reducing greenhouse gas emissions will occur until at least 2040 due to the inertia of the climate
system, whereas the benefits of adaptation can be immediate.84 Physical risks (namely weatherrelated risks) are rated as being high risk for tourism,85 therefore adaptation policies that focus on
these physical risks ought to be a priority. However, as admitted by the Labor government in its
CPRS White Paper: work on adaptation in Australia is in its infancy.
The policy approach of the various Australian Federal Governments over the past 25 years
has reflected the governments’ focus on national security and national economic strategy in a
globalising economy,86 as well as reflecting the dichotomous environment/economy emphases of
the electorate at the time. In order to adequately address long-term socio-ecological problems
such as climate change, long term approaches are needed. Until federal climate change policy is
implemented that meaningfully addresses mitigating and adapting to climate change, Australia’s
tourism industry can expect to bear a proportion of the cost of inaction.
Twenty-five years of Australian federal climate change policy
Endnotes
1
It is important to note that while reference is often made to the
tourism industry, the tourism sector is in fact made up of number of
industries (Leiper, 2004). In this paper where reference is made to the
tourism industry it is referring to all the industries that constitute the
sector unless otherwise specified.
42 Leary, D. (2009).
2
Tourism Research Australia (2013).
46 Leary, D. (2009); Saul, B. et al. (2012).
3
Australian Business Roundtable on Climate Change (2006);
Tourism and Transport Forum (2011).
47 Rodgers, E. (2010).
4
Patterson, T.; Bastianoni, S. and Simpson, M. (2006).
49 The Australian (2012).
5
Becken, S. and Clapcott, R. (2011);
Tompkins, E. L. and Adger, N. W. (2005).
50 Saul, B. et al. (2012) p. 100.
6
Staples, J. (2009).
7
Becken, S. and Clapcott, R. (2011).
8
Becken, S. (2008), p. 352.
9
Howes, M. (2009).
10 Becken, S. (2013).
11 Staples, J. (2009).
12 Staples, J. (2009).
13 Hamilton, C. (2007), p. 46.
14 Hamilton, C. (2007).
15 Christoff, P. (2005).
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16 Bulkeley, H. (2000).
43 National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility (2010) p. 3.
44 ABC News (2013).
45 Australian National Audit Office (2010).
48 Zahar, A. et al. (2013), p. 132.
51 ABC News (2013).
52 Australian Government (2011).
53 ABC News (2013).
54 Cambell, K. (2013).
55 Keane, B. (2011).
56 The Australian (2009).
57 Maher, S. and Wilson, L. (2013).
58Ibid.
59 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
60 Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2012).
61 Australian Public Service Commission (2007); Howes, M. (2009).
17 Staples, J. (2009)
62 National Tourism Alliance (2013);
Tourism and Transport Forum (2011).
18Ibid.
63 Tourism and Transport Forum (2011).
19Ibid.
64 Zahar, A. et al. (2013), p. 128.
20Ibid.
65 White, N.E. and Buultjens, J. (2012).
21 Saul, B.; Sherwood, S.; McAdam, J.; Stephens, T.
and Slezak, J. (2012).
66 Dodds, R. and Kelman, I. (2008).
22 Hamilton, C. (2007).
23 Pearse, G. (2009), p. 26.
24 Bulkeley, H. (2000, 2001); Diesendorf, M. (2000); Hamilton, C. (2007);
Wilkenfeld, G.; Hamilton, C. and Saddler, H. (1995).
25 National Greenhouse Advisory Panel (1996), p. 13.
26 Bulkeley, H. (2001), p. 161.
27 Christoff, P. (2005); Diesendorf, M. (2000).
28 Brett, J. (2007).
29 ABC News (2009).
67 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2009).
68 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2004).
69 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2007).
70 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2008), p. 5.
71 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism and
Tourism Australia (2009).
72 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2009), p. 10.
73Ibid.
74 DFRET (2011), p. 3.
30 White, N. E. and Buultjens, J. (2012).
75 Australia’s Sixth National Communication on Climate Change
(2013), p. 6.
31 Howes, M. (2009).
76Ibid.
32 Hamilton, C. (2000).
77 Kelly, J. and Williams, P. W. (2007).
33 Howes, M. (2009).
78 Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2012).
34 Bulkeley, H. (2000); Pearse, G. (2009).
79 Transport and Tourism Forum (2011).
35 Howes, M. (2009).
80 Becken, S. and Clapcott, R. (2011), p. 4.
36 Bonyhady, T. (2007); Howes, M. (2009).
81Ibid.
37 Howes, M. (2009).
82 Sasidharan, V.; Sirakayab, E. and Kerstettera, D. (2002).
38 Stewart, J. and Hendriks, C. (2008).
83 White, N.E. and Buultjens, J. (2012).
39 Rudd, K. (2007).
84 Hennessy, K. et al. (2007).
40 Zahar, A.; Peel, J. and Godden, L. (2013), p. 130.
85 KPMG (2008).
41Ibid.
86 Paterson, M. and Stripple, J. (2007).
95
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T
97
Chapter 8
Climate change and tourism:
Bangladesh´s adaptation measures
Bangladesh is considered, both in the Asia and the Pacific region and globally, to be one of the
most vulnerable countries to the adverse effects of climate change. Climatic changes may lead to
environmental, economic, social, cultural, tourism and human consequences for the country.1 The
climate is an essential resource and important element of tourism in Bangladesh, especially for
the country’s beach and nature tourism products. For example, Sundarbans, the most bio-diverse
forest in Bangladesh –also a landmark tourism product – is the habitat of 334 plant species and
693 species of wildlife,2 all of which are threatened by climate induced conditions. Other tourism
zones such as Cox’s Bazar, Kuakata, St. Martin’s island, Moheshkhali and NijhumDwip, which
are located in the coastal areas of Bangladesh, are also vulnerable to climate change with high
tides, erosion and cyclones. In a developing country like Bangladesh, where tourism is gradually
expanding as an important economic activity, any significant reduction in tourist arrivals due to
climate change will have a serious impact on employment and other tourism-related economic
benefits. Unfortunately, despite the country’s vulnerability and potential losses due to climate
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change, the tourism sector faces significant challenges in bolstering its adaptability to climate
change related impacts.
8.1
Climate change in Bangladesh
Bangladesh, except for the hilly region in the north-east and south-east and terrace land in northwest and central zone, is one of the largest deltas in the world, formed by a dense network of
tributaries and rivers of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Meghna. Bangladesh is bordered on
the west, north, and east by a 2,400 km land frontier with India and, in the southeast, by a short
(193 km) land and water frontier with Myanmar. The south of the country features a highly irregular
deltaic coastline of about 600 kilometres, fissured by many rivers and streams flowing into the
Bay of Bengal. The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend 12 nautical miles, and the exclusive
economic zone of the country is 200 nautical miles.
Though Bangladesh is a relatively small country, there is no lack of diversity; there are around
30 distinct Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZs) in the country, which feature unique agricultural and
ecological characteristics. As a result, the potential impacts of climate change in Bangladesh are
extremely multifaceted.
Climate change has the potential to permeate all sectors of life in Bangladesh. According to
many people, the current weather patterns and climate-related weather events are already signs
of climate change impacts3, floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges and droughts are likely to
become more frequent and severe in the coming years.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
These weather events and changes will threaten the significant achievements Bangladesh has
made in the last 30 years in combating poverty. Climate change is not only an “environmental”
concern but really a “development” concern for Bangladesh.4 This means that climate change
can no longer be seen as referring purely to environmental changes and impacts; but it should be
acknowledged that climate change is also much broader reaching and a key development issue.
As highlighted by the World Bank, the adverse impacts of climate change are already a reality
particularly in the coastal zones of Bangladesh, where regular flooding can inundate up to twothirds of the country and cause significant damage to infrastructure, housing, agriculture and
livelihoods. Besides flooding, Bangladesh is also vulnerable to tidal patterns and cyclones,
monsoons and occasional droughts.5 The salinity problem of coastal areas has also increased.
All of these weather events are already having strongly-felt impacts on clean water resources,
agricultural production, the country’s ecosystems and human health. It is suggested that unless
adequate anticipatory measures are taken to address these issues, the country’s drive to
development might be seriously restrained.6
8.2
The government’s response to climate change in Bangladesh
The Government of Bangladesh has acknowledged the need to address climate change and has
put in place a number of strategies and plans including the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy
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and Action Plan 2009 (BCCSAP).7 This document in particular seeks to frame climate change
policy for Bangladesh, based on the key identified climate hazards and impacts, and presents
a series of programmes and adaptation and mitigation measures which make up its action plan.
The plan places emphasis on a coordinated response, capacity building, technology transfer and
fund raising activities.8
Bangladesh has also developed a variety of formal and informal coping mechanisms, from the
highest policy-making level of government to the related ministry and rural levels. For example
the government, as part of its Vision 20219 has highlighted a desire to increase alternative energy
use and reduce dependence and pressure on biomass fuels. Additionally, Vision 2021 examines
the need to strengthen current natural disaster warning and evacuation mechanisms, develop a
natural disaster insurance scheme and put in place mitigation measures for floods and droughts,
including investments in flood control and river management, the establishment of a ‘green belt’
and more efficient use of water resources.10
Unfortunately, like many least developed countries (LDCs), Bangladesh faces notable resource
and capacity constraints in addressing its climate change vulnerability. The government is putting
in a continuous effort in the international arena to highlight its vulnerabilities, implications for
development, and adaptation needs including additional resources to address climate change.
Bangladesh is a signatory country to the Kyoto Protocol (KP) and the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). In response to a call to action of the UNFCCC, the
Ministry of Environment and Forests formulated the National Adaptation Programme of Action
(NAPA) in 2005 to address immediate and urgent adaptation needs for Bangladesh.11 This
holistic programme was recognised by the international community as being a very effective and
useful document,12 and the first priority project listed in the programme, which draws on past
Climate change and tourism: Bangladesh´s adaptation measures
99
experiences with grassroots participation in forest protection and which was renamed Community
based adaptation to climate change through coastal afforestation, has already received financial
support from the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) and the Global Environment Fund (GEF)
is being implemented by the Ministry of Environment and Forests.13
Based on its experience in preparing the NAPA, the Government of Bangladesh has implemented
a number of other mechanisms to address national climate change issues, including the
establishment of a Climate Change Unit under the Ministry of Environment and Forests. It also
created a Climate Change Trust Fund (CCTF) in 2009 and the Bangladesh Climate Change
Resilience Fund (BCCRF) with support from key development partners.14
In 2013, Bangladesh, as a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), prepared its 2013
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), which examined the relationship between climate
change and poverty. While Bangladesh has committed to pro-poor growth and climate resilient
development in line with the Millennium Development Goals, and while the government’s Vision
2021 sets out solid development targets for the country to become a middle-income economy by
2021, the PRSP highlights the vulnerability of the country to climate change, and particularly the
risks faced by women and children.15
The PRSP also makes note of the fact that Bangladesh has to bear the brunt of climate change
impacts caused by rapid urbanization, industrialization and economic development activities
around the world, and suggests that international cooperation and multi-nation collaborative
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adaptation strategies are necessary to improve pro-poor environmental resource management
and climate change management in Bangladesh.16
Along with its long-term climate change adaptation programmes, the government is committed
to raising awareness among local people of climate change impacts, disaster preparedness and
national environmental regulations to ensure a whole-of-country response.17
8.3
The present situation of tourism development in Bangladesh
Bangladesh is a land of diversified natural and cultural attractions. Since ancient times and
throughout history, this land attracted a great number of priests, traders and wanderers from
different parts of the globe. Today, there are over seven hundred spots of tourist interest in the
country including beaches, green valleys, forests and archaeological, historical sites, iconic religious
places, cultural events and manmade wonders. Bangladesh is a unique tourist destination which
has the potential to cater for a wide range of tourism interests, and with its natural beauty, thought
provoking ancient relics and the indomitable hospitality of its people, Bangladesh possesses a
great potential to be an amazing tourist destination. In fact, Lonely Planet ranked Bangladesh as
its number one best value destination to visit in 2011 and noted that the country is still significantly
under visited for what it has to offer.18
Indeed, Bangladesh is a young destination on the world tourism map. Despite its slow growth,
the tourism sector of Bangladesh has the potential to become a sizeable industry, particularly
as South Asia is predicted to be the world’s fastest growing tourism sub region by 2030, with a
predicted growth rate of 6% per year. Bangladesh has begun to recognise this prospective growth
and efforts are underway to maximise the potential of the tourism sector to bring economic and
developmental benefits.19 However, the sector needs to continue being prioritised and developed.20
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Bangladesh has witnessed on average 15% growth of foreign tourist arrivals for the period of
2006–2010 (arrival in 2010 was 303,386), and the growth rate of earnings for the same period was
5.04% (earning in 2010 was BDT 5,562.94 million).21
According to the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC)22 the direct contribution of Bangladesh
travel and tourism to its GDP in 2012 was USD 2.5 billion (BDT 193.0 billion (2.1% of total GDP)).
This is forecasted to rise by 7.7% in 2013, and to rise by 6.4% per annum from 2013-2023, to
USD 4.9 billion (BDT 384.7 billion in 2023 (in constant 2012 prices)). The total contribution of
travel and tourism to Bangladesh’s GDP was USD 5 billion (BDT 394.8 billion (4.3% of GDP)) in
2012, and this is forecast to rise by 7.5% in 2013, and thereafter to increase by 6.8% per annum
to USD 10.6 billion (BDT 819.4 billion) in 2023. In terms of absolute size of the tourism industry,
Bangladesh’s position in world tourism rankings is 80th, and in terms of long-term forecasted
growth for 2013–2023 it ranks 12th.23
With the gradual development of the nations’ tourism sector, a modest amount of tangible benefits
has flowed down to local communities. Local people are coming forward with their products and
are earning money from tourism, and the government has plans to create more tourism facilities in
different areas so that local people will have priority for selling their handicrafts and agricultural or
farming products. In the tourist areas of Kuakata, Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin Island, local youths
have been employed as tourist guides. Private sector enterprises have also started to develop
hotels, motels and restaurant facilities in many of these areas, and local people work and supply
goods, which also provides flow on benefits to the agricultural, production and other community
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sectors.
According to WTTC24 data, in 2012 travel and tourism directly supported 1,281,500 jobs (1.8%
of total employment) in Bangladesh. This is expected to rise by 4.4% in 2013 and rise by 2.9%
to 1,785,000 jobs (1.9% of total employment) in 2023. In the same year, the total contribution
of travel and tourism to employment in Bangladesh, including jobs indirectly supported by the
industry, was 3.7% of total employment (2,714,500 jobs). This is expected to increase by 4.2% in
2013 to 2,829,500 jobs and rise by 3.2 per annum to 3,891,000 jobs in 2023 (4.2% of total).
The 2010 Bangladesh tourism policy emphasizes private sector led tourism development in the
country. The Bangladesh Tourism Board has been formed for marketing and publicity abroad.
Recently a law titled ‘Exclusive Tourist Zone and Tourism Protected Area’ has been enacted to
attract foreign investment and encourage the sustainable development of the tourism industry.
The government is committed to cooperating with the private sector for the promotion of the
tourism industry in Bangladesh, and is also considering implementation of some tourism projects
under its Public-Private Partnership (PPP) system.25 Foreign investors are also welcome to invest
in this sector.
8.4
Ecotourism in Bangladesh
To capitalize on the tourism potential of the country and to maximise tourism’s contribution to
sustainable development amidst climate change and related natural disasters, the government’s
2010 tourism policy encourages the development of eco-tourism alongside community tourism,
rural tourism, pilgrimage tourism, river tourism, archaeological tourism and other forms of tourism
in the context of Bangladesh’s traditions and culture.26
Climate change and tourism: Bangladesh´s adaptation measures
101
Bangladesh possesses great potential for eco-tourism development. The country as a whole is an
eco-tourism destination, as there are plenty of eco-tourism attractions nation-wide. For example,
the UNESCO World Heritage listed Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove forest, is the pride
of Bangladesh. Bangladesh also boasts many offshore islands including St. Martin’s Island, plus
rivers and lakes, forests and tea plantations. There are also the hilly green areas of Hill Tract
Districts, sandy beaches at Cox’s Bazar and Kuakata, and many types of wildlife.
St. Martin Island provides a perfect location for eco-tourism development, due to its geographical
location and natural characteristics. World class coral, rare species of turtles and serene blue
water around the island are attractive to tourists, and eco-tourism development is seen as a form
of tourism development that will aid the sustainability of the island’s rich bio-diversity as well
as benefitting the local people. However, sustainable eco-tourism development on the island is
not an easy task, with challenges including waste management and unscrupulous anchorage of
tourist vessels posing great threats to the survival of bio-diversity on the island. As well as this, the
island is highly vulnerable to climate change related impacts, and hence protection of the island
and the development of eco-tourism may not be successful without a comprehensive eco-tourism
development plan.
Bangladesh should emphasize eco-tourism in its tourism planning process. The government has
enacted various policies to strengthen national environmental protection (such as the National
Environment Policy and National Water Policy) and eco-tourism should be developed in alignment
with these existing policies in order to make tourism and conservation activities sustainable. Eco-
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tourism can bring improved incomes and living standards for local people, revitalize local cultures,
especially traditional crafts and customs, and can stimulate the rural economy by creating demand
for agricultural products. It can also, through infrastructure development projects, inject capital
into rural areas.
8.5
Issues, opportunities and challenges for climate change and tourism
in Bangladesh
While there is much discussion internationally about tourism’s contribution to climate change,
particularly through greenhouse gas emissions, this chapter focuses on the effects of climate
change on the tourism sector of Bangladesh.
As mentioned, climate is an essential resource for tourism, especially for the beach and nature
tourism products of Bangladesh and the proposed eco-tourism development sites. Changing
climate and weather patterns at tourist destinations (as well as in tourist generating countries)
can significantly affect tourists’ comfort and their travel decisions. Changing demand patterns
and tourist flows will have an adverse impact on tourism business and on host communities,
as well as knock-on effects on related sectors, such as agriculture, handicraft or construction.
In small island states and developing countries like Bangladesh, where tourism is an important
and potentially very beneficial economic activity, any significant reduction in tourist arrivals will
have serious impact on employment and could engender further poverty. Table 8.1 examines the
possible impacts of climate change on the major tourist sites and attractions of Bangladesh.
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Table 8.1
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Climate change impacts on major tourist sites and attractions of Bangladesh
Site/Attraction
Risks
Possible Impacts
Cox’s Bazar, Inani
–– Increased magnitude of coastal natural
–– Causality to tourists;
Sea-beach and Teknaf
disasters (cyclones, tidal surges,
Peninsula
salinity);
–– Long and short-term coastal
inundation;
–– Loss of shorelines; and
–– Land and increased salinity for sea level
rise (SLR).
–– Visitor restrictions and loss of summer
tourism;
–– Loss of tourism infrastructure;
–– Damage to roads, coastlines;
–– Shift of tourists to other destinations;
–– Minimization of development activities; and
–– High degree of safety and efficiency
requirement
Sundarbans
–– Loss of mangrove species and
bio-diversity;
–– Eco-system degradation;
–– Damage to tourism infrastructure and
–– Shrinking of coast due to increased
increase of expenditure for reintroduction of
salinity; and
–– Increased frequency of cyclones,
facilities;
–– Loss of most attractive tourism spots inside
storms.
the Sundarbans; and
–– Less number of tourists and loss of revenue.
Wetlands, and bird-
–– Increased flash floods; and
–– Loss of habitats for wetland species;
watching spots in the
–– Untimely and high volume of sediments
–– Change in species composition (mainly
North-East
and silt deposits hindering the drainage
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conditions of water flows.
aquatic);
–– Shift of tourists to other destinations; and
–– Increased vulnerability of livelihoods of poor
local people.
Hills and evergreen forest
–– Extinction, loss of biodiversity;
–– Loss of domestic and foreign tourists;
of `Chittagong Hill Tracts’
–– Change in landscapes; and
–– Loss of indigenous culture; and
–– Drought.
–– Migration of species and local people.
–– Physical damage of originality; and
–– Loss of tourists and loss of income of local
(CHT) Region, and Sylhet
District of Bangladesh
Archaeological sites
people;
–– Disappearance of vulnerable structures.
–– Accelerated deterioration of ancient sites; and
––
No alternative can be made to these
destinations.
Islands
–– Increasing disasters;
–– Causality;
–– Threatening of islands’ existence; and
–– High investment needed for creation of
–– Habitat and livelihood destruction.
infrastructure; and
–– Shifting of tourists to other destinations.
Source: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Ministry of Environment and Forest (2012).
For Bangladesh, responding to climate change is a matter of survival. The frequency and intensity
of extreme weather is already causing devastating impacts on the country’s overall socioeconomic development, and Bangladesh’s biodiversity and agricultural resources face significant
challenges in future years.
Climate change and tourism: Bangladesh´s adaptation measures
103
Bangladesh’s main tourism resources are situated in the coastal areas facing the Bay of Bengal,
which are more susceptible to environmental damage. Tidal bores, cyclones and sea level rises
can damage these tourism products and lead to many other devastating effects. It should also
be noted that while Bangladesh has very good experience in disaster management, the natural
tourism products that are being damaged cannot ever be fully restored.
It is important to note that climate change has the potential to impact more than just Bangladesh’s
natural tourism attractions. Though tourism in Bangladesh is largely based around nature
destinations, there is a growing interest among both foreign and domestic tourists towards
archaeology sites, cultural and historical attractions. Changes in weather patterns and extreme
weather events brought about by climate change can result in destruction of attractions, disruption
to infrastructure and resulting migration to and from these places. Presently there are more than
75 popular tourist destinations in Bangladesh with natural, cultural and archaeological interests,
and most of these destinations contain outdoor recreation sites which are at risk from climate
change impacts.
A key aspect of responding to climate change and its impacts is awareness raising and capacity
building for the tourism sector, for example tour operators, tourist guides and tourism service
providers. This is important because people have to take the initiative to adopt environmentallyfriendly working methods and business attitudes.
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8.6
Policy initiatives and programmes responding to climate change for
tourism in the country
The Government of Bangladesh declared tourism as an industry in its 2005 Bangladesh Industrial
Policy, putting it in the list of thrust sectors, and today, the preservation and conservation of
tourism attractions is being prioritised in the country’s development plans and polices. The
PRSP prepared in 2005 acknowledged the contribution of tourism to employment generation
and poverty reduction and the 6th five year plan of the government highlighted the importance of
sustainable tourism development. Bangladesh’s Integrated Coastal Zone Policy (ICZMP), framed
in 2005, identified tourism as one of the most important alternative livelihoods of local people
in the coastal areas who are vulnerable to climate change. The New Tourism Policy framed in
2010 has emphasised the need to focus on sustainable tourism by developing eco-tourism and
community tourism which focus on preservation in the face of climate change impacts. Hence, the
protection and adaptation of tourism activities is being included in the climate change agenda of
the government.
Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC),27 Bangladesh’s national tourism organization is
responsible for training tourist guides and service providers. Trained staff are taught about health
and hygiene, waste management and environmental protection. BPC also seeks to use lessons
learned from past experiences to cope with climate change issues. For example, in the devastating
cyclone of 1991, BPC’s coastal projects and units (Motel Upal, Motel Probal, Motel Labonee and
Hotel Shaibal at Cox’s Bazar- the tourist capital, Motel Shaikat at Chittagong and Motel Rangamati
at the CHT) were severely damaged. After the cyclones these were renovated and rehabilitated
to protect them from future cyclones or tidal surges in the coastal area. The government has
also developed a tourism master plan for Cox’s Bazar and St. Martin’s that underlines the wellcontrolled and well-planned tourism development in consideration with potential climate change
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
impacts.28 Another separate master plan on Kuakata titled ‘Eco-Tourism Development Plan for
Kuakata Coastal Region’, which is located at the coastal area on the southern side of Bangladesh,
and which is also vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, has recently been prepared by
the Local Government and Engineering Department (LGED) of the Bangladesh Government. This
master plan also suggests environment-friendly tourism development and community involvement
in tourism development programmes. Cox’s Bazar Development Authority (CDA) has been formed
to coordinate tourism development activities like the proper use of land and the improvement of
water and sanitation systems, to enforce codes of conduct for building hotels, motels and resorts,
to establish the Effluent (waste) Treatment Plant29 and to keep vigilant in any natural calamity. This
will help natural disaster prevention and tourism development activities that take into account the
impacts of climate change.
Despite Bangladesh’s promising initiatives, there is a lack of coordination among the concerned
ministries and departments for developing sustainable tourism to cope with the future impacts of
climate change. Also, though Bangladesh has developed a climate change policy and strategy,
the tourism sector has not been fully integrated and there is a lack of specific fund allocation.
8.7
Future issues and the way forward
For sustainable tourism development, an adaptation programme in the form of alternative kinds of
tourism development has to be created. Adaptation programmes will remain a continuous issue
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and will require the coordinated effort of both public and private sector tourism stakeholders.
The private sector of Bangladesh is more vocal and has invested money in tourism development
in different areas of Bangladesh which are vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Here,
they need protection and should be considered in the government’s sponsored climate change
adaptability programmes.
Managing climate change and its hazards in Bangladesh is a collective effort. The Ministry of Civil
Aviation and Tourism, the Ministry of Environment and Forests and BPC must be clear on their
individual and collective roles and responsibilities in dealing with the impacts of climate change in
the country. In the BCCSAP 2009, monitoring the impacts of various issues related to tourism in
Bangladesh and implementing a priority action plan has been included as a programme under its
research and knowledge management theme.
At present, for Bangladesh, there is a strong need to assess, understand and monitor climate
change impacts on the potentially high earning service sector. The need for sustainable tourism
development has already been acknowledged in the country, and the adaptation to and mitigation
of climate change impacts must be placed within the sustainable tourism development context.
Of course, adaptation measures of the tourism sector encompass a wide range of cross-sectorial
adaptation strategies related to country’s social, environmental and economic sustainability. This
poses challenges due to the changing needs and priorities of the different sectors.
Finally, Bangladesh’s fight against the negative impacts of climate change – both to its tourism
sector and to the country as a whole – will continue to be inhibited by a shortage of funds.
Unfortunately, most of the international funds to reduce climate change risks and impacts are
Climate change and tourism: Bangladesh´s adaptation measures
105
focused on threatened tourism-based nations such as the Small Island States, diverse tourismservice based nations and middle income nature-tourism based nations. In Bangladesh, although
it faces high losses in terms of resources and local population due to climate change impacts, a
priority to allocate funds to aid tourism losses is still less of a priority than in other countries.
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Endnotes
1
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009).
15 International Monetary Fund (2013).
2
UNESCO (2011).
16Ibid.
3
Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (2004).
17Ibid.
4
World Bank (2010).
18 Lonely Planet (2011).
5Ibid.
19Ibid.
6Ibid.
20 Howlader, Z. H. (2012).
7
21 Bangladesh Tourism Corporation (2011).
Ministry of Environment and Forests (2009).
8Ibid.
22 World Travel & Tourism Council (2013).
9
23 World Travel & Tourism Council (2013).
Centre for Policy Dialogue (2007).
10Ibid,
24Ibid.
11 Ministry of Environment and Forests (2005).
25 Public Private Partnership Office(2013).
12 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2013);
Thanki, N. (2010).
26 Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism (2010).
13 Thanki, N. (2010).
28 Urban Development Directorate of Bangladesh Government (2013).
14 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2013).
29 Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha (2013).
27 Established in 1972 when the country achieved its independence.
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107
Chapter 9
Tourism as a sustainable livelihood option:
a case of climate change adaptation in Nepal
Nepal is a climate vulnerable country and the repercussions of climate change on the country
at large and society in particular is aggravated because of poverty, population pressures, land
degradation, food insecurity, and deforestation. More than 80% of the total population depends
on agriculture and other climate sensitive resources for their livelihood. At the same time, a
variety of climate change impacts is already being observed in the country and across the Hindu
Kush Himalayas more widely.1 The livelihoods of mountain people are intrinsically linked to these
rapid changes in the environment and climatic system, and adaptation mechanisms need to be
identified.
On the contrary, Nepal’s share in climate change contribution is negligible; it is responsible for only
about 0.025% of annual global greenhouse gas emissions. Yet Nepal has noticed a progressive
increase in average temperature that is consequently increasing the rate of snow and glacier melt.2
If uncontained, this will result in the disappearance of glaciers and the reduction of Nepal’s dry
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season water resources, which could lead to multiple impacts like biodiversity loss, desertification,
and decreasing fresh water resources. The latter will in turn affect the supply of irrigation and
drinking water as well as electricity. All of these impacts will severely affect tourism, as it is very
much dependent on these resources. Of all the issues faced by mountain destinations, climate
change is said to be one of the most serious with likely the greatest long-term impact.3
9.1
Background: Nepal’s response to climate change
In order to draw the attention of the global community to the impacts of climate change on the
Himalayas, Nepal held a cabinet meeting at Kalapatthar near the Mount Everest base camp just
before the Copenhagen Conference in 2009. Since then, Nepal has identified climate change
adaptation as a national development agenda. In 2011, it formulated the ‘Climate Change Policy’
to promote climate adaptation and mitigation in line with the international climate regime. The
main goal of this policy is to improve livelihoods by mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts
of climate change, adopting a low-carbon emissions socio-economic development path and
supporting and collaborating in the national and international agreements pertaining to climate
change. Though it mentions tourism on four occasions, the policy does not have tourism-specific
targets.4
9.2
Tourism in Nepal
Nepal received more than 700,000 tourists in 2012.5 The organization of tourism in Nepal is
very much centralised: The Nepal Tourism Board is a public-private body mandated with the
development, expansion and promotion of Nepalese tourism, and the Ministry of Tourism and
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Civil Aviation is responsible for policy and planning. Recently, some mountain districts have
established tourism development committees, composed of local government and private sector
representatives. These have begun to function as destination management organizations. The
board occasionally provides support with product development and domestic promotion to
districts and local partners, particularly to less-travelled areas with high potential. Despite growing
concerns over the future of the Himalayas in the event of climate change, neither the Board nor
the Ministry have identified climate change as their agenda and there is no policy or program on
climate change in tourism.
9.3
Climate change impacts on tourism
The implications of climate change on tourism will be high in Nepal, because the Himalayas are
the primary attraction to tourists. Many studies have outlined the possible impacts of climate
change on Nepalese tourism, which include increased numbers of avalanches, glacial outbursts,
landslides, debris flows and flash floods.6 Occurrences already show that these predictions are
well founded. For example in May 2012, a flash flood in the river Seti believed to have resulted
from climate change induced glacial outburst, killed 31 people including three trekkers, with
40 others missing. More recently, in June 2013, heavy downpours across the Humla district resulted
in several landslides and the destruction of crop fields, drinking water sources and houses, leaving
hundreds of pilgrims stranded across Humla’s route to Mount Kailash. While these events might
be seen as warning signs of what is to come, no proper assessment on the impact of climate
change on tourism has been carried out by any national agency and as such, there is no separate
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adaptation strategy for tourism. Similarly, it was raised the need for an adaptation strategy that
considers all aspects of adaptation, for instance, institutional development, diversification of
opportunities, equity and sustainable economic growth.7
Some scholars have identified that there is a significant gap in the understanding of climate
change’s consequences for tourism and have suggested that tourists may be more willing to
accept changed conditions than previously thought. Through tourist surveys,8 it was found that
while some tourists in a destination suffering from severe beach erosion were disappointed, many
others were psychologically prepared for what they were going to encounter upon arrival and
coped well. This reasoning could equally apply to Nepal: a quarter of the total visitors to Nepal
are repeat tourists,9 who know what trekking in Nepal is like, and hence are ready to experience
something more exotic, remote and special.10 They found that few tourists have changed or appear
to be willing to change their travel behaviour voluntarily in response to climate change concerns,
suggesting that tourism may not recede because of climate change. This gives us grounds to
argue that tourism can offer alternative livelihood options to rural communities.
9.4
Case study: Upper Mustang Tourism Value Chain Project
This case study examines the Upper Mustang Tourism Value Chain Project in Nepal to explore
the role of tourism in climate change adaptation. The project is an example of a climate change
adaptation programme in Nepal that aims to enhance the livelihood opportunities and reduce
the poverty of mountain people by developing high value tourism products. This is a distinctive
approach and contradicts the concept that climate change is only detrimental to tourism or vice
versa; it views tourism as an important partner in climate change adaptation. The aim of this case
Tourism as a sustainable livelihood option: a case of climate change adaptation in Nepal
109
is to share an experience from Nepal in order to encourage others to consider tourism as a climate
change adaptation strategy in rural mountain settings, inform them of associated challenges that
come up with such a project, and share lessons learned from this particular effort.
The Upper Mustang case study will show that tourism can be a promising market for local agricultural
products and that this can help build community resilience by connecting an accessible market
to local produce. It also outlines the challenges of mountain economy, for example issues related
to seasonality and food crises, that must be properly accounted for while designing community
adaptation projects. This case study shows how one of Nepal’s development partners, who has
experience in designing and implementing climate change adaptation programs, is engaging
climate change and tourism. This is an encouraging example, because it makes the link between
the two (climate change and tourism) more visible and may help draw the attention of national
tourism agencies into climate change issue more seriously.
Tourism in Upper Mustang
Upper Mustang, also known as the former “Kingdom of Lo”, is a remote rangeland area in the north
of Nepal. It used to be part of the Tibetan empire and Tibetan Buddhism is still an intrinsic element
of the local lifestyle. Formerly a wealthy region as one of the key routes for salt trade, Upper
Mustang has been suffering from increasing poverty since the closure of the Tibetan border, and
thus its trade route, in 1959.11 Consequently, the region developed into a subsistence economy
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based on livestock and agriculture. Upper Mustang consists of seven villages with 31 settlements
and spreads over an area of 2,567 km2. The area was opened to tourists in 1992, with controlled
traffic of 1,000 tourists a year (later increased based upon demand) and a tariff of USD 700 (later
reduced to USD 500) for visits of up to ten days.
The Government of Nepal promoted tourism in Upper Mustang as a way to raise funds for
environmental conservation and to stimulate livelihood development of the area. The National
Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) was appointed to develop tourism in the Upper Mustang
region and various initiatives were introduced to realise the full potential of tourism whilst also
addressing the conservation and development problems in the area. The NTNC worked closely
with Upper Mustang communities on improving environmental awareness, basic services and
medical support and arranging exchange visits to learn from tourism development in the ACAP.12
At the same time, livelihood opportunities from tourism remained limited, as the government
only allowed travel on organized camping treks and the local communities were prohibited from
opening tourism-related enterprises, which largely restricted local benefits. This basically gave
tour operators a monopoly position over the people of Upper Mustang.13 At the same time, rapidly
increasing tourism numbers placed enormous pressure on the landscape and its people,14 and
prompted local inflation on commodity prices, estimated at 300%.15
Through the Upper Mustang Conservation Area Development Project, the government initially
agreed to share 60% of tourism tariff revenues. This raised anticipation among the local people
for improvement of infrastructure, community development, restoration of monasteries and
environmental conservation.16 However, the ploughing back of revenue to the region could not
materialise because of various reasons. It was found that the Upper Mustang Conservation Area
Development Project used less than 4.1% of the tariff revenue in 1998.17 This mismanagement
of resource allocation resulted in inconsistent development and lack of cooperation,18 and these
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
developments built considerably negative local perceptions of tourism. In October 2010, the
members of Upper Mustang Youth Society and other local inhabitants threatened to bar tourists
from entering Upper Mustang, because they believed they were not getting the promised money
for local development from the tourism revenue generated in their region.
Problems with the Upper Mustang Conservation Area Development Project raised the need to
explore other development opportunities from tourism. In the summer of 2007, the regulatory
ban on teahouse trekking was lifted for five villages in Upper Mustang, which has created new
opportunities for local entrepreneurs. Today, the villages of Chhonup and Chhosser are still not
allowed to accommodate tourists due to proximity to the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
The other five villages have tapped the newly arisen opportunity and continue to explore ways to
increase their engagement and benefits. In 2011, Upper Mustang received about 3,000 visitors,19
of which most visited the region for trekking and to explore the Buddhist cultural heritage. Tourism
is extremely seasonal in the region and more than 93% of total trekking takes place between April
and October.20
The Upper Mustang Tourism Value Chain Project
In 2009, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), a regional intergovernmental knowledge centre serving the Hindu Kush Himlayas, joined with the NTNC to focus
on strategies to strengthen the involvement of local people in tourism. The project consisted of two
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phases: an assessment phase (October–December 2009) in which the tourism destination value
chain of Upper Mustang was analysed and mapped, and upgrading strategies were recommended;
and the implementation phase (March 2010–December 2011) in which the upgrading strategies
were prioritised and implemented together with partners in the field.
It was noted through the value chain analysis that there were 38 tourism enterprises across
Upper Mustang in that year: two restaurants, one teashop, seven campsites and 28 multipurpose
lodge/campsite/restaurants with a capacity from 8–35 beds (five registered). Most food items
were brought in by trekking groups and in many cases cooking staff travelled with the trekking
groups. Even though local lodging and food services were available, less than 20% of trekking
groups were using these services. This was partly a remnant from the time when the teahouses
were banned and organised groups could only be taken on camping treks. At the same time,
teahouse treks are less costly and more profitable to a trekking agency than camping treks. While
discussing with five key trekking agents working in the Upper Mustang region, it was found that
these agencies could not trust the cooking competences of the local hosts as they were not of a
minimum standard, and so maintained their own cooks and supplies on the treks to ensure food
quality. The agencies believed that, as tourists pay a high permit fee, they have high expectations
of the quality of service. Though, at the same time the trekking agencies agreed that local food
could have many advantages and could also enhance the experience of their clients. Everyone
agreed that using local produce reduces food miles, is climate friendly, and brings down the costs
for the trekking agent and the tourists.
In 2009, teahouse trekking accounted for 22.9% of arrivals in the area. ICIMOD developed a
projection for the additional income that would accrue to local teahouse owners if the quantity
of teahouse trekkers would increase. The value chain analysis had shown that, on average, each
tourist spent about USD 10 (NPR 1,000) on food in a teahouse. In 2009 till November, 398 travellers
stayed in teahouses, spending an estimated USD 10 (NPR 1,000) on food a day on average.
Tourism as a sustainable livelihood option: a case of climate change adaptation in Nepal
Table 9.1
111
Extrapolation of potential benefits from food during teahouse trekking in Upper Mustang
Number of teahouse arrivals
Percentage of total arrivals
Total spending on food per day
(%)
(USD)
398
22.9
3,976 (NPR 398,000)
520
30
5,194 (NPR 520,000)
692
40
6,912 (NPR 692,000)
865
50
8,640 (NPR 865,000)
Source: Lienhart, B. and Gyawali, V. (2010).
On an average trek of ten days, this would bring in USD 51,940 (NPR 5,200,000) (at 30%),
USD 69,120 (NPR 6,920,000) (at 40%) and USD 86,400 (NPR 8,650,000) (at 50%) per year. Even on
conservative estimates of an increase of teahouse trekkers of 40% of total arrivals, this would lead
to an increase of about 74% in food spending in the region. Additionally, using local agricultural
produce and meat from local livestock would lead to a positive spread of income, especially to
disadvantaged farmers.
The trekking agencies confirmed during the consultation that they would use local produce and
services if it were of tourist standard and agreed to support the adaptation process. In partnership
with the trekking agencies, ICIMOD and NTNC organised cooking skills training for 26 teahouses
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across eight villages along the main trekking routes. Additionally, the project helped develop a
menu using local recipes and based on locally grown products. This was intended to raise the
quality of food services significantly and built trust between the trekking agencies and the local
teahouse entrepreneurs.
The main challenge
A deeper analysis of this opportunity revealed a challenge: that Upper Mustang was facing food
security issues that needed careful consideration while exploring tourism as a strategy for socioeconomic growth and climate change adaptation. Less than 1.5% of the total land in Upper
Mustang is suitable for agriculture. Additionally, agricultural production in Upper Mustang is highly
seasonal. Due to the cold climate, water scarcity and poor irrigation facilities, the majority of people
harvest crops only once a year.21 At the same time, more and more products like food grains (mainly
rice) are being imported. An estimate of NTNC shows that only 68% of the population has food
security for more than nine months. With such limited production opportunities, tourism, while
bringing positive benefits, could actually pose a threat to food security in Mustang. Additionally,
climate change related weather events or impacts which further affect food availability could
have a devastating effect on the ability of local communities to be self-sustainable. Under such a
scenario it was evident that implications for the local community had to be carefully considered,
and mitigation strategies be put in place.
To help ensure that the consumption of local produce by tourists would not compete with the
availability of produce to local residents, the project introduced the concept of green houses.
Based on a poverty and vulnerability assessment of local farmer families, ten farmers across these
villages were supported with the construction of greenhouses and training on greenhouse usage
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
and maintenance. These efforts were to help the farmers to grow a number of local agricultural
products year round. While their main market would be in the teahouses, their produce would be
sufficient to engage in other local markets as well, to help ensure local food security in a future of
climate changes.
9.5Conclusions
The Upper Mustang Tourism Value Chain project was designed to strengthen a pro-poor tourism
destination value chain. The main aim was to boost the capacity of local farmers and increase the
demand for locally produced vegetables and livestock and improve the quality of their produce to
meet expectations of tourists. The project supported the poor farmers to help develop an authentic
menu for tourists and build their capacity to serve them. On the one hand these initiatives were
aimed at strengthening linkages between tourism and the local production system, while on the
other hand it was believed that these initiatives would help establish tourism as an alternative
income source to them. The main purpose was to facilitate in the diversification of the employment
opportunities to the local communities, and hopefully reduce their vulnerability to climate change
as agriculture is more prone to climatic changes in the mountain regions.
We have noted that despite being on the forefront of climate change impacts, Nepal is yet to
initiate meaningful action on tackling its impacts on mountain tourism development. The Upper
Mustang project is a good example, but Nepal’s tourism stakeholders must consider the wider
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implications of climate change to the rural economy and the role tourism can play in mitigation. The
project is encouraging as it involves the public sector, tourism businesses and rural communities
in designing solutions for gaps in the tourism value chain and help strengthen local economy.
Additionally, this project has provided exposure of Nepal’s tourism stakeholders to the global
climate change issues because ICIMOD is a regional hub on climate change knowledge. The
ICIMOD’s value chain project provided a good platform for Nepalese private sector tourism
industry stakeholders involved on this project to observe the climate change issues closely.
The project was a test case to improve local livelihoods through the tourism value chain approach,
so that the entire food supply component in the value chain would gain from tourism. The results
are still in an early stage, though initial monitoring has indicated that the project has increased
demand for local agricultural produce and strengthened the local agricultural and livestock
economy. The project sheds light on the need for a stronger integration of tourism into climate
change adaptation strategy. Encouraging tourism in the rural economy can be an effective
adaptation strategy in situation when a traditional occupation like agriculture becomes unreliable
due to climatic changes. In such case tourism if it is strongly linked strongly with local economy
can provide a very viable alternative means of livelihood to the local communities. Future
endeavours on this should involve the national tourism agencies as they can help establish access
to international tourism markets and feed-in tourism elements strongly into the project. Such
collaborations would also be helpful to tourism agencies that may not currently be adequately
informed of the greater debate on climate change. It will help them acquire a better understanding
of the universal nature of climate change implications and facilitate knowledge transfer process
towards adaptation strategies.
Tourism as a sustainable livelihood option: a case of climate change adaptation in Nepal
113
Acknowledgements
The writers would like to acknowledge the Upper Mustang Tourism Value Chain project team at
ICIMOD, notably Ester Kruk, Dyutiman Choudhary, Michael Kollmaier and Dr. Brigitte Hoermann,
as this chapter is based on their project reports, experiences and invaluable inputs. ICIMOD would
like to express gratitude to the Ford Foundation for funding the Upper Mustang Tourism Value
Chain project in 2009-2010 and the National Trust for Nature Conservation for their invaluable
collaboration to making this project a success. Kalyan would like to thank the Carnegie Trust for
the Universities of Scotland for providing funding to visit Nepal in connection with this chapter.
Endnotes
1
Shrestha, B. (2011).
2Ibid.
12 Gurung, C. P. and DeCoursey, M. A. (2000).
3
World Tourism Organization (2007).
13 Ives, J. D. (2006).
4
Nepal Ministry of Environment (2011).
14 Gurung, C. P. and DeCoursey, M. A. (2000).
5
Nepal Tourism Statistics (2013).
15 Ives, J. D. (2006).
6
Nyaupane, G. P. and Chhetri, N. (2009).
16Ibid.
7
Nepal, S. (2011).
17 Sharma, P. (2000).
8
Buzinde, C. et al. (2010).
18 Banskota, K. and Sharma, B. (2000).
9
Nepal Tourism Statistics (2011).
19 Nepal Tourism Statistics (2011).
10 Another study by Ruhanen and Shakeela also supports this view:
Ruhanen, L. and Shakeela, A. (2012).
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11 Ives, J. D. (2006).
20Ibid.
21 National Trust for Nature Conservation (2008).
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115
Chapter 10
The potential for Cambodia to climate-proof
its tourism sector Cambodia has approached climate change from the perspective of it being an environmental
issue and placed an emphasis on mitigation as part of being a responsible global citizen. However,
the societal implications of climate change, while recognised, are yet to be considered adequately.
A thorough understanding of climate change and its implications is pertinent to the tourism sector
in particular, which is especially vulnerable to projected impacts through:
––
Changes in the water cycle leading to threats to existing natural and cultural heritage
attractions;
––
Sea level rise leading to the potential inundation of existing tourism and public infrastructure;
––
Increased intensity of storm events leading to greater community and tourist health risk; and
––
Increased ocean temperatures leading to marine system changes such as loss of reef
resources for subsistence and tourism use.
Aside from notable exceptions, the early status of tourism development in Cambodia means that
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opportunities exist to be climate change ready by ensuring that the development of the sector
proactively incorporates climate change adaptation responses in all stages of planning and
development. Widespread appreciation of vulnerability and business risks is fundamental to action
and acceptance of mandatory constraints that will be required to guide tourism development. It is
also necessary for emerging host communities offering tourist experiences to incorporate climate
change when developing business plans.
10.1
Tourism in Cambodia
Cambodia’s gross domestic product (GDP) is based largely on primary industries (providing around
33% of GDP and 57% of employment) and services (40% of GDP and 26% of employment), with
industry (mainly garment manufacture) providing around 20% of GDP and 16% of employment.1
Growth in the services sector reflects the good performance of tourism. In 2012, tourism’s direct
contribution to GDP was 11.5% and a total contribution of 28.5%.2 However, economic leakage
through the import of foreign goods and accommodation ownership is likely to be around 25%.3
The tourism sector directly accounts for 9.7% of total employment and indirectly for 22.3%.4 In
2012, tourism investments accounted for 14.4% of total investments in Cambodia.5 Table 10.1
shows the contributions of tourism to GDP, employment and capital investment in Cambodia and
neighbouring countries.
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Table 10.1
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Tourism contributions Cambodia and neighbouring countries, 2012
Cambodia
Direct contribution to GDP
Lao PDR
Viet Nam
Thailand
1.6
0.5
6.2
26.5
3.6
1.4
13.0
61.0
782.7
134.1
1,831.3
2,019.9
1,805.4
433.6
3,892.1
4,818.7
0.3
0.3
3.7
7.3
(USD, billion)
Total contribution to GDP
(USD, billion)
Direct contribution to employment
(x1,000 jobs)
Total contribution to employment
(x1,000 jobs)
Capital investment
(USD, billion)
Source: World Travel & Tourism Council (2013).
International tourist arrivals increased by 24% from 2.9 million in 2011 to over 3.5 million in 2012.6
Around 2 million tourists visited Angkor Wat in 2012 (an increase of 26% over 2011 figures), and
domestic tourists in 2012 were estimated to be eight million (an increase of 14% over 2011).7
Cambodia is experiencing a shift in the composition of tourist arrivals from western towards Asian
countries. In 2012, Cambodia’s top overseas markets were Viet Nam, Republic of Korea, China,
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Thailand and Lao PDR.8
Tourism planning overview
The National Tourism Policy9 expands on the Law on Tourism 200910, and identifies the need
for a diversity of tourism destinations, products and services that deliver experiences attractive
to different markets, and in which Cambodians can participate and gain direct benefits. The
government’s National Strategic Development Plan Update 2009–201311 similarly emphasises the
role of tourism (especially eco, heritage and cultural tourism) in the economy and the need to
improve tourism infrastructure. However, this document acknowledges that the quality of some
tourism services does not meet desired standards; that tourism development is concentrated in
urban areas, preventing the poor in remote areas from benefiting; and that necessary infrastructure
(e.g., roads, electricity, clean water supply, liquid and solid waste management) is inadequate.
Also, tourism has not always stimulated domestic production and consumption; some private
investment projects have not progressed to schedule; and the necessary quality of public and
private human resources remains low.12
In the socio-economic and rapid tourism growth context, the Tourism Development Strategic Plan
2012–2020 (TDSP 2012–2020)13 reiterates the government’s commitment to sustainable tourism
and its role in raising the socio-economic status of the country. The TDSP 2012–2020 identifies
five principles for tourism development:
1.
Tourism business will operate in a competitive open market economy;
2.
Policies will guide tourism development;
3.
The government will cooperate with the private sector;
4.
Opportunities will be available for local people to engage in tourism development; and
5.
Laws will be enforced to protect legitimate tourism activity and ensure sustainable development.
The potential for Cambodia to climate-proof its tourism sector
117
The TDSP 2012–2020 reinforces the strategic direction contained in the National Ecotourism
Policy and Strategic Plan14 to develop tourism based on natural and cultural attractions from
the hubs of the Angkor Wat-Tonle Sap area, the Mekong River and forests of the North-East,
the marine and seaside opportunities in the coastal South-West, and the urban tourism potential
of Phnom Penh. However, except for Phnom Penh, Siem Reap for the Angkor attraction, and
Sihanoukville for coastal tourism, basic tourism infrastructure and supporting tourism products
and services are poorly developed.15
What is missing in Cambodia’s tourism policies is any reference to the threats climate change
might bring. Cambodia has no tourism strategy or policy that directly targets the threats of climate
change to tourism. However, a clear policy mandate does exist for the Ministry of Tourism to
address issues that threaten the sustainable development of tourism.16
10.2
The climate change context
Climatic trends and expected impacts
Mean annual temperatures are projected to increase across Cambodia by 0.6–2.6˚ C by 2025,
0.7–2.7˚ C by 2060, and 1.4–4.3˚ C by 2090.17 Since 1960, the frequency of hot days and nights
has increased with a commensurate decrease in cold days and nights.18 Mean rainfall trends
remain unclear, with some areas experiencing increases and others decreases. The uncertainty
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persists with projections; however, sporadic increases in rainfall are expected with more intense
monsoon seasons.19 Broadly, the projected precipitation pattern is for wetter wet seasons and
drier dry seasons.20
There is general agreement that the major threats of climate change lie in increased flood events,
droughts, and sea level rise in the coastal zone.21 Annual flooding along the Mekong River and
around the Tonle Sap Lake over the last 15 years has seen a decreased frequency of ‘average floods’,
but an increase in large floods and very small floods.22 Around 80% of the country’s population
lives along the Mekong River. Estimates suggest that floods kill 100 Cambodians annually, cause
agricultural losses of USD 100–170 million each year, and affect critical infrastructure along the
floodplain.23
The combination of poor land-use management (tree-clearing in key catchments), limited access
to water and storage of existing water resources make Cambodian communities vulnerable to
drought impacts when the monsoons are delayed or end early. Drought affects every aspect of
the country’s economy and population and leads to economic losses through crop failure, health
problems, and environmental damage. Between 1998 and 2002, a 20% loss in rice production
was attributed to drought.24
Sea levels along the Cambodian coast are projected to rise by about 15 centimetres by 2030
and up to 45 centimetres by 2070.25 Rising sea levels pose a threat to coastal areas which are
already experiencing storm surges, higher tides, beach erosion, and seawater intrusion. Low-lying
areas, including settlements, beach resorts, seaports, coastal fisheries, and mangrove forests are
particularly vulnerable.26
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Identified vulnerable economic sectors and communities
It is commonly reiterated that the most vulnerable economic sectors in Cambodia are agriculture
and fisheries,27 which carry implications for food security.28 Related areas of concern are for public
health (vector-borne diseases), the coastal zone29 and the implications of rainfall variability on
water resources.30
Cambodia’s population is considered highly vulnerable to climate change because of its
dependency on the climate-sensitive livelihood sectors of agriculture and fisheries. Around 80% of
the population is rural-based and most farmers are poorly equipped to adapt to climate change.31
Food security is an existing concern, and data from 2004/2005 shows 25% of the population
suffer from undernourishment.32 Minority communities are exemplars of high levels of rural poverty
and identified as particularly vulnerable to drought, flooding, and other extreme weather events.
Unsustainable land use practices, high levels of poverty, lack of basic infrastructure, and low
levels of education limit their capacity to respond effectively and adapt.33
The national response
Cambodia ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1995, which
came into force in March 1999. In the same year, Phase I of its Climate Change Enabling Project
(CCEP) was implemented, followed by ratification of the Kyoto Protocol and Phase 2 (CCEPII) in
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2002. The CCEP projects sought to raise the technical and institutional capacity within government,
as well as public awareness of climate change issues. The country’s National Adaptation
Programme of Action to Climate Change (NAPA)34 provided the framework for addressing climate
change issues, with subsequent progress made in establishing institutional arrangements for
managing climate change and adaptation interventions.
The institutional framework for addressing climate change (figure 10.1) emphasises environmental
(mitigation) issues despite the country being one of the least emitters of green-house-gases.
The first inventory of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions found that in 1994, Cambodia was a net
sink country (carbon sequestration higher than carbon emissions). However, projections indicate
that Cambodia will be a net emitter by 2020, contributing around 44,000 Gg of CO2e. Land use
change and forestry will be the main source of GHG emissions (63%), followed by increased
agriculture emissions (28%) and to a lesser extent increases in energy sector emissions (9%).35
The immediate climate change issue for Cambodia is not mitigation, but how to galvanise and
build adaptive capacity to reduce vulnerability to impacts.
The recognised low adaptive capacity has stimulated adaptation investments throughout
the country focused on building resilience in the agriculture sector through infrastructure and
technology inputs, and at the community level through disaster risk reduction in terms of human
safety, health, and nutrition. Other efforts have sought to improve the management of natural
resources and the productive use of ecosystem services (the benefits people obtain from
ecosystems).36 In part, this deliberative choice of adaptation options delivers multiple benefits
(e.g., the maintenance of ecosystem services, particularly catchment protection). However, the
benefits to tourism through maintaining and expanding ecotourism potential remains poorly
considered. Disaster risk reduction is addressed by a variety of often sector-specific government
departments. Improving coordination between government departments is central to reducing
119
The potential for Cambodia to climate-proof its tourism sector
Cambodia’s vulnerability. This is now a focus of the National Climate Change Committee with their
shift in emphasis from response to risk prevention.37 Unfortunately, the impacts of climate change
on tourism are yet to be considered adequately.
Figure 10.1
Cambodian institutional framework for addressing climate change
National committees
National Climate Change
Ministries with CC mandates
with CC mandates
Committee
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Disaster management
(20 members)
Water Resources and Meteorology
Mekong
Economic and Finance
2 others
Health
Planning
11 others
Designated National Authority
Ministry of Environment
UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol
Focal Point
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Climate change department
GHG inventory
Climate change technical team
Ad hoc inter-ministerial
Ad hoc inter-ministerial
working group on energy
working group on forestry
Policy
Source:
Adapted
from Fukui, A. (2013).
and
mitigation
and coordination
Vulnerability and
Education
Administration
adaptation assessment
and outreach
and planning
Cambodia’s NAPA identified barriers to successful climate change adaptation, including:
––
Inadequate technical, financial, and institutional capacity of government agencies and of
local communities to respond to climate hazards;
––
Limited coordination among the agencies and communities;
––
Limited integration of climate change issues into national policies and programs; and
––
Limited awareness of climate change issues. Given the potentially profound effects of
climate change on Cambodian society and industry, strong leadership is required.
The developing status of the sector gives tourism the potential to be an exemplar of best practice
in addressing climate change. Doing so would align with the nation’s commitment to sustainable
tourism. Necessary actions need not be driven by idealism, but rather a real interest to climateproof the sector and retain its status as a pillar of the Cambodian economy.
120
10.3
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Climate change threats to Cambodian tourism
Direct threats to tourism operations
The rural nature of Cambodia’s tourist attractions (existing and potential) make the sector
vulnerable to the same hazards as the primary industry sector, exacerbated by the vulnerabilities
of that sector. All coastal areas and islands are vulnerable to sea level rise.38 A one-metre increase
in sea level will see over half of Koh Kong city submerged,39 as well as much of the coastal tourism
infrastructure of Sihanoukville.40 The seaside province of Kep, with its dependency on subsurface
aquifers for potable water, is already facing problems of salt intrusion and pollution of the watertable.41 Exposed also are mangrove forests, especially the vast areas of Koh Kong Province, the
sea grass beds around Kampot Province and the fringing coral reefs around the gulf islands.
The quality of the coral reefs is also vulnerable to sea temperature rise and ocean acidification.
Increased storm surges are likely to be associated with increased storm intensities, direct attrition
and disturbance of marine systems of the shallow East Gulf of Thailand, with implications for both
the tourism and the fisheries sectors.
Greater intensity typhoons, with associated flash and wide-spread flooding, and longer wet
seasons will not only have direct effects on tourism infrastructure, but also interrupt access to
remote ecotourism locations and reduce the attractiveness of the country as a ‘sunny’ destination.
With poor road access to many remote locations, food supply and other services will be temporarily
interrupted, increasing the need for client evacuations or temporary closure. Temperature increase
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with longer wet seasons will also extend the mosquito-breeding season. While the reported
incidence of malaria has declined since 1999, under changing climate conditions, the incidence of
malaria could increase by up to 16%.42 Increased incidence of diseases such as malaria, dengue
fever and Japanese encephalitis will stimulate safety fears for tourists. Increased temperatures
also expose tourists to greater risks of heat stress; a health issue which ecotourism service
providers in remote locations are poorly equipped to address.
Indirect threats through impacts on other sectors
Both floods and droughts have food security implications for local communities and tourism.43
Failure of food crops will interrupt supply; increasing the need to import food and add to base
costs. The (lack of) availability of a reliable supply of potable water remains an impediment to
establishing tourist attractions and services in many parts of the country. Extended drought will
increase the pressure on available water storages and will affect both local communities and
tourists. Bottled water is already the main source of tourist drinking water in Cambodia with
its immense associated waste management implications. Impacts of lowered water tables
resulting from reduced infiltration and aquifer recharge and increased water use is exacerbated
by vegetation loss. This is of particular concern for the Angkor Wat complex where reduced water
table levels threaten the stability of the temples through slumping.
Altered climatic patterns can have important implications for ecological shifts in habitats. While
the process of habitat change may be slow, the distribution of individual species (e.g., birds) can
occur rapidly. Ultimately, the additional stress of climate change, on top of illegal take for pets
and traditional medicines, is likely to increase the vulnerability of flora and fauna, especially large
mammals, to extinction. This flora and fauna could form the basis of a dynamic and successful
wildlife tourism sub-sector.
The potential for Cambodia to climate-proof its tourism sector
121
Long-haul air travel is vulnerable to international carbon pricing/trading policies,44 and likely to be
affected by resultant market perspectives and attitudes. However, the growing Asian market for
Cambodian tourist experiences buffers it somewhat from the impact of higher costs associated
with long-haul travel.
While climate change hazard assessment suggests many countries in South-East Asia are facing
greater threats, Cambodia’s lack of capacity makes all areas of the country highly vulnerable to
climate change impacts.45 The climate challenge for Cambodia is dealing with persistent poverty,
social and economic marginalization, and gender inequalities that exacerbate climate change
impacts, often limiting the options for the poor to adapt to climate change.46
Social issues linked to adaptive capacity possibly exceed the direct environmental threats of
climate change.47 The tourism sector in Cambodia is not immune to the physical impacts of
climate change and must be prepared to adapt. However, the social risks involved in failing to take
action to address probable changes are likely to be more costly to tourism and the economy than
adapting to the physical threats, although short-term decisions relating to climate risks may lead
to path dependencies, requiring ongoing investment. Despite rapid tourism growth, Cambodia
has made relatively few commitments to development locations and style that oblige it to consider
how to respond to the risks through expensive defend, accommodate, or retreat strategies. That
is, adaptive strategies can be proactive rather than a response to threats to existing tourism
infrastructure. Cambodia is still in a situation where many of the implications of climate change
for specific locations can be addressed through astute planning, development controls and
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cooperation between the public and private sectors, with the support of communities.
10.4
Opportunities for Cambodian tourism to lead the response to the
climate change challenge
As one of the three pillars of Cambodia’s economy, it would be prudent for the tourism sector,
from government to small businesses, to become proactive in addressing the probable threats
of climate change to its sustainability. For government and the Ministry of Tourism, it is about
providing leadership to the sector; for existing businesses it is about risk reduction, reducing the
exposure of clients and protecting capital investments; for developing businesses, it is about
duty of care and fiduciary responsibility. In addressing many climate change issues for the sector,
significant contributions to sustainability aspirations can be achieved concomitantly, providing an
economic rationale for actions that will have community benefits.
10.5
Climate-proofing Cambodian tourism
Ensuring the availability of potable water
At a macro-scale, some climate change issues are tourism-relevant but beyond the direct influence
or mandate of the sector to address. Water constraints of Siem Reap need to be addressed for
community well-being; drawing on the water resources of the Tonle Sap is merely a short-term
solution that does not address the existing threat to the Angkor Wat complex of the lowered
water table. Catchment protection, cessation of logging and replanting of the catchment are
essential for groundwater recharge, but this is a long-term solution to an immediate problem. The
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
remnant forests of the catchment have ecotourism potential that can complement the Angkor Wat
experience and provide an economic rationale for forest protection and the carbon sequestration
benefits of replanting. The scale of replanting required is large, as is the potential for employment,
but the multiple long-term benefits are also large for tourism and climate change mitigation.
The vulnerability of the tourism sector to an absence of a reliable potable water source is equally
significant. A genuine interest in reducing the sector’s burden on the public water supply and
ensuring water security needs to drive at least the accommodation sector towards greater water
supply independence. On-site, wet season capture and storage is part of the solution that must
be matched by community-wide reciprocal action. The tourism sector can provide leadership in
this regard. Water security in times of drought is an issue throughout Cambodia, especially where
groundwater is the major source of freshwater (e.g., Kep Province on the coast) or where the
availability of surface water is seasonal (e.g., islands). This approach invokes user-pays principles
by those with most capacity to pay. Policy, as an inducement, is needed.
Contributing to national mitigation actions and smart business
As with water, the tourism sector needs to demonstrate its corporate responsibility and
contribution to climate change mitigation through reducing its carbon footprint. This means
reducing its carbon-based energy demand through use efficiencies, which is smart business
because it reduces operating costs; and safeguarding supply through the use of alternative energy
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sources. Appropriate technology is available and needs to be integrated into all new development.
Integrating energy efficient building design with alternative energy sources could characterise new
tourism infrastructure and products in Cambodia and encourage existing infrastructure managers
to likewise transition to a low carbon footprint profile. The tourism image value would be immense
and reflect Cambodia’s clean, green and sustainable vision for tourism.
Global initiatives to put a price on carbon emissions are affecting the cost of transport with costs
passed on to tourists through increased fares. Air travel is now the dominant transport form (52%)
for international tourists,48 and an estimated 5% of global CO2 emissions are being generated
by tourism – 40% through air travel –.49 Based on distance travelled and energy consumed in
travel from high end and distant markets, it might be expected that Cambodia and other SouthEast Asian destinations will be most exposed to declining growth because of mitigation costs.50
However, increasing and projected trends for South-East Asia tourism suggest that climate policy
will not significantly affect arrivals, at least to 2020.51 While this situation buffers Cambodia from
immediate impacts, marginal costs of air travel might affect its growing short-haul Asian markets
and internal travel. With major roadwork projects being completed that link tourism regions in
Cambodia and the country with neighbouring markets, opportunities exist for developing more
efficient and cost effective inter and intra-national transport methods (e.g., bus transportation) at
a lower per capita carbon cost. This would have benefits beyond mitigation. Alternative transport
methods (e.g., buses) are less technologically demanding and would increase job opportunities
for locals; they would serve Cambodia’s growing neighbour markets and would foster travel
between Cambodia’s focal tourist destinations. Increased bus travel would also stimulate demand
for access to remote locations, and therefore road upgrades that would service an ecotourism
sub-sector. As well as this, the agricultural sector would benefit and contributions could be made
to removing health and education disadvantages. Bus travel would also serve the backpacker
market, a primary user of ecotourism products.
The potential for Cambodia to climate-proof its tourism sector
123
10.6Conclusion
The prudent business investor will assess risk and take steps to minimise exposure. The available
evidence suggests that tourism interests in Cambodia are vulnerable to climate change impacts.
Existing tourism businesses and destinations will need to adapt to minimize the risks associated
with climate change. New businesses and destinations will need to plan for climate change impacts
to minimise long-term adaptation costs. For community based tourism product development, the
government will need to provide guidance and support for initiatives to reduce risk exposure. The
government needs to ensure that risks are fully considered and integrated into development plans
to provide an investment environment that can capitalise on new opportunities. KPMG’s52 multisectorial comparison of climate change risk awareness found that the tourism sector rated low
and in the ‘danger zone’ of their climate change risk preparedness framework. This is the case for
the Ministry of Tourism and likely to be the case in Cambodian tourism businesses, so leadership
is needed.
The tourism sector in Cambodia is in a developmental stage. The potential to include climate
change risk reduction design and technology is therefore high. Key initial actions to respond to
the climate change challenge to Cambodian tourism are to:
––
Engage with the National Climate Change Committee to learn from their experience, but
more importantly, place the economic importance of tourism and its climate change risks
on their agendas, especially through identifying how tourism can provide a rationale and
stimulus for addressing broader social impacts of climate change;
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––
Undertake a comprehensive assessment of climate change impacts on the tourism sector
and confirm adaptation needs and policy directions;
––
Provide policy leadership by mandating the need to demonstrate integration of climate
change considerations in all new development, as part of the government’s commitment to
sustainable tourism; and
––
Foster dialogue between the government and tourism businesses on climate change risks
to the sector from the perspective of business risk reduction and collaboratively generate
sector-wide adaptation strategies.
While awareness, knowledge and capacity in the Ministry of Tourism to provide necessary
leadership to respond to climate change issues is currently low, experience and expertise exists
through the National Climate Change Committee. The tourism outlook for Cambodia is buoyant,
suggesting investors will be less averse to the additional capital costs involved in climate-proofing
investments, especially if made aware of long-term operational cost savings.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Endnotes
1
Cambodia Development Research Institue ( 2012); Dyoulgerov, M.;
Bucher, A.; Zermoglio, F. and Forner, C. (2011).
26 Dyoulgerov, C. et al. (2011).
2
World Travel & Tourism Council (2013).
3
Nop, D. (2012).
4
Naron, H. C. (2013); Tong, K. and Madhur, S. (2013);
World Travel & Tourism Council (2013).
28 MOE and United Nations Development Programme (2011);
Magnan, N. and Thomas, T.S. (2011); Regional Integrated
Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (2011); Shicavone, A. (2010);
Yusuf, A. A. and Francisco, H. A. (2009).
5Ibid.
29 MOE (2006); University of Gothenburg (2009).
6
30 Dyoulgerov, M. et al. (2011).
Royal Government of Cambodia (2012).
7Ibid.
8
Tong, K. and Madhur, S. (2013).
9
Ministry of Tourism (2010).
10 MOT (2009).
11 Royal Government of Cambodia (2010).
12Ibid.
13 Royal Government of Cambodia (2012).
14 SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2009).
15 See for example: Carter, R. et al. (2013) for coastal areas.
16 See MOT (2009; 2010).
17 The Cambodian Rural Development Team (2012); Dyoulgerov, M.
et al. (2011); McSweeney, C. et al. (2010); Regional Integrated
Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (2011).
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27Ibid.
31 Magnan, N. and Thomas, T. S. (2011); MOE (2006);
MOE and United Nations Development Programme (2011).
32 Shicavone, A. (2010).
33 CRDT (2012); Hill, H. and Menon, J. (2011).
34 MOE (2006).
35 MOE (2009)
36 Solar, W. R. (2010); see Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005).
37 Dyoulgerov, M. et al. (2011).
38 King, P.; Basiuk, R.; Serey, B. C. and Yem, D. (2009).
39 Keo, K. (2012).
40 King, P. et al. (2009).
41 Carter, R. et al. (2013).
42 Solar, W. R. (2010).
18 Dyoulgerov, M. et al. (2011).
43 King, P. et al. (2009).
19Ibid.
44 Gössling, S.; Hall, C. M. and Scott, D. (2009); King, P. et al. (2009).
20 Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (2011).
45 Yusuf, A. A. and Francisco, H. A. (2009).
21 Dyoulgerov, M. et al. (2011);
Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (2011).
46 Solar, W. R. (2010).
22 Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (2011).
48 World Tourism Organization (2013).
23 Dyoulgerov, M. et al. (2011); Magnan, N. and Thomas, T. S. (2011);
Ministry of Environment and United Nations Development Programme
(2011); Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System
(2011).
49 Scott, D. et al. (2008).
24 Dyoulgerov, M. et al. (2011); MOE (2006);
Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (2011).
52 KPMG (2008).
25 McSweeney, C. et al. (2010); Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early
Warning System (2011).
47 Solar, W. R. (2010); Shicavone, A. (2010).
50 Hall, C. M. and Lew, A. (2009).
51 Gössling, S.; Peeter, P. and Scott, D. (2008).
T
125
Chapter 11
Climate change and tourism
development in Viet Nam Viet Nam has not been unaffected by the myriad of climate change impacts; indeed the country
is ranked globally as being among the top most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate
change-induced sea level rise (SLR).1 In Viet Nam, tourism is recognized as an important economic
sector, and one that has the potential for further growth. In 2012 Viet Nam received almost 6.85
million international visitors and income from tourism was approximately USD 7,692 million.2
According to the Strategy on Viet Nam’s Tourism Development until 2020, Vision to 2030,3 it is
expected by the end of 2020 Viet Nam will receive as many as 10.5 million international arrivals
and 48 million domestic visitors, resulting in USD 18-19 billion in tourism revenue.
The tourism sector is recognised as highly climate sensitive in destinations where the natural
environment and/or climatic conditions are the major tourist attractions. In Viet Nam, the
natural environment, including its high mountains in the north-west and its coastal and island
environments in the coastal zone, which stretch more than 3,200 kilometres from the north to the
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south, are dominant features of the country’s tourism appeal. All of these are likely to be impacted
by changes in climatic conditions. Beach tourism also constitutes a major portion of Viet Nam’s
revenue earning sector. Thus, any climate changes have the potential to put the tourism sector at
risk and result in significant market changes.
This chapter outlines the impacts of climate change on Viet Nam’s tourism sector, particularly
in terms of sea level rise and its potential effects on populations, economy, livelihoods and
ecosystems. It then goes on to discuss the three main impacts of climate change on Viet Nam:
impacts on tourism products, impacts on conditions for tourism activity and impacts on the quality
and quantity of water resources. Finally, this chapter will discuss responses to climate change
both in terms of mitigation and adaptation options for the country’s tourism sector.
Sea level rise in Viet Nam
As shown in Figure 11.1, Viet Nam would be the most seriously impacted country in East Asia
by SLR: about 5.2% of its area would be impacted by a 1 m SLR and up to 16% in the case of a
5 m SLR. 10.8% of Viet Nam’s population would be impacted by a 1 m SLR.4 This is the largest
percentage of impacted population among all 84 countries analysed by the study (Egypt follows
with 10.56%). Viet Nam’s impacted population would reach 35% with a 5 m SLR.
Most of this impact would be in the Mekong and Red River Deltas. Large percentages of Viet
Nam’s population and economic activity are located in these two river deltas. In fact, according to
a case study for the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), the predicted
climate change scenario by 2100 (2–3˚ C temperature increases and 53–73 cm sea level rises)
would pose a risk of inundation of 39% of the Mekong delta and 10% of the Red River delta, with
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
a potential impact on the corresponding 35% and 9% population living in these two key areas.5 As
well as this, 4% of Viet Nam’s railway system, 9% of the national highway and 12% of provincial
roads would be affected.
A study discussed the effects of climate change induced sea level rise on critical natural habitats
in Viet Nam, and suggested that a 1 m sea level rise may impact 78 (27%) of Viet Nam’s critical
natural habitats.6 Critical natural habitats are existing and proposed protected areas and areas
supporting threatened species, including important bird areas and key biodiversity areas.7 A 1 m
sea level rise would impact 46 (or 33%) protected areas in Viet Nam, nine (or 23%) key biodiversity
areas.8 In turn, a 5 m sea level rise would impact 87 (or 30%) of the country’s critical natural
habitats.
Figure 11.1 East Asia countries impacted by SLR
Viet Nam
Taiwan, China
Myannmar
Indonesia
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Thailand
■ 1 meter
Cambodia
■ 2 meter
Philippines
■ 3 meter
■ 4 meter
Republic of Korea
■ 5 meter
DPR Korea
Malaysia
Brunei
China
Papua New Guinea
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Source: Dasgupta, S. et al. (2007).
The magnitude of these potential impacts is considerable – a quarter to a third of all habitats
in Viet Nam may be impacted by SLR alone under climate change scenarios that are widely
accepted as realistic. Clearly Viet Nam’s biodiversity is facing a crisis from SLR, even under the
most conservative climate change scenarios. Furthermore, in the south, the effects of just a 1 m
SLR would stretch into areas of the Mekong Delta right through Viet Nam and into Cambodia, over
180 km inland. In the north, extensive limestone aquifers will ensure that the effects of salination
spread widely, even to areas far inland such as Van Long Nature Reserve in Ninh Binh province,
which is a popular ecotourism site.9
11.1
Climate change and tourism development in Viet Nam 127
Impacts of climate change on Viet Nam
In Viet Nam, several studies on climate change and its impacts, especially its impacts on socioeconomic developments, have been carried out. The agriculture, fishery and aquaculture,
infrastructure and urban construction sectors, as well as hydropower electricity, tourism, water
resource and natural habitats are the economic sectors and natural environments most effected
by climate change in Viet Nam.
Figure 11.2 shows the impacts of climate change on tourism in Viet Nam.10
As can be seen in the diagram, the direct anticipated impacts of climate change will take three
main forms:
1.
Impacts on tourism products (resources/tourism attractions);
2.
Impacts on conditions for tourism activity (infrastructure for access, weather conditions for
travelling, etc.) caused by increasing extreme weather events; and
3.
Impacts on water resources (both quantity and quality) used for tourism.
The following sections will examine each of these impacts in detail.
Impacts on tourism destinations and products
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The results of a study exploring solutions for reducing the impacts of climate change on tourism
development in Viet Nam,11 found that in the last few years, a number of beaches and natural
reserves along the coast, especially in Viet Nam’s central and southern regions, have been
completely destroyed or degraded by SLR or flooding. The loss and degradation of Viet Nam’s
natural assets will directly reduce the value of scenic landscapes that are considered the country’s
most important tourism resources. An example of this is United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage listed Ha Long Bay, with its islands and
coastal areas which make it particularly vulnerable to SLR. Beach tourism, and beach resorts
more specifically, have also already been affected by beach erosion.
The loss and degradation of tourism resources due to climate change does not apply only to
natural assets but also to cultural and historical sites and constructions that are recognized as
world heritage or national relics. These sites and attractions can be significantly impacted by
floods, typhoons, storms and other extreme weather events. Last year, for example, the high flood
in Viet Nam’s central area seriously impacted on cultural relics of the former capital Hue as well as
Hoi An ancient town and the Tam Giang-Cau Hai lagoon; a significant tourism resource not only
for the country but also for the South-East Asia region.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Figure 11.2
The effects of climate change on tourism development in Viet Nam
Climate change
Impacts on
Impacts
Impacts
conditions for tourism
on water resources
on tourism attractions
Limit access
Danger to
Quality
ability to
tourists
degradation
Loss
Tourism
Water supply
Tourism
activities
ability for
products
Tourism development
Source: Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism (2010).
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Impacts of climatic conditions for tourism activity
By the end of the 21st century Viet Nam’s average temperature will rise 2.3˚ C. The northern
and northern central zones of Viet Nam will witness faster temperature increases than the
southern zones, and it is anticipated that winter temperatures will rise more rapidly than summer
temperatures.12
The scenarios also predict that annual rainfall will rise by 5% above average level for 1980-1999
by the end of the 21st century. There will be more rainfall in the monsoon season, but less rainfall
in the dry season, especially in the southern region.13
These changes, combined with sea level rise, more severe tropical storms with higher speed
winds and more intense rains resulting in floods, have already been observed in the country. This
raises concerns for the future of tourism development in Viet Nam in the face of climatic changes.
Due to the spread and difference in impacts across the country, ministries and localities will need
to develop plans for climate-related mitigation and adaptation.
Impacts on water resources
Viet Nam has around 830-840 billion m3 of surface water per annum: 310–315 billion m3 (37%)
formed in Viet Nam and 520–525 m3 (63%) coming from other countries.14
According to the number of tourists forecast in Viet Nam’s Tourism Strategy to 2020,15 the water
demand for tourist needs should be calculated. While for the year 2010 this total water usage for
tourism was around 28.0 million m3, this is expected to rise to 67.0 million m3 for the year 2015
and reach 97.0 million m3 for 2020. From this, 65–70% will be used for beach tourism activities.
Climate change and tourism development in Viet Nam 129
Due to SLR, many underground water reservoirs and sources located closed to the coast may be
susceptible to salination, so the available water supply for tourism demand, especially in coastal
areas, will be reduced. This situation may be more serious in the dry season, especially during
times of drought. Thus, there is a need to address the issue of water shortage in developing
sustainable tourism in Viet Nam.
11.2
Responding to climate change
Since 2005 and in recognition of the important issues related to climate change and their impact
on the socio-economic development of the country, the direction of Viet Nam’s response to
climate change has been largely steered by the international frameworks of the Kyoto Protocol
and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. In 2008 and again in 2012,
National Target Action Plans to Respond to Climate Change for the periods 2009–2015 and
2012–2015 were approved by the prime minister. According to these plans, each ministry and
province must set up their own action plan to respond to climate change.
Studies have underpinned the Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism’s 2012 action plan for
responding to climate change.16 These measures focus around:
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Mitigation
There are some ways in which the tourism sector can and is working to mitigate the impacts of
climate change and show leadership in responsible and sustainable business. One such mitigation
measure is to reduce (or replace) the number of refrigerant facilities using chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
gas. It is well known that the increasing level of CFC gas in the atmosphere from manufacturing
and service activities is one of the main reasons that the earth is warming.17 Tourism services,
especially accommodation, use refrigerant facilities (including air-conditioners and refrigerators)
which use CFC gas, and which thus contribute significantly to the total levels of CFC gas in the
atmosphere. Reducing the number of refrigerant facilities or replacing them with newer, cleaner
technology which does not use CFC gas will help in mitigating the effects of climate change.
A second mitigation measure is to encourage the development of environmentally friendly tourist
products. This requires that tourist products follow environmental standards and focus on saving
energy and water and reducing waste. Additionally, the development and promotion of ecotourism
products is encouraged as these can directly contribute to environmental and biodiversity
conservation.
A third mitigation measure is to control and/or manage the “carrying capacity” of tourism activity.
Tourism activities in which carrying capacities are exceeded have the potential to negatively
impact the natural environment.
Fourthly, the planting of trees in tourist sites and resorts is encouraged. Vegetation cover is an
important factor in limiting the warming of the earth (which is considered as the main driver of
climate change)18 and thus, the planting of trees in tourist sites and resorts will not only create
beautiful landscapes to attract tourists but also actively contribute to limiting the impacts of
climate change.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
A fifth mitigation measure is to encourage the use of the “3R” model (Reduce – Reuse – Recycle)
in tourism development. This model ensures that waste from tourism activities will be kept to a
minimum, thus again helping to limit the negative impacts of tourism on the natural environment.
A final mitigation measure for the tourism sector is to encourage the use of renewable energy and
to save energy and water in tourism services. Viet Nam is a tropical coastal country, so it has very
high potential for success in using solar and wind energy, which are both considered cleaner and
more environmentally friendly. Using renewable and environmentally friendly energy sources in
tourism services rather than traditional ones (which are primarily oil or coal dependent) will actively
contribute to preserving and maximizing the benefits of the natural environment.
Adaptation
Beside the above mentioned mitigation measures there are a number of ways in which the
government’s action plan advocates the tourism sector to adapt to the impacts of climate change.
One way is to raise awareness about climate change and its impacts on tourism among those
working in the sector. In the previously mentioned survey undertaken for the Ministry, it was found
that many people working in tourism and related sectors are not well educated about climate
change and its possible impacts on tourism development in Viet Nam. This situation will affect
policy making for tourism development as well as tourism management in the country. As well as
educating workers of the tourism sector, it is equally important to raise public awareness about
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climate change and its impacts on tourism.
A second adaptation measure is to implement policies which promote the safeguarding of tourism
sites. Currently in Viet Nam, those policies which are encouraging the protection of tourism
resources and sites from any possible impacts of climate change are not sufficient.19 It is vital
that there is a system of policies for promoting the safeguarding of tourism sites and reducing the
consequences of the possible impacts of climate change.
A further adaptation measure is to carry out a comprehensive and systematic study on the
impacts of climate change on tourism development in Viet Nam, including on the construction
of new tourism infrastructure. In order to adapt tourism development activities to the predicted
likely impacts of climate change in the country, it is necessary to conduct in-depth studies to
assess quantitatively and specifically the impacts of climate change on approved tourism strategy
development objects. This will provide the foundation for the planning, design and monitoring of
current climate standards on new tourism infrastructure and developments. Another adaptation
measure is strengthening institutional capacity for long-term advance planning for tourism, taking
into account the anticipated impacts of climate change.
The fifth adaptation measure is to integrate climate change issues into tourism strategy and
planning. For example, the country’s strategy and master plan provide important guidelines for
tourism development in the country. However, in the preparation process of the strategy and
master plan, the possible impacts of climate change on tourism development, especially in the
coastal areas, have not been addressed clearly. It is thus very important to revise the strategy
and master plan for tourism development with due consideration of climate change’s impacts on
tourism in order to adapt tourism development in Viet Nam to anticipated climate change risks.
Climate change and tourism development in Viet Nam 131
A final adaptation measure is to promote international cooperation for exchanging experiences
and information on climate change. This will be especially beneficial for Viet Nam, because the
country’s tourism sector still has limited experience in adaptation to the impacts of climate change.
11.3Conclusion
In conclusion, tourism in Viet Nam is being affected by climate change and SLR. The potential
impacts of climate change on Viet Nam’s tourism sector are manifold, though it is suggested
that they fall into three main categories: impacts on tourism products, impacts on conditions
for tourism activity and impacts on water resources (both quantity and quality) used for tourism.
However, awareness about climate change among tourism stakeholders in Viet Nam has been
limited, despite the fact that this is considered as one of the most important factors limiting the
tourism sector’s response to climate change. The coastal zone of the country, where tourism
activities are concentrated, is already affected by climate change and SLR. Though there have
been some efforts to respond to climate change at the national level, responsibility for adapting to
and mitigating the effects of climate change must be carried by both the individual business and
broad legislative levels.
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Endnotes
1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
11Ibid.
2
Viet Nam National Administration of Tourism (2012).
12 Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment (2009).
3
Socialist Republic of Viet Nam Government Portal (2011).
13Ibid.
4
World Bank study by Dasgupta, S.; Laplante, B.; Meisner, C.;
Wheeler, D. and Yan, J. (2007).
14 MONRE (2006), cited in: Tu, Quynh, Tu and Sinh (2011).
5
Quang, N. (2012).
16 Loung, P. T. (2012, 2010, 2009, 2008).
6
Pilgrim, J. (2007).
17 Lam, N. D. (2007).
15 Socialist Republic of Viet Nam Government Portal (2011).
7Ibid.
18 Nguyen, H. D. (2007).
8Ibid.
19 For example the ‘Law of Tourism (2006);
‘Law of Cultural Heritage (2001).
9Ibid.
10 Study by the Ministry of Culture, Sport and Tourism (2010).
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T
133
Chapter 12
Climate change adaptation for
regional tourism destinations:
a case study of Victoria´s Surf Coast region
The global tourism industry is particularly vulnerable to climate change due to its strong link to
climate and natural ecosystems. The impacts of climatic changes present a range of implications
for tourism destinations, and the ability to adapt to these impacts will ultimately influence
destination’s long-term sustainability. Adaptation is critical in managing the challenges of climate
change and, unlike mitigation, can be successfully applied at the local or regional level. Adaptation
can be a response to unfavourable outcomes already occurring due to climate change, or part of a
proactive strategy to minimise future risks and/or capitalise on potential opportunities.
Research was conducted at Victoria’s Surf Coast region, in Australia, to determine future climate
change impacts and develop relevant adaptation options. The study incorporated two research
phases: a Delphi study and a tourist survey. Coastal management issues and increased risk
of bushfire were identified as the major risks associated with climate change. The associated
adaptation options that were identified included the further development of early warning
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systems for extreme events, the construction of sea walls and the need for greater awareness
and education throughout the tourism system. Potential opportunities were also identified, and
included the ability to capitalise on the emergence of the so called “green” consumer and the
potential to decrease seasonality and extend the peak summer season as regional temperatures
increase. Statistical analysis also showed that prior visitation, age, education, nationality and the
environmental worldview of respondents all played a role in determining their view of particular
adaptation options.
12.1
Climate change impacts at tourism destinations
The tourism sector faces many challenges in responding to climate change if they are to achieve
long-term sustainable development.1 Indeed, a greater degree of coordination between tourism
stakeholders is required to ensure future sustainability. Without stronger commitments and actions
by all stakeholder groups, meaningful ‘sustainable tourism’ is uncertain.2 As mentioned, tourism
is a climate dependent industry, and many tourists travel to particular destinations to enjoy
pleasant or suitable weather during their holiday periods.3 Tourism is closely linked with the natural
environment, and it is often environmental resources, such as beaches, snow, flora and fauna, etc.
that attract tourists to a particular destination.4 In some cases, weather may even determine, or
limit, a tourist’s participation in certain activities.5 Specific examples include adequate snow for
skiing or snowboarding, and sufficient waves for surfing. The effects that climate change will bring
to the Australian tourism industry are numerous and wide-ranging, and they should be thoroughly
analysed in order to best prepare destinations for an uncertain future.
The decisions made by destination managers in regard to issues of climate change will be important
in determining how to meet the changing needs of tourists. Understanding what is important to
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
the tourist, and why it is important, is useful in the design of specific tourism products. This is of
clear importance to destination managers seeking to encourage both new and repeat visitation.
In addition, many regions rely heavily on the economic benefits of tourism for both employment
and foreign exchange earnings. This is particularly true for many of the countries in the Asia and
the Pacific region, including Australia, where tourism represents approximately 2.5% of total gross
domestic product (GDP).6 Paradoxically, it is often destinations with vulnerable ecosystems that
are particularly sensitive to the impacts of climate change, such as sea level rise and extreme
weather events. Compounding this issue is the fact that many of these destinations, including
Australia, are long-haul destinations, which poses additional logistical and transportation issues.
These issues, combined with an increasing consumer backlash against the carbon emissions
created by long-haul flights, put such destinations in an increasingly difficult position. The
impacts of long-haul flights, in terms of carbon emissions, can influence the consumer’s choice of
destination, and potentially their decision to fly at all.7
In Australia, changes to climate have been associated with an increased risk of bushfires. Whilst
Australians have always lived with this risk, events in recent years have brought the devastating
effects of bushfires to public attention, and the linkage of climate change to fire risk into the public
debate. For example, in February 2009, Victoria experienced one of its worst bushfires on record,
causing unprecedented damage. The so-called “Black Saturday” fires affected much of the
state, destroying in excess of 3,500 structures, claiming over 200 lives and displacing more than
7,500 people.8 This event received global media attention,9 and for many rural communities the
process of rebuilding continues today. The Black Saturday bushfires were a sign to many that
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Victoria, and Australia as a whole, will face an increased risk of bushfires due, at least in part, to
climate change. Indeed, an Australian Government report10 predicts that the likelihood of ‘extreme’
fire danger days will increase by 12–38% by 2020.
Climate change impacts such as increased fire danger will go some way in influencing consumer
decision-making processes, effecting not only destination choice, but also travel time and holiday
activities. Australia is a long-haul destination from many of its traditional source markets, such as
Europe, North Asia and the United States of America, and this presents further challenges as a
growing number of carbon-conscious travellers wish to reduce their carbon footprint by choosing
destinations closer to home, or by not flying at all.11
12.2
Climate change adaptation at tourism destinations
Tourism is a climate dependent industry, and a suitable climate can be a major factor influencing
holiday choice.12 In addition to a suitable climate, it is often the natural assets such as beaches,
rivers or mountains which attract visitors to a particular destination. This presents major
challenges to destinations that may become less attractive or competitive due to the impacts of
climate change, and this may have major social and/or economic ramifications for regions reliant
on tourism as a source of income and employment.13 A study stated that a 2–3 ˚C rise in global
temperature could see 97% of the coral on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef bleached and 80% of
Kakadu’s wetlands gone.14 If such a situation was to prevail, this would have serious ramifications
for tourist demand, and for Australia’s regional and national economies. Therefore, the impacts
that climate change will bring to the Australian tourism industry must be thoroughly analysed in
order to best prepare destinations for an uncertain future.
Climate change adaptation for regional tourism destinations
135
As tourism destinations cannot relocate, adaptation at this level requires the “greatest ingenuity,
innovation, and government support”.15 Given that despite researchers best efforts, uncertainty
remains regarding future emissions scenarios, future mitigation, and global and regional
vulnerability; flexibility remains key to successful adaptation.16 Adaptation should be designed
to fit in with sustainable development goals, and where possible dual or multiple benefits should
be sought. Indeed, many climate change initiatives contribute to sustainable development (and
sustainable tourism development) although the key motivations may be many and varied.17 For
example, encouraging the use of rainwater tanks may not only offset decreasing rainfall brought
about by climate change, but it may also free up water supply for agriculture or other purposes, as
well as reducing running costs. Often, within the regional tourism sector, adaptation implemented
by one stakeholder will affect others. “[…] climate adaptations by each of the major actor groups in
the tourism-recreation sector are not taken in isolation as a single discrete action”.18 Consequently,
in order to place adaptation within a sustainable development context, a cooperative approach to
adaptation is required. This will commonly involve various stakeholders and often include multiple
adaptation strategies.
Despite this understanding, there is a shortage of research that investigates the potential for
adaptation at tourism destinations and a substantial lack of literature that focuses on the response
of the consumer (tourist) to any such adaptations.19 As a result, research was conducted at
Victoria’s Surf Coast region, in Australia, to determine the potential impacts of climate change on
tourism and to develop suitable adaptation options. In addition, tourists were also surveyed to
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determine their view of various adaptation options.
12.3
The Surf Coast case study
The Surf Coast region was selected for this case study as it is a major tourist destination within
the state of Victoria, Australia receiving more than 1.3 million visitors each year,20 and because
it is vulnerable to a range of climate change impacts. Australian tourism surveys21 indicate that,
of the ten most popular attractions to international visitors to Australia, eight are within a coastal
zone, including the Great Ocean Road (part of the Surf Coast). Coastal tourism is strongly reliant
on natural resources, with the aesthetic qualities of the water, along with the terrestrial and marine
settings and biodiversity all creating part of the unique resource mix that makes coastal tourism
so popular.22 However, coastal destinations, due to their very nature, are also especially vulnerable
to climate change related impacts, such as storm surge inundation and erosion.23 In addition,
tourism within the Surf Coast region is also very vulnerable to bushfires, which are forecast to
become more frequent and intense as a result of climate change.24 Many of the Surf Coast’s major
coastal townships are bound by highly bushfire susceptible forests on their northern border. A
detailed map of the Surf Coast region is presented in figure 12.1.
The Surf Coast region
Victoria is Australia’s smallest mainland state in area but the most densely populated and
urbanised. It is the second most populous Australian state after New South Wales, with an
estimated population of 5.62 million at 30 June 2012.25 Victoria contains many diverse tourism
destinations, from temperate rainforest areas of Gippsland, coastal areas such as the Great Ocean
Road, and snow-covered alpine areas.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
The Surf Coast Shire covers an area of 1,560 km2 and is located 90 minutes south-west of the state
capital Melbourne.26 The region offers a spectacular coastline, scenic rainforests and magnificent
beaches, and is one of the major tourist draw cards of Australia.27 The natural physiography of
the region is a core attractor for many tourists, with a drive along the Great Ocean Road being
on most visitors’ must do list when visiting Victoria.28 The natural environment and landscape of
the region forms the essence of its appeal, and it is vital to the long-term competitiveness of the
Surf Coast as a destination that appropriate resource stewardship exists to protect such valuable
tourism assets.29 This is largely the responsibility of public agencies such as Parks Victoria and the
Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE).
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Figure 12.1
The Surf Coast Shire
Source: Geelong Otway Tourism (2007).
The permanent population of the Surf Coast Shire is 25,870,30 however, the total population more
than trebles at peak holiday times when large numbers of holidaymakers and visitors stay in the
region.31 The Great Ocean Road, which starts in Torquay and ends at Allansford, attracts over
2.5 million travellers annually.32 The region is popular with both domestic and international tourists.
In fact, 49% of all international overnight tourists visit this destination, making it the state’s most
popular regional destination.33
Methods
This research adopted a mixed-methods approach to data collection and analysis and incorporated
both quantitative and qualitative research. This combination facilitated more in-depth research
and allowed for greater insight into the data. The research process involved two phases of data
collection: a Delphi study and a tourist survey.
Climate change adaptation for regional tourism destinations
137
The Delphi study
The first round of the Delphi study utilised a qualitative interview approach, whilst the second
round utilised an on-line survey. Using this method, qualitative information gathered through the
initial interviews was fed back to participants through an on-line survey to gain greater consensus.
Because the number of respondents in this stage of the study was small, this research was not
intended to produce statistically significant results or to represent the opinion of any larger
population. The value of a Delphi study such as this lies in the ideas it produces.
In accordance with the Delphi technique,34 the experts were asked to focus on what they
understood to be the major concerns regarding climate change impacts and also to narrow down
their ideas for appropriate adaptation. Altogether eight expert participants were selected, including
four international experts on climate change and four regional representatives with knowledge of
both climate change and Surf Coast tourism. Participants on the expert panel were associated
with various reputable organizations including the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Tourism Victoria (TV).
The first round of the Delphi study was designed to determine key themes and also to acquaint
the panellists with the research areas. The second round of the study asked the group to rate
various items identified in the previous round. A five-point Liker type scale was used to determine
respondent’s opinions of various factors. Participants were asked to rate the potential effect of
each of the climate change impacts discussed in the first round and then state whether they
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favoured or opposed the various adaptation options.
The tourist survey
The data analysed in this study was collected at the official Visitor Information Centres (VIC) at
the major tourist towns of Lorne and Torquay during October and November 2010. In addition,
arrangements were made with the tour operator, Wildlife Tours Australia (WTA) to administer the
surveys on one and two day coach tours of the Great Ocean Road, during the same period. A total
of 268 surveys were collected.
This second research phase aimed to determine tourist’s opinions of the adaptation options
developed during the Delphi process. The consumer (tourist) has been identified as a vital
ingredient in destination competitiveness and sustainability and their opinion regarding potential
adaptation options is an important consideration in the overall adaptation process. Tourists have
been shown to have a relatively high degree of adaptive capacity,35 and therefore the implications
of any adaptation option on destination appeal and consumer satisfaction must be considered.
Survey respondents were segmented using both demographic and psychographic means to
enable further analysis. Respondents were classified as anthropocentric, mid-centric or ecocentric,
dependent on their level of concern for environmental issues. It was found that visitors to the Surf
Coast generally displayed a pro-environmental, or ecocentric, attitude.36 The results were used
to determine if a respondent’s attitude was related to their opinions regarding adaptation. It was
posited that those with a more ecocentric attitude would, in general, respond more favourably to
the adaptation options put forward.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
The survey incorporated the 15 item statements of the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP), designed
in 2000 by Dunlap et al., to evaluate respondents’ environmental worldview. Researchers have
used both the original New Environmental Paradigm, and the revised New Ecological Paradigm
(NEP), in a range of tourism studies over the past twenty years, providing evidence for the reliability
of this measure.37 The mean NEP score for the Surf Coast sample was 53.22 which is consistent
with previous research.38 Analysis of the NEP results showed that visitors to the Surf Coast
demonstrated a pro-environmental attitude towards 13 of the 15 NEP items.39 This represents
an opportunity to further incorporate an educational or learning element into the region’s tourism
offerings to meet the demand of socially and environmentally aware visitors. Figure 12.2 shows
the spread of NEP scores and respondents’ classifications as anthropocentric, mid-centric or
ecocentric.40
Figure 12.2
NEP score for Surf Coast sample
18
16
14
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Frequency
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
36
38
41
43
45
Anthropocentric
47
49
51
53
55
Mid-centric
57
59
61
63
65
67
71
75
Eco-centric
Source: Jopp, R. ( 2012).
The survey results showed that there were some significant differences between different groups
when it came to the proposed adaptation options. These results are useful for predicting how the
implementation of various adaptation options would likely impact on different visitor segments.
The following section summarises the findings and outlines the preferred adaptation options for
various groups.
12.4Results
Delphi study
The first round of the Delphi study yielded a variety of responses in regard to both climate change
impacts and potential adaptation options. With regard to the potential bio-physical impacts of
climate change on tourism in the region, the most common responses surrounded the issues
of bushfires and coastal erosion. The potential impact on tourism was discussed in terms of
the likely impact on both environmental assets (i.e. beaches) and coastal infrastructure such as
Climate change adaptation for regional tourism destinations
139
roads and hotels. Other potential climate change impacts such as rising sea levels, combined
with more frequent and severe storms are also likely to impact on coastal assets and this was
widely acknowledged by the expert panel. Indeed, the issues of coastal erosion, sea level rise and
storm surge were rarely spoken about in isolation, and the connection between them was widely
acknowledged. The most commonly cited socio-economic impact likely to affect tourism in the
region was the potentially negative effect of bushfires, or coastal deterioration, on destination
appeal. This was specifically mentioned by seven of the eight members of the expert panel.
The adaptation options suggested ranged from broad over-arching business management and
policy responses to technical adaptations and/or destination specific responses. One of the
key issues that presented itself throughout the study was the need for further education and
awareness campaigns for both those within the tourism industry and tourists themselves. Whilst
the majority of impacts and adaptation responses discussed were in relation to the bio-physical
environment, socio-economic factors such as changing consumer ethics and the need for greater
awareness and education throughout the tourism system were also discussed. From a solely biophysical perspective there was almost unanimous agreement that the Surf Coast’s major threats
were fire and coastal management issues, and consequently the majority of adaptation options
focused on these two areas.
Fire presented a major risk not only to property and human life, but also to destination appeal.
Adaptation strategies widely discussed by the group included the development of early warning
systems, opening up new/different tourism areas that are less vulnerable to fire, increasing fire-
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fighting capacity and developing awareness campaigns for tourists.
In regard to coastal issues such as sea level rise, increased storm surges and coastal erosion,
a number of adaptation options were presented, such as the construction of sea walls or the
development of improved weather monitoring and early warning systems. Adaptation in this area
was seen as a priority due to the major role coastal attractions and activities play in forming the
appeal of the Surf Coast region.
Also commonly discussed was the need for effective communication of likely climate change
impacts amongst various tourism stakeholders, including tourists. Mentioned in this discussion
was appropriate future planning, including elements of so-called ‘smart design’ and the
development of appropriate action plans to better prepare for frequent and severe weather events
such as storms or bushfires. A clear link was made between the business management strategies
identified and the technical adaptations discussed. For example, there would be significant
opportunity to increase communication between tourism stakeholders given the development of
early warning systems for extreme events.
Interestingly, a range of opportunities resulting from climate change were also identified. The three
common suggestions were:
1. The potential to decrease seasonality and extend the peak summer season as regional
temperatures increase;
2. The ability to capitalise on the emergence of the so called “green” consumer; and
3. The opportunity to take market share from competing coastal destinations, such as North
Queensland, who may be adversely effected by climate change as temperatures and cyclone
activity increase.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Indeed, climate change has the potential to alter the comparative advantage of various destinations,
creating challenges for some, and opportunities for others.41
The use of a Delphi technique proved to be a valuable means of identifying and prioritising potential
adaptation options. However, before decisions can be made regarding adaptation strategies, the
options identified through the application of the Delphi study must be tested with consumers.
Ultimately, it is the tourist who decides whether or not to visit a destination, and as a consequence
it would be ill-advised to implement any major adaptation strategies without investigating their
potential impact on destination choice. Therefore, the next phase of the research involved
interviews of tourists at locations throughout the Surf Coast region, the aim being to determine
different market segments’ perceptions of the adaptation options identified in the Delphi study.
Tourist survey
An initial analysis was done of the opinion of the entire sample regarding the seven specific
adaptation options tested in the survey. In total, five of the seven adaptation options were
considered positively, with only the construction of artificial reefs for surfing or diving and the
option to make the Great Ocean Road one-way receiving negative opinion ratings. The options
to implement early warning systems for extreme events and firebreaks and/or controlled burning
received the most positive responses. However, scores for the adaptation options all ranged
between two and four, which indicated that respondents held neither a strongly positive or strongly
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negative opinion towards any of the proposed adaptations (see table 12.1 for full results).
Table 12.1
Respondents’ opinions of specific adaptation options
Adaptation option
Mean
(%)
Early warning systems for extreme events
3.91
Fire breaks/controlled burning
3.34
Re-treating
3.16
Construct sea walls/coastal defence systems
3.14
Close beaches
3.11
Construct artificial reefs
2.88
Make the Great Ocean Road one way
2.52
Overall, the sample demonstrated the most positive opinion towards the adaptation option to
develop early warning systems for extreme events. These events could be fires, floods or severe
storms, or indeed any other form of man-made or natural disaster. The potential to implement
such a system clearly exists, as similar systems were developed after the 2009 Black Saturday
bushfires in Victoria to warn people via mobile phones of impending fire danger.42
Further analysis also showed that prior visitation, age and nationality all played a significant role in
determining respondents’ opinions of the adaptation options presented. Prior visitation to the Surf
Climate change adaptation for regional tourism destinations
141
Coast region had a significant influence on respondents’ opinions regarding the implementation of
early warning systems for extreme events, with those who had visited the region previously having
a more favourable attitude towards this adaptation option than those who had not. A possible
reason for this distinction could be that respondents who had visited the region previously were
more aware of the vulnerability of the region to extreme weather events such as floods, storm surge
and bushfires. Many of these respondents who had visited the region on frequent occasions were
also Australian and therefore were more likely to have been exposed to education and awareness
campaigns regarding bushfires in particular.
Interestingly, the younger age group (18–24) demonstrated a less favourable opinion of the option
concerning firebreaks and controlled burning than the older age groups (25–44 and 45–64). Whilst
there is no obvious rationale for this result, it could be possible that the younger age group held
greater concerns concerning the impact of ‘controlled burns’ on native flora and fauna, and in
particular the risk of such fires becoming ‘out of control burns’. This was the situation at Wilsons
Promontory National Park in South-East Victoria in April 2005, where a controlled burn broke its
lines, leading to the fire burning 1920 hectares of the park and the evacuation of 600 people.43
More recently, another “controlled burn” gained extensive media attention, when the fire escaped
containment lines at Wyperfeld National Park, also in Victoria, burning 990 hectares of bush land.44
When examining the impact of nationality on responses, noticeable differences were again recorded
for firebreaks and controlled burning, with Australian respondents proving to be considerably
more positive towards this adaptation than those from Asia, North America or Europe. It would
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be safe to presume that Australian respondents understand the necessity for fire risk reduction
techniques, such as controlled burning and fire breaks, as the memories of Victoria’s disastrous
‘Black Saturday’ bushfires were still fresh in their minds.
Asian respondents were more positive than any other group toward the option of making the Great
Ocean Road one-way. Why Asian tourists would be more positive towards this option is not clear,
however it could be suggested that because many of them travel on one-way coach tours that
follow the Great Southern Touring Route,45 the benefit of being able to travel in both directions is
not given as much importance.
When examining the opinions of different NEP groups towards various adaptation options, it
was perhaps a little surprising that very little variance was found. In fact, the only adaptation to
generate a significantly different response was the option to close beaches that are affected by
sea level rise, storm surge and/or erosion. Here it was discovered that ecocentric respondents
were significantly more positive towards this option than the other groups. It could be argued that
ecocentric respondents would be more willing to ‘give up’ the amenity that the beach provides
in terms of recreational activities, whereas respondents from the other groups see beaches as an
essential component of their Surf Coast experience.
As well as gathering information on respondents’ opinions regarding adaptation, the survey
also allowed for data collection and analysis in many other areas. For example, respondents
were asked to indicate what they perceived to be their familiarity with climate change, and with
climate change adaptation. It was found that overall, respondents considered that they had only
an average understanding of climate change issues and even less understanding of the issues
surrounding adaptation. This demonstrated a need for further education and awareness when it
comes to the particular function of climate change adaptation. Finally, the research also showed
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
that females considered themselves to be significantly more knowledgeable than males in regard
to both climate change and climate change adaptation.
The results of this study demonstrated that adaptation has the potential to influence consumers’
opinion of a destination and their choice of destination. This survey was the first of its kind to
focus on tourists’ opinions regarding specific adaptation options, and provided the first look at
how adapting to climate change may impact on destination choice. An interesting extension of
this study would be to evaluate the impact of any implemented adaptation options on destination
appeal and indeed visitor numbers.
The varying degrees of knowledge visitors proclaimed to have regarding climate change and
adaptation also present significant managerial and marketing challenges for destination managers.
For example, destination managers would need to be careful not to assume all visitors have the
same level of understanding regarding climate change impacts and the need for adaptation, and
this would impact upon decisions regarding marketing campaigns and the development of on-site
interpretation and signage.
12.5Conclusion
Our understanding of the relationship between tourism and climate change continues to expand,
as too does our knowledge and understanding of the role of adaptation. Whilst considerable
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research has been conducted into the relationship between tourism and climate change, literature
on the impact that climate change adaptation will have on the consumer remains limited. Likewise,
the literature remains ambiguous regarding the degree of knowledge and understanding tourists
have regarding both climate change and adaptation.
The Surf Coast case study explored the potential impacts of climate change on tourism, and
subsequently put forward several options for adaptation. This analysis of the potential manifestation
of climate change may assist Surf Coast tourism, and other relevant stakeholders, to understand
the consequences of climate change for tourism in the region, and provide the foundation for
proactive adaptation planning. Through this research it is anticipated that industry stakeholders
will be able to better understand and manage the current and future impacts of climate change
and capitalise on any potential opportunities that may arise.
Climate change adaptation for regional tourism destinations
143
Endnotes
1
Turton, S.; Hadwen, W. and Wilson, R. (2009).
24 Cioccio, L. and Michael, E. J. (2007); DeLacy, T. and Jago, L. (2007).
2
Williams, P. W. and Ponsford, i. f. (2009).
25 State of Victoria (2013).
3
Hamilton, J. M.; Maddison, D. J. and Tol, R. S. J. (2005); Lise, W. and
Tol, R. S. J. (2002); Ritchie, J. R. and Crouch, G. I. (2003).
26 Surf Coast Shire(2008).
4
DeLacy, T. (2007).
28 Hossain, A. and Barry, T. (2003).
5
Moreno, A. and Becken, S. (2009).
29 Surf Coast Tourism (2008).
6
Tourism Research Australia (2012).
30 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013).
7
Becken, S. (2007); Dwyer, L. and Forsyth, P. (2008).
31 Geelong Tourism (2013).
8
Walters, G. and Clulow, V. (2010).
32 Surf Coast Shire (2008).
9
Suter, K. (2009).
33 Tourism Victoria (2012).
10 Australian Government Report (2009).
34 Jennings, G. (2001); Veal, A. J. (1997).
11 Dickinson, J. E.; Robbins, D. and Lumsdon, L. (2010).
35 Scott, D. and Jones, B. (2006).
12 Hamilton, J. M. et al. (2005); Lise, W. and Tol, R. S. J. (2002);
Ritchie, J. R. and Crouch, G. I. (2003).
36 Jopp, R. (2012).
14 DeLacy, T. (2007), p. 4.
37 Carmody, J. A. (2007); Dolnicar, S. and Leisch, F. (2007); Floyd, M. F.;
Jang, H. and Noe, F. P. (1997); Luo, Y. and Deng, J. (2008);
Weaver, D. B. and Lawton, L. J. (2004).
15 DeLacy, T. (2007), p. 24.
38 Carmody, J. A. (2007); Floyd, M. F. et al. (1997).
16 AGO and DEH (2005).
39 Jopp, R. (2012).
17 Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2012).
40 Jopp, R. (2012).
18 Scott, D.; DeFreitas, C. and Matzarakis, A. (2006), p.16.
41 Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2012).
19 Jopp, R.; DeLacy, T. and Mair, J. (2010).
42 Aloudat, A.; Michael, K. and Abbas, R. (2011); Liu, L. et al. (2011).
20 Tourism Alliance Victoria (2008).
43 Russell, M. (2005).
21 Henrick, B. and Johnson, L. (2000).
44 Hunter, T. (2010).
22 Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2012).
45 Australian Government (2010).
13 Council of Australian Governments (2007).
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27Ibid.
23 Voice, M.; Harvey, N. and Walsh, K. (2006).
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T
145
Chapter 13
All-year-round tourism in Alpine ski resorts:
the Australian ski industry´s response
to climate change
Globally, the ski industry is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, in particular global
warming, given the high dependence of this industry on cooler climatic conditions. Given that
climate change cannot be controlled or managed,1 it is crucial for resort operators to be aware
of this phenomenon and its potential impact on the industry as well as to design adaptation
strategies that could help to minimise the possible consequences. Australian ski resorts represent
one example of tourism destinations that are suffering from the negative impact of climate change
leading to significantly shorter winter ski seasons and a high dependency on artificial snow. In
Australia, a study identified a consistent global warming trend that has resulted in an approximately
0.8˚ C increase per annum in average temperatures over the last century.2 This leads to a negative
impact on skiing areas, since it accelerates snow melting, affects snow cover duration and has
serious implications for the sustainability of resort operations.
With increasing temperatures and less consistent snow conditions, there has been strong
competition among Australian ski resorts for a share of the market, based on the quality and
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coverage of the snow they provide.3 New Zealand, as the closest skiing region, poses a significant
threat to Australia’s market share due to New Zealand’s higher altitude resorts that are less
vulnerable to increasing temperatures.4 While some ski area managers believe that artificial
snowmaking may help to effectively adapt to climate change, the low altitude ski resorts may not
be able to rely on snowmaking, even for short-term adaptation, due to the high water and energy
consumption costs that make it financially inefficient. Instead, they may turn to the diversification
of their current product for the offering of ‘all year round’ leisure experiences.
This paper aims to explore ‘all-year-round tourism’ as a primary adaptation strategy for loweraltitude ski areas. Looking specifically at a low lying Australian ski resort located in the state
of Victoria, recommendations are proposed as to how this alpine resort and others like it may
implement such an approach to ensure a sustainable existence in an increasingly warming climate.
13.1
The future of the Australian ski industry
There is a very limited ski area in Australia, and only 0.15% of the entire continent receives regular
snow.5 In most years the Australian Alps experience a significant winter snow coverage that lasts
from a few weeks at an elevation of 1,200–1,400 m to up to four months or more at a higher
elevation of 1,800–2,200 m.6 Thus, the means of elevation, annual snowfall and vertical drops
of the Australian ski resorts are very modest by European standards and in comparison to other
resorts all over the world.7
The link between the duration of snow cover and the elevation of the resort, due to climate change,
means that resorts with lower elevation are potentially more vulnerable to the reduction of snow
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
cover. For example, in 2006 Australia’s ski industry experienced an extremely difficult year due
to very poor snowfall, in comparison to the previous nine years. The resorts at higher altitude
successfully managed this lack of snow by producing snow artificially, however for the lower
altitude resorts, 2006 was challenging: declines in both revenue and visitation were reported by
many, and this resulted in budget deficits for a number of the country’s resorts including Mount
Baw Baw, Mount Buller and Falls Creek.8
The situation will only worsen if the forecast for future climate change is taken into consideration.
Researchers developed theoretical models on the ‘best-case scenario’ and the ‘worst-case
scenario’ for Australia’s forthcoming decades.9 Later, a similar model was developed in regard
to low-impact and high-impact climate change for 2020 and 2050.10 Depending on the scenario
chosen, the length of the ski season is forecast to reduce by 55 to 50 days by 2020 when comparing
snowfall to 1990. Supporting previous studies, it is argued that the impacts of climate change will
be significantly worse for resorts situated below 1,600 m, predicting a 10 to 60% reduction of time
in which the resort will be able to offer snow related activities.11
A recent study investigated the views of Australian ski industry representatives from ski resorts, local
government and conservation organizations identified a general perception among respondents
that climate change is currently one of, if not the most important issue among stakeholders.12 The
study revealed that the two most preferred adaptation strategies were snowmaking and product
diversification that allows the resort to offer year-round tourism and leisure activities. These two
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strategies are discussed in detail below.
13.2
Adaptation strategy one: snowmaking
A significant number of studies reveal that snowmaking is the ski industry’s main adaptation
strategy.13 Snowmaking leads to higher snow levels, increased customer satisfaction and increased
revenue for the tourism industry and that it is highly beneficial for local communities from both
economic and social perspectives.14 Although the effectiveness of this strategy varies according
to individual resorts’ snowmaking capacities, infrastructure developments and elevations, the
majority of Australian ski resorts have developed snowmaking infrastructure (figure 13.1).
However, the discouraging forecasts for the future raise questions about the effectiveness of
snowmaking as a viable option for Alpine Resorts. For example, under the worst case scenario for
Australia, it would be necessary to increase the number of snow guns by at least 71% to maintain
current snow cover on slopes by 2020. This will necessitate the use of considerable additional
resources that may be financially and environmentally unsustainable.15 Moreover, snowmaking
relies on the availability of water and electricity,16 which are limited and expensive resources in
Australia. To this end, it is important to explore and develop alternative adaptation strategies for
ski operators to remain profitable in the long term, one of which is product diversification that
allows for year-round tourism activities that are not solely dependent on snow cover.17 More detail
on this approach is discussed in the following section.
Figure 13.1
Characteristics of Victorian and New South Wales ski resorts in Australia
Area of snow making
(ha)
Altitude
max
(m)
Downhill ski area
(ha)
Amount of snow
groomers
Amount
of snow
guns
Year
1991 Year
2001
Year
2008
Year
1991
Year
2001
Year
2008
Year
2001 Year
2008
Year
2008
New South Wales
Perisher Blue1
2,034
34.5
34.5
40.4
1,114
1,250 1,245
19
19
154
2,037
55
70
60
163
175
480
6
na
155
1,980
-
0.5
na
45
50
50
2
2
4
1,614
5
36
35
22
45
45
4
na
27
Mount Buller
1,805
10
40
70
162
180
180
8
15
81
Falls Creek
1,780
10
100
100
145
450
451
10
NA
210
Mount Buffalo
1,595 3.5
3.5
Closed
27
0
Closed
2
Closed
Closed
Mount Hotham
1,845
-
10
36
43
245
320
7
9
75
Mount Baw Baw
1,563
-
3
10
25
35
35
2
na
10
Lake Mountain2
1,520
-
0.03
3
-
-
-
-
-
6
Lake Stirling2
1,747
-
-
0
-
-
-
-
-
-
118
297.5
354.4
1,746
2,430
2,801
60
-
722
Victoria
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147
All-year-round tourism in Alpine ski resorts
Total
1) Perisher Blue Resort was formed by the merger of Perisher-ASmiggins and Blue Cow-Guthega Resorts in 1995.
2) No accommodation, no downhill ski facilities.
3) NA = not available.
Source: Pickering, C. M.; Castley, J. G. and Burtt, M. (2010).
13.3
Adaptation strategy two: all-year-round tourism
All-year-round tourism as an alternative adaptation strategy for ski resorts to overcome climate
change is increasingly noted in the literature. Australian ski resorts should follow European and
North American counterparts and modify their business models to provide all-year-round (or ‘green
season’) resort-based activities.18 Some studies have in fact already discovered a noticeable trend
in the Australian ski industry for ski resorts to diversify their current product mix to include summer
tourism activities.19 For example, in 2011 the Australian Alps National Parks reported the economic
benefit of summer visitation to be 40% of that of the winter season.20
There are a wide range of potential activities Australian Alpine resorts could offer to attract
visitors in the ‘green season’. Golf, mountain biking, paragliding, horseback riding, boating and
white-water rafting, bushwalking, swimming pools, and tennis courts are among the most
frequently featured in the literature. However, the implementation and development of these
activities requires significant investment, knowledge and skills. Additionally, all resorts have
different clientele, capabilities, and resources. Therefore, to successfully operate during the green
season, ski resorts have to understand the target audience they are trying to appeal to, identify the
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
range of activities which are worthwhile for investment, and finally, promote this newly positioned
resort through an effective marketing campaign.
Recent research in the Australian accommodation and alpine service hub of Jindabyne and
Thredbo Village, revealed the following changes to the business development strategies of the
Australian alpine sector:21
––
The companies in the industry are intensifying their marketing campaigns devised around
the new product and market–adjusting their focus to non-winter periods;
––
The majority of the companies are starting to realise the benefits that can be achieved from
operating on an all year-round basis;
––
Various activities, such as sports, festivals and conferences in combination with promotions
and targeted packages are becoming a major tool for attracting clients to the destination;
––
Niche targeting and providing specified services, such as pet friendly lodges or guided
mountain tours allow resorts to tap into new market segments;
––
Continuous revision of the current product mix in order to achieve competitive advantage
and create customer loyalty is evident; and
––
Companies are using an aggressive pricing policy combined with a strong marketing
campaign to draw potential clients in non-winter periods and target a larger market segment.
It was recognised the multiple benefits experienced by the resorts as a result of these changes,
including the increasing number of visitors during the summer season, the year-round employment
that motivated staff and impacted on their performance, and the continuous investment and
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further development of both the main resort and the surrounding areas.22 These findings reinforce
the viability of an all-year-round strategy as a means of adapting to climate change.
13.4
Limitations to all-year-round tourism
Although there is a lot of discussion in the literature regarding the necessity to change business
models and provide a wider range of facilities and amenities likely to attract customers in summer,
there are no specific directions or ‘guidelines’ for ski resorts explaining the most effective way
to make that transition. Despite a report by the Alpine Resorts Coordinating Council (ARCC)23
highlighting the significant progress in delivery quality and memorable experiences during summer
through festivals and events, investments in visitor facilities and promotion of summer activities,
the report still emphasizes the necessity for ski resorts to better determine the market potential
and product requirements for all-season use and develop an appropriate strategy. Thus, further
investigation is required.
Furthermore, a study highlighted that this strategy may not be as favourable or widely adopted by
the Australian industry as previously thought due to the following factors:24
––
Low financial return from summer-based season activities (summer visitors expenditure
constitutes around 15% of the expenditures in the winter season;25
––
Resorts may see the investment in new summer infrastructure as not worthwhile due to
lower financial returns in summer;
––
Social and economic costs associated with fire management in summer, along with
increased visitor safety issues, especially after the extreme bushfires that burned through
the Australian Alps in 2003 and parts of the Victoria Alps again in 2006; and
––
Lower levels of visitor satisfaction in the summer season.
All-year-round tourism in Alpine ski resorts
149
Although all these weaknesses should be acknowledged and recognised by ski resorts, the
literature maintains that the diversification strategy is an efficient response for the Australian Alps
ski resorts (especially those with low elevation), which are vulnerable to climate change. In fact,
if taking the abovementioned forecast for future climate change into consideration, this strategy
might appear to be more effective than snowmaking in the long-term. However, accurate and
strategic planning are essential to ensure such an approach is sustainable. The following case
study will investigate how a low lying Australian ski resort, located in the state of Victoria, employs
a diversification strategy to ensure a sustainable existence in an increasingly warming climate.
13.5
The case of Mount Baw Baw
While most ski resorts face similar climate change related challenges, they differ significantly
from each other due to their location, weather conditions, existing facilities and amenities, and
potential for diversification in operations. The present chapter presents the case of Mount Baw
Baw Alpine Resort and looks specifically at the strategies employed by this resort to overcome
the challenges of changing climatic conditions. Recommendations are proposed by the authors
on how this resort and those who face similar climate related circumstances might enhance their
current approach, reduce their snow dependency and make the resort financially sustainable in
the long term.
Mount Baw Baw is located in the State of Victoria, Australia and is the closest ski resort to
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Melbourne (see figure 13.2), the state’s capital city, which is situated only 2.5 hours away by car.26
Figure 13.2
Geographical location of Australian ski resorts
Source: Pickering, C. M. et al. (2010).
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
This resort is extremely vulnerable to warming temperatures given its comparatively low altitude (the
highest peak is only 1, 563 m) and the fact that this resort has only ten snow guns (in comparison
to a larger Australian resort, Falls Creek, which has 210 snow guns). This demonstrates this
resort’s lack of capacity for snowmaking as an adaptive strategy. Snowmaking in Mount Baw Baw
is inefficient, and because of this, the resort’s ski season is comparatively shorter.
According to official reports produced by the resort,27 Mount Baw Baw resort management staff
are well aware of the challenges that climate change brings to their operation and have already
introduced a wide range of different activities for the ‘green season’, such as mountain biking,
bushwalking, dry slope tubing, wellbeing centres and a number of walking tours.
13.6
Current Green Season strategies
Mount Baw Baw Alpine Resort sees its main strengths in the nature and beauty of the resort which
make it attractive for customers in all seasons. Its location and proximity to major population
centres are also seen as strong competitive advantages by the management team. Considering
this, the resort focuses on the following strategies in order to achieve a sustainable ‘green season’:
––
Cross-promotion of the Green Season to the resort’s winter market;
––
The establishment of partnerships to promote the resort as an event venue;
––
Formalisation of the relationship with Parks Victoria to achieve a more seamless visitor flow
between the National Park within which it lies and the resort;
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––
An emphasis on bicycle activities and related events via collaboration with local and state
cycling institutions such as Bicycle Victoria, Mountain Bike Victoria and Gippsland mountain
bike club;
––
The development of bushwalking trails from the Resort into the Baw Baw Plateau (main
sightseeing platform);
––
The establishment and maintenance of partnerships with industry, business and the regional
community; and
––
Active involvement in the cooperative marketing efforts of the resort’s regional and state
tourism associations.
As can be seen in the above, Mount Baw Baw employs a comprehensive approach to climate
change adaptation. First, the resort focuses on building strong collaboration among stakeholders
within the destination and with the surrounding areas. The cooperation between Mount Baw Baw
and the local community allows a greater availability of resources, knowledge and marketing
capacities. Secondly, product diversification (e.g., bushwalking trails and bicycle activities)
allow for the provision of diverse products and services that are able to cater to the needs of a
broader market. However several key issues that were highlighted earlier in this chapter are not
addressed via these strategies and the researchers therefore recommend the following practical
recommendations for both Mount Baw Baw and other Australian ski resorts faced with a similar
outlook.
13.7
All-year-round tourism in Alpine ski resorts
151
Recommendations for Alpine Ski Resorts
Developing a better understanding of key markets
The academic literature emphasises the importance of understanding heterogeneity by defining
different market segments and describing the variation in their behaviour.28 This in turn allows
organizations to provide a better ‘fit’ between product development and visitor preferences. In the
case of Mount Baw Baw, resort management, via the identification of customer needs, interests
and motives, would be better placed to develop and improve its facilities and amenities according
to its market’s demands. The development of core market segments would allow the resort to
develop a year round product offering that directly aligns with the needs of these markets and
position itself accordingly. Carefully constructed marketing campaigns that promote the resort’s
newly devised position as an all-year-round alpine resort will subsequently appeal to the needs
and motivations of viable market segments leading to a more effective and efficient marketing
spend.
Another important factor that should be taken into consideration is the visitor’s place of residence.
The majority of resort visitors are from intrastate (Victoria) with some representation of the
international visitor market and very little from other Australian states.29 Therefore, it is highly
beneficial for the resort to target intrastate visitors via the promotion of its close proximity to
Melbourne, Victoria’s capital city.30 As for international visitors, it was estimated that 25% of resort
visitors are from Asia, and this number continues to rise.31 Thus, the resort should also consider
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the needs and motives of this inbound market when further developing its green season products.
Collaboration among stakeholders
Previous research identifies that collaboration among stakeholders is vital to the success and
sustainability of ski resorts.32 While Mount Baw Baw has demonstrated a significant effort to
collaborate with other related industry stakeholders, further collaborative opportunities exist
for Mount Baw Baw should the resort want to grow and sustain its status as a successful
all-year-round alpine destination.
Cooperative marketing agreements with neighbouring destinations can provide a cost-effective
means to promote the destination’s tourism product and increase visitor awareness, length of stay
and expenditure within the region.33 According to the resort’s annual report of 2011, Mount Baw Baw
has a close relationship with the Gippsland region and actively participates in the activities of its
surrounding Local Tourism Associations. This has proven to be an effective strategy that facilitates
visitation and improves tourists’ awareness of the region.34 However, the resort is promoted as a
winter tourism destination and the main focus is on the winter activities.35 Promotional investment
in the region’s non-winter (spring, summer and autumn) marketing activities, such as official visitor
guides (OVG), mainstream media advertisements and online and social media use is advised.
Conglomerate business models such as those often seen in alpine resorts might serve as some
of the most effective adaptation strategies to future climate change, since they provide greater
access to capital and marketing resources, thus enhancing adaptive capacity.36 Opportunities
exist for the individual operators within the resort, who as a result of climate change need to modify
their business model, to cooperate and gain benefits by working together rather than perceiving
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
each other as competitors or individual entities. First, interactions and mutual assistance can
potentially facilitate the operating process and enhance business effectiveness. Second, it will
enhance the destination’s image by establishing unified objectives and cooperative commitment
between independent business units which in turn will reduce the vulnerability of the conglomerate
to the effects of climate variability.
Endnotes
1
Pickering, C. M.; Castley, J. G. and Burtt, M. (2010).
18 Pickering, C. M. and Buckley, R. (2010).
2
Hughes, L. (2003).
3
Pickering, C. M. and Hill, W. (2003).
4
Hopkins, D.; Higham, J. E. S.; and Becken, S. (2013).
19 Bicknell, S. and McManus, P. (2006); Kaján, E.
and Saarinen, J. (2013); Morrison, C. and Pickering, C. M. (2013);
Pegg, S. et al. (2012).
5
Pickering, C. M. et al. (2010).
6
Whetton, P. H.; Haylock, M. R. and Galloway, R. (1996).
7
Bicknell, S. and McManus, P. (2006); Buckley, R. C. et al. (2000).
8
Pickering, C. M. et al. (2010, 2011);
Mount Baw Baw Alpine Resort Management Board (2011).
9
Whetton, P. H. et al. (1996).
21 Pegg, S. et al. (2012).
22Ibid.
23 Alpine Resorts Coordinating Council (2009).
24 Morrison, C. and Pickering , C. M. (2013).
25 National Institute of Economic and Industry Research (2013).
10 Hennessy, K. J. et al. (2008).
26 Mount Baw Baw Alpine Resort Management Board (2010).
11Ibid.
27 Mount Baw Baw Alpine Resort’s Strategic Management Plan for
2011-2016.
12 Morrison, C. and Pickering, C. M. (2013).
13 Bicknell, S. and McManus, P. (2006); Hennessy, K. J. et al. (2008);
Morrison, C. and Pickering, C. M. (2013).
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20 National Institute of Economic and Industry Research (2013).
28 Landauer, M.; Pröbstla, U. and Haider, W. (2012).
29 Alpine Resorts Coordinating Council (2012).
14 Morrison, C. and Pickering, C. M. (2013).
30 Alpine Resorts Coordinating Council (2012).
15 Kaján, E. and Saarinen, J. (2013); Pickering, C. M. et al. (2010);
Scott, D. et al. (2003); Scott, D. et al. (2008);
Scott, D. and McBoyle, G. (2007).
31 Alpine Resorts Coordinating Council (2012).
16 Bark, R. H.; Colby, B. G. and Dominguez, F. (2010);
Scott, D. et al. (2008).
34 Mount Baw Baw Alpine Resort Management Board (2011).
17 Bicknell, S. and McManus, P. (2006); Pegg, S. et al. (2012);
Pickering, C. M. et al. (2010); Unbehaun, W. et al. (2008).
36 Scott, D. et al. (2007).
32 Morrison, C. and Pickering, C. M. (2013).
33 Palmer, A. et al. (2000).
35Ibid.
T
153
Chapter 14
Here today, gone tomorrow?
Cultural and religious embeddedness
of climate change risk perception “The very likely contribution of mean sea level rise to increased extreme coastal high water levels,
coupled with the likely increase in tropical cyclone maximum wind speed”1 are major climate change
risks facing small island destinations. Due to their limited resources, small island destinations
often rely on tourism for their economic survival. This is manifest in tourism’s contribution to GDP
in island destinations which are significantly higher than advanced and diversified economies.
For instance, it is noted that tourism’s contribution to GDP in island destinations accounts for
up to 25%, whereas in advanced economies tourism accounts for only 2% of GDP.2 Tourism
products in island destinations often surround the “3S” concepts (Sun – Sea – Sand). These three
components are directly connected to climate conditions. Variability and changes in these three
components influence both the demand and supply side of tourism.3
Social and psychological sciences have to an extent increased our understanding of attitudes,
behaviours, perceptions, intentions, and methods of coping with climate change risks. Most of
this research focuses on developed countries, and little emphasis is given to developing country
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contexts.4 Hence, perceptions, understandings of and responses to climate change in developing
countries are often given insufficient attention.5 It is noted that a research gap exists in respect to
psychological, cultural, religious, and social influences on the perceived risks of climate change,
perceived adaptive capacity and motivation to respond to these perceived risks.6
Maldives is the lowest lying country on Earth, with islands less than three metres above sea level.
Due to high tourism demand and combined with the smallness of the islands, the concentration
of population and infrastructure has been focused in high risk coastal zones. The aim of this study
was to explore how local inhabitants of a highly vulnerable tourism destination perceived climate
change risks and to understand their motivation to adapt to these perceived risks. Within the
context of Maldives, 62 interviews were conducted within three clusters of local communities of
three atolls. The local communities of Maldives were chosen because of their high dependency on
the tourism industry for employment and economic generation.
14.1
Perceptions of climate change risks
Engaging individuals with climate change has often proved difficult as perceptions of what is
considered a risk vary greatly among individuals. A number of factors influence how individuals
perceive risks, which in turn influence their motivation to address the risks. For instance, subjective
beliefs (rational or irrational) are driven by psychological and cultural factors, values, norms,
and social context.7 Thus, what is considered a risk in one cultural context may or may not be
considered a risk in another. Further, many authors found that culture mediates how individuals
perceive, interpret, and respond to risks.8 In addition, cognitive traditions or collective patterns
of thinking shape how and if individuals, groups or societies think about climate change and how
they perceive climate change as being relevant to their everyday life.9
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Affect and emotion also play an important role in individuals’ perceptions and responses to climate
change.10 For instance, strong emotional reactions, including distress and anxiety about climate
change risks and the future outlook manifest among vulnerable individuals and communities.11
Visceral reactions such as fear and anxiety can trigger ‘fight responses’,12 motivating individuals
to address these risks.
Conversely, psychological barriers can impede climate risk adaptation.13 This was seen among
the local communities of KwaZulu-Natal, Cape Town, who use psychological masking as a coping
mechanism when socio-cultural barriers manifest as limitations to addressing climate change.14
On the other hand, some adaptive measures have negative impacts on communities. For example,
the coastal Murik people of Papua New Guinea do not wish to be relocated to safer areas, as
resettlement away from the coastal zone is seen as emasculating the males.15
‘Place attachment’ also influences how individuals perceive and respond to risks. Place attachment
is defined as: “[…] positively experienced bonds, sometimes occurring without awareness, that
are developed over time from the behavioural, affective and cognitive ties between individuals
and/or groups and their socio physical environment”.16
This attachment or connection to place is thus both a physical feeling and a psychological and
socio-cultural process defined through history, ancestry, and the sense and meaning individuals
and collectives apply to a particular place.17 Where there is a strong place attachment and sense
of place among individuals and communities, there is a high level of environmental concern.18
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During a study of the Inuit community of Rigolet, Canada found that climate change is negatively
affecting feelings of place attachment by disrupting hunting, fishing, foraging, trapping, and
traveling, and causing local landscape changes which subsequently impact physical, mental, and
emotional health and well-being.19 To cope with similar climate change risks, storytelling is used
by the Iñupiat community at Point Hope Alaska.20 Exceptionalism21, denial22 and fatalism or a belief
that only God has the power over climate,23 influence how individuals perceive and respond to
climate change risks.
14.2
Case study: Maldives
Maldives is made up of 1,192 coralline islands and is divided into 21 administrative atolls, which
in turn make up seven provinces. Inhabited since the 5th century,24 the current population of
331,000 people are dispersed on 194 islands.25 The largest island, Laamu Atoll Gan
(596 hectares) is home to 2,502 local residents, whereas the smallest island, Haa-Alif Atoll
Hathifushi (5 hectares) is home to 101 local residents. Malé, the nation’s capital, is home to
one-third of the local population and a large number of expatriate employees, making it one of the
most densely populated islands on Earth.
Tourism was introduced to the country in 1972 with the opening of two resorts with a bed capacity
of 280 beds.26 Currently there are 105 individual islands operating as enclave resorts, and an
additional 74 resort islands are being developed.27 Tourism has steadily grown over the past
40 years. Motivational factors for international tourists include the beach (21%), diving/snorkelling
(21%), and the weather (15%).28 The traditional fishing industry has now been replaced with
tourism, and the country is extremely reliant on tourism for its economic survival. The fishing
industry today contributes only 2% to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Here today, gone tomorrow?
155
For centuries, Maldivians have lived in this fragile island environment without any major natural
disasters. There are no written historical records of natural disasters in the country. However,
anecdotal evidence suggests there was an episode of torrential rain during the 1800s. Recently
identified climate hazards for the country are sea swells, wind storms, heavy rainfall, storm surges,
udha (king tides), and droughts.29 It is suggested that sea level rise could submerge and erode the
Maldivian islands, converting smaller islands to sandbars and significantly reducing the usable
dry land on the larger islands.30 Yet, locals have traditionally not seen erosion as something to be
concerned about as demonstrated in the local proverb “Rashuge eh faraay girenyaa aneh faraay
vodeyne” (If one side of the island erodes, sand accretion will occur on the other side).
The 2004 Asian tsunami is recognised as the largest natural disaster local communities have faced
in living memory. The geological hazard resulted in 83 confirmed deaths, 25 missing and assumed
deaths, and the displacement of over 13,000 people from four inhabited islands.31 The vulnerability
of Maldivian tourism to natural hazards was evident from the impact of this event on the industry
and the national economy. The tsunami caused severe damage to the physical infrastructure
of many resorts, forcing nearly a quarter of the operating resorts to be closed temporarily. The
combined cost to tourism and loss of government revenue was in excess of USD 300 million.32 At
the national level, the event triggered a policy focus on disaster management, including drafting a
building code and a disaster management plan.
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Methodology
A qualitative methodology was adopted for this research. Based on island size and population
distribution within atolls, the three atolls with the largest population were selected. In-depth
interviews were conducted in atoll administrative capitals of Kaafu Atoll Malé, Seenu Atoll
Hithadhoo, and Gnaviyani Atoll Fuvahmulah. Using random sampling, 62 interviews with local
community members were carried out during April 2012 (Malé, n=22, Hithadhoo, n=20, and
Fuvahmulah, n=20). Interviews ranged between 40 minutes and one hour.
Participants were asked about their views on climate risks they were faced with, how they
considered climate change will impact them in the future, and how they planned to respond to
these risks. The question of whether cultural or religious views influenced respondents’ climate
risk perceptions was also explored.
Table 14.1 presents the demographic profile of participants. To maintain respondent confidentiality
and anonymity, further details are not disclosed. Interview excerpts are assigned identifiers based
on their locality (Malé = M, Hithadhoo = H, and Fuvahmulah = F). Except for eight interviews, all
were conducted in the local language Dhivehi. Interviews conducted in Dhivehi were translated
and transcribed by a bi-lingual researcher.
156
Table 14.1
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Demographic profile of participants
N = 62
(%)
Gender
Male
72.6
Female
27.4
Age (years)
31–45
46.8
46–60
27.4
18–30
16.1
> 60
9.7
Highest qualification
Primary
35.5
No response
17.7
Postgraduate
16.1
Vocational
12.9
9.7
Secondary
8.1
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Undergraduate
Qualitative content analysis was carried out using text analytical software Leximancer 4.
Leximancer is increasingly used as an alternative to traditional manual coding, and has been
demonstrated to have face validity, stability, reproducibility, correlative validity and functional
validity.33 A key strength of Leximancer is that in using the automated coding process with minimal
manual intervention, researcher bias is eliminated, thus increasing the reliability and validity of the
research.34 In applying Leximancer for data analysis, minimal researcher intervention was applied.
Findings
Results indicated that climate change is a new and often confused phenomenon among the
locals. Climate change, climate variability, environmental damage, and the geophysical condition
of a tsunami are commonly intertwined when discussing climate change. When asked about
their views on why climate change happens, there were diverse opinions. A small number of
respondents denied climate change and saw it as a natural process, and some inclined towards
fatalism. Generally respondents were highly knowledgeable about factors influencing climate
change, and narrated textbook versions of climate change processes: “I don’t see major changes
to climate. This is a natural cycle we have”; and “That is a scientific question. It can be both
man-made and natural […] climate change is because of global warming due to increased CFC
and carbon dioxide emission”.
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157
Current climate change risks facing island communities and their livelihoods include beach
erosion, coastal flooding, ground water salination, coral bleaching, increased heat, drought,
and increased intensity of weather patterns. As one respondent noted, “We have water issues
[…] shortages because of low rain fall during rain seasons, and with high flood, ground water
salination”. “We also face recently episodes of coral bleaching and frequency and intensity of
storm events”, another explained. Other comments focused on erosion and an increasing number
of extreme weather events: “From where my home is located, over 35 feet width of land has been
lost in entirety due to erosion. Now that is part of the sea. That is the largest climate change
related disaster that we have had where my home is located”, and “We are experiencing more
frequent extreme events annually, where we would have had a wider gap in those extreme events;
say every five or ten years. But if you look at the weather reports or the data that we gather now,
we are expecting extreme events annually”.
These risks were identified as those which will deteriorate in the future. Most significantly, coastal
erosion, flooding, and reduced rainfall impacting island communities were identified: “I believe
that our existing problems would become worse. The problems of water shortages, erosion and
flooding will become more significant”.
Despite recognition of climate risks, motivation to respond to these risks is low. Respondents cited
resource limitations as a key impediment to their response to climate adaptation requirements.
Further, a clear differentiation was made between adaptive capacity of local communities and
that of the tourism industry in tackling climate risks: “[…] industry operators do monitor the ocean
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current and construct vertical groynes to protect island from erosion. That is too costly for us”.
Culture, tradition, habit, values and norms, which relied on natural resource extraction, were
identified as issues which influenced how locals perceived climate change risks. In this context,
island communities recounted traditional norms of harvesting kashiveli (coarse white sand) from
the beach for domestic purposes, and cutting down trees for firewood as actions which attenuated
climate risk perceptions: “When it is near Ramazan time what we culturally and traditionally do is
to go and harvest kashiveli from the beach. It is pride and glory for women to clean their houses,
and to decorate their homes, backyards, surrounding areas, and roads with kashiveli. So yes, our
cultural values and views influence how we address climate change risk”.
Two polarising religious views influence how individuals perceive climate risks and how they
respond to these risks. Holding fatalistic views, some respondents saw that only God has the
power to change climate conditions. The majority of respondents saw a need to follow God’s
instructions to be proactive and save themselves from potential risks. Adaptive measures
discussed revolved around the necessity to plant trees to protect from coastal erosion and to offer
as shade from direct heat: “Climate change is a sign of the world’s end. I believe that this is a sign
of doomsday to come,” noted one respondent. “God is not going to do anything for us unless we
want to change our situation; we have to take actions to change our situation,” noted another, and
“[…] there should be more forestation, more planting of trees to adapt to climate change”. Issues
which are indirectly related to climate change, such as poor waste management, also emerged in
this research.
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14.3
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Discussion and conclusions
The primary aim of this study was to explore how local inhabitants of Maldives perceived climate
change risks and their motivation to adapt to these risks. This research demonstrates that climate
change is a novel lived experience among community members. Moreover, cultural, and religious
values influence how communities interpret and understand climate change risks. This reflects
previous research,35 which indicates that long standing traditions, culture, accepted social norms
and values influence how individuals perceived risks. This is because the cultural “tool kit”
containing diverse and often conflicting “symbolic experiences, mythic lore, and ritual practices
of a group or society create moods and motivations, ways of organizing experience and evaluating
reality, modes of regulating conduct, and ways of forming social bonds, which provide resources
for constructing strategies of action”.36
Within the context of Maldives, due to resource limitations and the high cost involved in obtaining
imported construction materials, existing laws allow island communities to mine sand and coral
for their home construction and other domestic usage. Hence, the perceived climate change risks
become a secondary issue to the everyday life of community members. This embeddedness of
cultural factors, the social context, and accepted values and norms of the destination increase the
vulnerability of the destination to climate change risks.
The Maldivians living in this low-lying nation for the past 15 centuries do not have any recollection
of major climate hazards, such as increased storminess or extreme hot temperatures. However,
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the 2004 Asian tsunami has left an emotional impact on communities and emerged as an identified
risk to the local people. However, as it was found that climate change does not evoke strong
emotional reactions among all individuals or communities.37 This appears to be the case within
the Maldivian context where there is no ‘fight response’ to address climate change. Interestingly,
this is also seen among the Tuvaluans, who do not see climate change as a reason for concern or
even a reason to migrate.38
More specifically, in relation to the perceived risks of climate change, locals were very
knowledgeable about environmental damage and linked this to climate change risks. This is
because environmental education has been part of the national primary education since the
early 1980s. Yet, at a practical level, motivation to address climate change risks such as those
which emerge from coral or sand harvesting are weak. The presence of heuristics and biases
such as what is considered an accepted norm influence risk perceptions and lead to maladaptive
responses.
The Maldivians have always been seafaring people, and individuals move from one island to
another in search of education, jobs and better availability of health services. Hence, the low place
attachment to the islands and the environment in which the individuals live in is demonstrated
through the low motivation to adapt to perceived climate risks. Climate change risk is seen as one
which is distant and temporal. Consequently locals do not have a strong motivation to change
their behavioural patterns and to adapt to the perceived risks.
Further, as was found in this study, local communities have limitations to the extent to which they
can adapt to climate risks. While some inhabited islands are eroding away with subsequent coastal
flooding, there are no higher grounds on these low-lying islands for community members to move
to. Thus it suggested that coping mechanisms using psychological barriers are in play where
Here today, gone tomorrow?
159
community members mask their fear and anxiety by leaving climate risks to fate.39 Future research
needs to compare cross-cultural and religious differences in climate change risk perceptions.
Endnotes
1
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2012), p. 18.
20 Sakakibara, C. (2008).
2
World Tourism Organization (2012).
21 Reiner, D. et al. (2006).
3
Buckley, R. and Shakeela, A. (2013).
22 McCright, A. and Dunlap, R. (2011).
4
For example see: Brody, S.; Grover, H. and Vedlitz,A. (2012);
Hallegatte, S. et al. (2011); Pidgeon, N (2012).
23 Wolf, J. and Moser, S. (2011).
5
Whitmarsh, L.; Lorenzoni, I. and O’Neill, S. (2012).
25 Department of National Planning (2013).
6
Grothmann, T. and Patt, A. (2005); Reser, J. et al. (2012);
Swim, J. et al. (2011).
26 Ministry of Tourism (1998).
7
Swim, J. et al. (2010).
8
Adger, W. et al. (2013).
9
Norgaard, K. (2011).
27 Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture (2013).
28Ibid.
29 National Disaster Management Centre, 2009;
United Nations Development Programme (2007).
10 Wolf, J. and Moser, S. (2011).
30 Leatherman, S. (1994).
11 Brakoulias, V. (2012); MacDonald, P. J.; Harper, S.; Willox, C.A.;
Edge, V. L. and Rigolet Inuit Community Government (2012).
31 Ministry of Planning and National Development (2005).
12 Turner, J. and Stets, J. (2006).
13 Gifford, R. (2011); Moser, S. (2007).
14 Leck, H.; Sutherland, C.; Scott, D. and Oelofse, G. (2011).
15 Lipset, D. (2011).
16 Brown, B. and Perkins, D. (1992), p. 284.
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24 Maniku, H. (1983).
17 Scannell, L. and Gifford, R. (2010).
18 Adger, W. et al. (2013).
19 Willox C. A. et al. (2012).
32Ibid.
33 Smith, A. and Humphreys, M. (2006).
34 Cretchley, J.; Gallois, C.; Chenery, H. and Smith, A. (2010).
35 Adger, W. et al. (2013); Swidler, A. (1986).
36 Swidler, A. (1986), p. 284.
37 Weber, E. (2006).
38 Mortreux, C. and Barnett, J. (2009).
39 Lipset, D. (2011).
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T
161
Chapter 15
Events and climate change:
an Asia and the Pacific perspective Events have always formed an important part of human society. Marking religious, personal
and communal dates, celebrations and anniversaries, events have traditionally played a major
role in community identity and religious observance.1 Today, events remain a significant part of
lives, whether they are personal events like weddings and funerals, public events like festivals
or sporting competitions, or business events such as conventions and exhibitions.2 To give an
example, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS),3 a total of 15.0 million or 86%
of the Australian population aged 15 years and over attended an event of some kind during
2009–2010.
There are various ways of categorising events, either by size and scale, or by type (sports events,
business events, festivals, community events, religious events and so on). The distinction most
commonly used is probably that who formulated a classification of events based on their size
and impacts.4 The largest events, of which there are very few world-wide, are known as ‘mega-
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events’. These are of such a scale and importance that they have a substantial impact on the local
population in the host destination, in terms of attendee numbers, transport, new infrastructure and
media coverage. Examples include the Olympic Games and the FIFA World Cup. Mega events
usually take place infrequently and tend to move locations each time they are staged. ‘Major
events’ is the term used to describe those events which are still of a significant scale, but not on
the global scale of the mega events. They often take place in the same location each year (for
example the Australian Open Tennis Championship is held in Melbourne annually), however, they
may also move around (the Formula One Grand Prix series takes place in a range of destinations
each year). ‘Minor events’, as the name implies, tend to be smaller and more localised in scale –
perhaps community or regional events that have an impact on their immediate surroundings, but
are unlikely to be to focus of international, or even national interest. Examples include the many
urban and rural community events and festivals that take place every year in most villages, towns
and cities. Festivals have been described as “themed, public celebrations”.5 For some authors,
festivals are a subset of major or minor events (depending on their size) while for others, festivals
are a category of event in their own right.6 This chapter will consider events of all types.
Although there are variations in how events are categorised, most authors agree on their economic
importance, both during the event and as a catalyst for future tourism visitation at a later date.7
Much has been written on events management, and how to plan, organise, and staff events, on
logistics, and how to stage events, and on marketing and promotion of events.8 Additionally,
most authors accept that events have a range of social and environmental impacts on their
host destinations, but research in this area is still lacking.9 Even less research has focussed on
understanding the two-way relationship between events and the environment, and practically no
research to date has considered events and climate change. This chapter aims to examine how
events may be contributing to climate change, and what they may be able to do to counter these
negative effects; and also examines some of the issues that events may face in the coming years
as a result of climate change.
162
15.1
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Projected climate change impacts
As noted, very little research has specifically examined how current and future climate changes
may impact on events of all types. A range of potential climate change impacts and speculated
was presented on how these risks may affect different types of events.10 Under the heading of
‘bio-physical risks’, she discussed how changes in rainfall levels with attendant risks of drought
or flooding could impact many outdoor events, particularly in Australia, where rainfall changes are
predicted. For example, decreased rainfall is expected in many areas,11 and whilst this may seem
good for event organisers, it brings associated difficulties with water shortages and also affects
the image of event venues, particularly those held outdoors. In contrast, increased rainfall is
expected in some parts of Northern Australia and this too could have adverse effects on events.12
It was also highlighted that changes in temperature, particularly where temperature increases are
predicted, could play havoc with the timing and location of many existing events – the example
used was the Australian Tennis Open held in Melbourne in January, traditionally a hot month
anyway.13 Other bio-physical impacts mentioned in this research included increases in severe
weather events, sea level rise and storm surges.14 All of these impacts could easily bring problems
for events, particularly those staged outdoors. Finally, climate change brings with it increased risk
of bushfires, which is a particularly concerning issue for Australia, and that bushfires, or even the
risk of bushfires, is likely to decrease destination appeal in a number of areas, as well as requiring
increased risk management and insurance for many events.15 Many music festivals in Australia
(such as Bluesfest, Peat’s Ridge Festival and Falls Festival) are held in green field sites during
the summer months where the risk of bushfire is high, and the exit and escape routes from these
venues are limited. Whilst risk and crisis management are becoming crucial to event management,
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little research on events and crises is available.
It was also emphasised that the socio-economic changes that climate change may bring for
example destination image and destination choice for visitors are both likely to be affected by a
changing climate, whether that involves rainfall or temperature changes, or perceived increased risk
of severe weather and a resulting drop in destination attractiveness.16 This may affect the viability
of tourism as an industry, which could potentially have economic ramifications. It may also result
in changes to the capacity of destinations to hold events (in terms of reduced accommodation
stock for example). Finally, consumers themselves may become more aware of the harmful effects
of travelling and may in future decide to travel less, or perhaps shorter distances. This may affect
some of the mega and major events which rely on large numbers of attendees for their profitability.
15.2
Climate change mitigation by events
Events have a substantial impact on the environment of their host destination. This may include
increased noise, waste, water and energy use, pollution and transport issues.17 These impacts are
broadly negative, although it has been suggested that events can have a positive environmental
impact by promoting best practice in environmental management, encouraging behaviour change,
and acting as a catalyst for the local community to take pride in their environment. Clearly, events
make a substantial contribution to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly through energy
use and transport to and from the events. It is interesting to note that many event organisers are
aware of the GHG emissions and are making efforts to reduce them wherever possible, and offset
those which cannot be reduced any further. The following case studies show examples of events
which are taking a stand in the face of climate change and investing time and resources into
mitigation efforts.
163
Events and climate change: an Asia and the Pacific perspective Box 15.1
Case study 1 Bluesfest
Bluesfest was one of the first music festivals in Australia to make greening an important part of the event in the 1990’s, at a time
when green issues and recycling were not commonplace at mainstream events.
“Doing the right thing is what should be done anyway and I have up till now not publicised our ongoing commitment
to social and environmental responsibility. However, I see the importance of increasing public awareness of all the
environmental issues and to lead by demonstration”.
Festival Director
Bluesfest has purpose built their own venue site as a green community. The event has won many awards both in Australia and
around the world, including the A Greener Festival Award. The organisers feel very strongly that they have a responsibility to
educate event patrons:
“We have a waste-wise message going out there… and you do see that the place is relatively neat and clean”.
Mair, J. and Laing, J. (2012)
Bluesfest has two key messages for attendees:
––
‘Waste wise - refuse, reuse, reduce, and recycle.’ This slogan is used on all festival material and promotions as well as big
––
‘Aim for zero waste and leave no trace.’ After each Bluesfest event, the land is returned to its original state with the policy
screen ads to further promote the ’waste wise’ message; and
that Bluesfest organisers are committed to the principles of environmental sustainability and that they actively pursue
opportunities to implement these principles in the management of the festival.
“We always try to find ‘green’ solutions for every situation and with the purchase of land; Bluesfest is dedicated to
the ongoing challenge of climate change issues with the intention to keep developing the area and the festival as
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sustainable as possible”
Festival Director
Some of the key mitigation strategies undertaken by Bluesfest include:
––
Installing wind and solar power;
––
Installing bio-diesel generators; and
––
Providing shuttle bus transport from the nearest rail station.
Source: www.bluesfest.com.au.
Box 15.2
Case study 2 Nelson Ecofest
Ecofest has become established as one of the biggest events for environmentally friendly products, services and messages in
New Zealand. It is a joint initiative of the Nelson City and Tasman District Councils and runs for two days each year. It has a series
of aims which highlight its importance as a platform for showcasing new green products and technologies, but also stresses the
importance of greening for society:
––
To make being green easier for everyone;
––
To not only highlight environmental issues, but also offer easy everyday actions and solutions;
––
To highlight positive environmental actions by individuals, businesses and communities;
––
To encourage others to follow positive environmental examples; and
––
To provide an alternative to rules and regulations for environmental care.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
As well as being a showcase of environmental products and services, the event itself has taken steps to ensure that it is as climate
friendly as possible. These include:
––
Arranging car pooling from local railway stations;
––
Running free shuttle buses from the town centre to the event venue; and
––
Carrying out an audit of GHG emissions through a recognised certification program, and offsetting those emissions which
cannot otherwise be reduced.
Source: www.ecofestnelsontasman.co.nz.
Box 15.3
Case study 3 Business events
There are significant issues relating to business travel and business events (meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions) in
relation to GHG emissions, in particular those associated with air travel. However, many companies and organizations are now
aware of these, and are working to improve the environmental performance of business events.
These are some examples:
––
Air travel is arguably the biggest contributor to GHG emissions associated with conference and convention attendance. In
recent years, carbon offsetting has been increasingly publicised by airlines and other transport providers as a means to
mitigate carbon emissions from air travel (Mair, J., 2011). As early as 2007, the Plastics and Chemicals Industry Association
(PACIA) announced that their annual conference would be carbon neutral, and that this would mean that the carbon emissions
generated by activities associated with the conference, including air and land travel, flights, meals and accommodation
would be off-set as part of a sponsorship deal with one of its suppliers (PACIA, 2007);
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––
Melbourne Convention and Exhibition Centre (MCEC) was the first convention centre to be awarded a six star green star
rating by the Green Buildings Council of Australia. The measures incorporated include solar hot water, purchase of energy
from renewable sources, on-site water treatment facilities, use of renewable timber and other materials, increased use of
fresh air for ventilation and use of low volatile organic components for carpets, paints, adhesives and sealants to enhance
indoor air quality and reduce the need for air conditioning (MCEC, 2012);
––
Mercure Hotels (part of the Accor Group) introduced a Carbon Neutral Conferencing scheme, which stresses that the carbon
footprint of meetings held in Mercure properties will be a small as possible. The scheme includes carbon offsetting for all
carbon emissions generated during a meeting, with the offsetting paid for by Mercure (Mercure Hotels, 2013); and
––
Hilton Worldwide has launched a carbon offset program for meetings and events at eleven selected properties in South-East
Asia (Kot, 2013). The beneficiaries of the offset program are the Borneo Rainforest Rehabilitation Project and the Cambodia
Cookstove Project (which produces and distributes an energy efficient cooking stove that uses less wood and charcoal than
traditional cooking meth.
15.3
Events and adaptation
Adaptation is a mechanism to manage risks, adjust economic activity to reduce vulnerability, and to
improve business certainty.18 “Climate adaptation research in the tourism-recreation sector is five
to seven years behind that of sectors that have been actively engaged in adaptation research”.19
The events sector appears to lag even further behind. There are three types of adaptation
– technical adaptation, business management adaptation and behavioural adaptation.20
Some examples were proposed of how each of these types of adaptation may be employed in
the events sector.21 For example, technical adaptations may include re-locating to an alternative
venue (perhaps one further away from the sea front, or one less exposed to bush fire risk), or
Events and climate change: an Asia and the Pacific perspective 165
perhaps putting a roof on a venue (to provide shelter from rain/storms and to provide shade
from the sun). In terms of business management adaptation, some suggested options include
product diversification or new pricing strategies – for example changing the timing of the
event to minimise risk, and reducing the cost of attending to compensate for potentially higher
temperatures/increased risk of storms etc.22 Finally, there may be behavioural adaptation. This is
likely to be associated with the attendee changing their behaviour to adapt to new circumstances
and perceived risks, and may take the form of adjusting the type of clothing worn or equipment
carried to the event, or may mean the attendee deciding not to attend.23 While there clearly are
adaptation options and measures available to event organisers and attendees, it seems that very
little research has even considered these options to date.
Events are usually fixed in time and duration – they take place on a particular date, for a specified
length of time, and usually in a specific location. As a result of this, events are vulnerable to the
effects of unexpected or severe weather. Table 15.1 illustrates a small snapshot of those events
which have been negatively affected over the last few years by the weather – in these cases
events were cancelled completely.
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Table 15.1
Events and festivals cancelled due to severe weather
Event/Festival
Location
Year
Reason for cancellation
Edinburgh’s Hogmanay
Scotland
2007
High winds
Sunrise Celebration
England
2008
Flooding
Asian Festival of Speed (AFOS)
Asia
2010
Typhoon
Yarra Valley Grape Grazing
Australia
2010
Bushfire
Phnom Penh Water Festival
Cambodia
2011
Flooding1
Pukkelpop Festival
Belgium
2011
Storms1
Color Run 5k Road Race
Australia
2012
Severe weather
Olympic Torch Relay
United Kingdom
2012
Heavy Rain
Cool Summer Festival
Australia
2013
Bushfire
Sled Island Music Festival
Canada
2013
Flooding
1) Denotes casualties/fatalities
Sources: Morris, S. (2007); BBC (2008); AFOS (2010); Webb, E. and Allchin, B. (2009); Sullivan, N. (2011); Batty, D. (2011); Color Run (2012); BBC (2012);
Cool Summer Festival (2013); Sled Island Festival (2013).
The ability of an individual, organization, region or nation to cope with increased vulnerability
is termed ‘adaptive capacity’. A formal definition describes adaptive capacity as the ability or
potential of a system to respond successfully to climate variability and change.24 This includes
adjustment to not only behaviour but also resource and technology use. The level of adaptive
capacity of an organization or system depends on a range of factors, including its ability to access
and use information about climate change, its ability to generate and apply various strategies for
adaptation, its ability to access resources (in terms of finance, but also skilled staff) and its ability
to use existing governance structures in a flexible way to plan to adapt.25
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
In the events context, it seems that very little has been done to date to attempt to examine the
adaptive capacity of the events sector as a whole, or even the adaptive capacity of many of the
key major events in the Asia and the Pacific. That being said, it should be acknowledged that
it is possible that some larger organizations have carried out exercises and strategic planning
for climate change without discussing in publicly. However, it is fair to say that widespread
consideration of the adaptive capacity of the events sector broadly has yet to take place. It is
likely that capacity will vary depending on the size, location and organizational structure of events
– for example, large events with financial resources, skilled and knowledgeable staff and flexible
governance structures are far more likely to be able to adapt to changing circumstances than
smaller events staged and managed by volunteers with little financial capital or other resources
available to them. The most vulnerable events will be those that are staged in locations that are
highly exposed to hazardous climate change impacts and have limited adaptive capacity. It is
also probable that community and minor events will be the least able to adapt, leaving them
highly vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change.26 Social events such as community
festivals have an important role to play in building communities and strengthening community
cohesion.27 Any reduction in the number or frequency of community events would likely have
negative implications for the local community. Other events may find that despite their willingness
and adaptive capacity, they have problems in making any changes to the location or timing of
their event, perhaps because the event requires particular infrastructure (as is the case for large
sporting events such as the Australian Open), or also because the event has to take place within
a larger calendar of events (for example the Formula One Grand Prix series has to fit in a certain
number of races within a given time period and there is very little flexibility for individual races to
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move their dates). The implications of this for the events industry are that the organisers may have
to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of continuing to run an event if climate change
impacts become troublesome.28
15.4Resilience
Resilience refers to the ability of an organization, destination or system to limit the damage caused
by a climatic event.29 There have been plenty of occasions on which events have had to make
alterations to their plans, or adapt to unexpected circumstances, without complete cancellation for
example when there is a natural disaster, economic downturn or political unrest in a destination.
Of course, most of these are not caused by climate change. However, it may be useful to consider
these as forms of ad hoc adaptation which may provide a basis or framework for planning more
long term, strategic adaptation measures. Case study 4 shows that event organisers can be very
flexible and innovative when dealing with the unexpected – in fact, event organisers show resilience
under difficult situations. Perhaps it is time to emphasise the importance of these characteristics
for the long term survival of events and festivals.
Events and climate change: an Asia and the Pacific perspective Box 15.4
167
Case study 4 Christchurch earthquake
On 4 September 2010 and again on 22 February 2011, Christchurch, New Zealand was rocked by two large earthquakes. Over
180 people were killed (almost all in the second quake), and many thousands became homeless. Naturally, the first thought in such
circumstances is to secure the safety and wellbeing of residents and visitors. However, in the aftermath of such a disaster, event
organisers have to consider whether their events can continue, and if so, what adaptation measures are required to allow the
staging of the event. Such decisions can continue for months and years following the disaster.
The CAUTHE (Council for Australasian University Tourism and Hospitality Education) annual conference was awarded to Lincoln
University in 2011. At that point, although there had been an initial earthquake, there was little anticipation of future seismic risk.
However, in the wake of the second fatal disaster, the organisers had to make some difficult decisions about how, and if, they
could continue to stage the conference. They were faced with the following issues:
––
Lack of accommodation;
––
Lack of meeting facilities;
––
Damage to transport infrastructure; and
––
Negative perceptions about Christchurch, both in terms of perceived risk and destination image.
The organisers decided to continue to stage the event, and moreover to make the event a key part of the Christchurch recovery
process. The organisers had to make changes to the planned venue, accommodation and schedule, but nevertheless, were able
to adapt and substitute and stage an excellent conference, which was hailed as a significant element of the destination’s recovery
process.
In terms of climate change adaptation, conference organisers may need to consider having a range of alternative venues and
accommodation available for delegates, in case of severe weather, or other unexpected climate-related dangers. It may even be
the case in future that organisers will no longer be able to use particular venues – those located along a beachfront may be
threatened by storm surges or coastal erosion, while those located in the countryside may become more vulnerable to bushfires
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or floods.
Although the disruption in the above case study was not a result of climate change, it represents
an excellent learning opportunity for event organisers who may have to face similar, but climaterelated, issues in the future. These experiences offer the opportunity for event organisers to
increase their resilience to similar events, whether climate change related or not. Their willingness
and ability to adapt will be crucial.
As these case studies and table 15.1 have shown, events are frequently affected by circumstances
beyond the control of the organisers, whether they are caused by severe weather, natural
disasters or other issues. Most event organisers view these risks as manageable as they only
affect individual events rarely. However, climate change and the projected risks of more frequent
and more intense severe weather events may require event organisers to review their choice
of venue and destination more often, and indeed will almost certainly require changes to the
categorisation of risk in event risk management plans. For example, severe weather disrupting an
event may have to move from the ‘unlikely’ category to becoming a more pressing concern. As
yet, organisers anecdotally do not appear to have taken this on board.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
15.5Conclusions
This chapter has considered some of the issues that events may have to face in future, given the
predictions for climate change that have been made. Whilst there has been significant research
into the changing climate, less research has considered the situation for tourism, and very little
research indeed has examined the specific context of events. It appears that there will be winners
and losers amongst events – as is likely to be the case in other sectors. For events, the need for
flexibility and resilience has always been key to successful staging and management, and these
may prove to be extremely valuable characteristics in a world where changes to the climate may
manifest themselves in dramatic, severe and unexpected ways. The adaptive capacity of events
and their organisers will also vary, with those large, professionally staffed events more likely to
be able to adapt, and to access the financial and other resources required to make changes.
Smaller, community and volunteer-led events may struggle to remain viable in future, particularly
in areas where climate-related changes increase the likelihood of severe weather events. This
is problematic in the sense that the smaller events are often a focus for community identity and
sense of place, allowing for community strengthening.
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Endnotes
1
Getz, D. (2013).
15 Mair, J. (2011).
2
Allen, J.; O’Toole, W.; Harris, R. and McDonnell, I. (2011).
16Ibid.
3
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2010).
17 Jones, M. (2010).
4
Jago, L. K. and Shaw, R. (2000).
18 Council of Australian Governments (2007).
5
Getz, D. (2005) p. 21.
19 Scott, D. et al. (2007) p. 19.
6
Allen, J. et al. (2011).
20 Scott, D.; de Freitas, C. R. and Matzarakis, A. (2006).
7
Kim, K. and Uysal, M. (2003).
21 Mair, J. (2011).
8
For a recent review of event and festival research methods and
trends, see: Mair, J. and Whitford, M. (2013).
22Ibid.
23Ibid.
9Ibid.
24 Simpson, M. et al. (2008).
10 Mair, J. (2011).
25 COAG (2007).
11 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
26 Mair, J. (2011).
12Ibid.
27 Derrett, R. (2004).
13 Mair, J. (2011).
28 Mair, J. (2011).
14 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
29 Birkmann, J. (2007).
T
169
Chapter 16
Climate change eco-actions by tourism
enterprises in Queensland, Australia
The Australian tourism industry is susceptible to the physical and socio-economic impacts of
climate change on destinations and businesses,1 particularly nature-based destinations. The
World Heritage rainforest areas of Queensland are vulnerable to cyclone impacts and fire, while
the Great Barrier Reef is affected by coral bleaching episodes. Tourism also generates greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions from transport and travel-related activities that contribute to climate change.2
In response, Australian Government departments and tourism agencies have supported carbon
mitigation strategies based on eco-efficiency actions to reduce GHG emissions and operational
costs for the travel industry, along with adaptation strategies to manage the bio-physical impacts
of climate change on destinations.3 Tourism Queensland has developed a range of tools and
programs for operators on sustainability and climate change actions.
A growing number of tourism enterprises are reducing their GHG emissions by adopting a range
of carbon mitigation measures as both a cost saving and sustainability strategy.4 There are four
mitigation strategies whereby the tourism industry can reduce GHG emissions, namely: reduce
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energy use, improve energy efficiency, increase the use of renewable energy, and carbon offsetting.5
The key mitigation strategies adopted by most tourism businesses are reducing energy use and
improving energy efficiency, along with water conservation and waste recycling measures.6
This chapter reviews carbon mitigation eco-actions adopted by environmentally certified tourism
enterprises in Queensland, including accommodation, tour operators, attractions, and convention
centres. In this chapter, “mitigation of climate change involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and to enhance carbon sinks”.7 It considers behavioural engagement by tourism
operators as “actions that are undertaken when an individual chooses to invest personal resources
(e.g., time, money, energy, etc.) into efforts to address the climate change issue’”.8
16.1
Climate change and Australian tourism
Australian tourism is susceptible to the impacts of climate change on nature-based destinations.
The rainforest areas of Queensland are vulnerable to climate change impacts through warmer
temperatures, more frequent and severe cyclones, drought and increased fire risk.9 Great Barrier
Reef tourism is vulnerable to coral bleaching, cyclone damage, increased sedimentation from
flooding, and outbreaks of Crown of Thorns starfish.10 Beaches in South-East Queensland are
damaged by coastal erosion from storm surges and flooding,11 with high costs for beach sand
replenishment in the tourism areas of the Gold Coast and Sunshine Coast.
In Australia, tourism’s GHG emissions range from 3.9% to 5.3% of total industry emissions.12
GHG emissions from marine tour operators are 70,000 t CO2e or 0.1% of the transport sector.13
A national action plan for tourism and climate change, supported by a climate change guide for
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
tourism operators, addressed carbon mitigation through specific emissions reduction practices.14
The 2011–2012 priorities for the National long-term Tourism Strategy focused on building industry
resilience to the economic impacts of climate change while increasing business adoption of
mitigation initiatives.15
The Energy Act 2011 now requires large tourism enterprises such as airlines and transport
providers to report emissions over 25,000 t CO2e. Since 1 July 2012, liable entities over this
threshold must pay a carbon tax while all tourism enterprises face higher charges for energy,
water, and materials.16
A National Tourism and Climate Change Taskforce recommended that tourism agencies develop
emissions management tools and provide advice about carbon offsets for operators. A review of
nine Australian national, state and territory tourism agencies found that they were all promoting
carbon reduction initiatives and offsetting for tourism operators.17 Tourism Queensland, as one
of the more proactive agencies, developed a range of tools and programs to support operators
in reducing their carbon emissions and costs.18 These resources included fact sheets on climate
change and carbon offsetting, website resources on sustainability and climate change, a toolkit
for coastal tourism operators to assess and address climate risks and sustainability programs
for tourism operators to improve their environmental performance and emissions reductions
(e.g., Sustainable Regions, Low Carbon Diet, EcoBiz, and ClimateSmart business clusters).19
The Queensland Tourism Industry Council (QTIC) outlined strategies for managing climate
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change risk and reducing GHG emissions.20 A climate change strategy for the Great Barrier Reef
(2007–2012; 2012–2017) included carbon mitigation actions for reef operators, an emissions
calculator, and online resources for resilient reef tourism.21 A national review by the Tourism and
Transport Forum (TTF) focused on the aviation, transport and tourism sectors’ contribution to
GHG emissions, the implications of inaction, and examples of industry action to address the risks
of climate change.22 A report outlined the economic impact of the carbon tax on the Australian
tourism industry, particularly domestic aviation and tourist accommodation, and the need to
reduce emissions to protect natural assets and improve long term competitiveness.23 However,
there has been limited research on carbon eco-actions adopted by operators.
Carbon mitigation by Queensland tourism operators
A survey of 82 marine tourism operators on the Great Barrier Reef found that less than half (41%)
saw climate change as the major environmental threat to the reef, but taking action to reduce
climate change impacts was considered important by 78% of operators.24 Only a third saw this
as their responsibility, while 43% attributed this responsibility to government. However, the
main climate actions adopted by over 80% of reef operators were recycling, risk management,
responsible waste disposal and reducing energy use. Half had also measured their carbon
footprint and more than a third had taken part in climate change workshops or sought web-based
information.25 Another study, based on interviews with 48 owners and managers of reef tourism
enterprises, found that 91% set targets for energy conservation and fuel efficiency on boats, while
66% had office energy reduction targets. However only 27% is offset emissions.26 Only a third of
reef operators provided information to their guests on energy efficiency (34%) and offsetting travel
emissions (29%). The most common motive for eco-actions by reef operators was reducing costs,
Climate change eco-actions by tourism enterprises in Queensland, Australia
171
and also environmental concern. Boat modifications by one reef tour operator were motivated by
the desire to:
––
Enhance passenger capacity and comfort;
––
Reduce fuel costs;
––
Reduce emissions; and
––
Improve climate action credentials”.27
In contrast, a study of 52 tourist resorts and hotels in the Cairns region of Queensland, Australia,
found more than half of the businesses had not adopted energy efficiency measures.28 While the
remainder had made some attempt, only 4% overall had made a significant effort and only 11.5%
used renewable energy sources. A study found similarly low levels of uptake of renewable energy
at just 9% of 108 accommodation providers surveyed throughout Queensland.29 It was found
that less than half of 50 Eco Certified accommodation providers in Australia provided website
information about their energy efficiency and carbon reduction measures.30 Most stated a goal to
reduce energy consumption, but only a quarter specified actions to achieve this. Energy efficiency
measures were specified by one-third of these eco-businesses, while alternative energy sources
were cited by 18%. Only 6% of businesses specified they participated in carbon offset programs.
An environmental performance audit of Queensland accommodation found wide variation in per
capita energy consumption at eco-resorts (7-257 MJ) and caravan parks (132-558 MJ), with some
eco-lodges consuming more electricity and water than hotels.31 Site factors and eco-efficiency
actions affected consumption rates.
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This chapter presents the results of a climate mitigation survey of environmentally certified
Queensland tourism enterprises across a number of industry sectors (i.e. accommodation,
tour operators, attractions, and convention centres). The survey identifies attitudes of tourism
enterprises to climate change; profiles carbon mitigation actions implemented; and assesses
operator motivations for adopting eco-efficiency actions.
16.2Methodology
The survey of eco-efficiency actions adopted by tourism enterprises was based on green
business practices recommended in eco-certification programs and the eco-efficiency measures
(i.e. energy, water, waste) listed in Tourism Queensland’s environmental indicators benchmark
survey in 2010.32 A website review of Tourism Queensland’s business programs on sustainability
and climate change,33 and carbon mitigation actions listed on the websites of ecotourism certified
operators was also conducted. The final survey included a list of 18 carbon mitigation actions,
along with other questions about operator motives for emissions reduction actions. There were
24 questions in the final survey in three main sections: your tourism business, climate change
(emission audits and mitigation actions), and carbon offsetting.
The survey of environmentally certified Queensland tourism operators was undertaken during
January to October 2011. Certified enterprises were the target group for this survey as
environmental certification programs recommend a range of eco-efficiency actions in energy,
water and waste reduction for operators to implement. These programs included Eco Certification
and Climate Action Certification (Ecotourism Australia); Earth Check; Green Globe; Eco Friendly
Star accommodation (AAA Tourism); EcoBiz accreditation; Planet Safe Partnership and Savannah
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Guides in North Queensland. Website databases listing certified members provided details of the
environmentally certified tourism operators in Queensland.
The survey was sent to 380 tourism operators by email or post, followed up with phone calls and
some personal interviews. Operators primarily self-completed the survey electronically or on a
hard copy form, with a small number of surveys based on face-to-face or phone interviews. Out of
380 operators contacted, some 83 surveys were completed by Queensland tourism enterprises,
with a response rate of 22%. The survey results were analysed with descriptive statistics and
frequency distributions of responses, supported by written comments by tourism operators about
the relevance of carbon mitigation measures.
16.3Results
The environmentally certified tourism enterprises
Table 16.1 provides a profile of the 83 environmentally certified Queensland tourism enterprises
that completed this survey. Respondents included: accommodation (40), tour operators (31),
attractions (8), convention centres (3), and one tourism organization. These tourism enterprises
were mainly located in the key nature-based reef and rainforest destinations of Northern (46%) and
Central (11%) Queensland and around conservation reserves or rural areas in Southern Queensland
(43%). The respondents included 16 marine tourism enterprises such as diving, kayaking, sailing,
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whale watching, and a reef aquarium. The accommodation and convention centres were located
in Brisbane, Cairns and the Gold Coast. The enterprises were small businesses (40%), medium
businesses (29%) and large businesses (31%). The survey was completed by owner/operators
(54%), managers (30%), or operations staff (16%).
Table 16.1
Profile of environmentally certified Queensland tourism enterprises
Number of Units
(%)
Accommodation
40
48
Tour operator
31
37
Attraction
8
10
Convention centre
3
4
Tourism organisation
1
1
Small business: 1–4 staff
33
40
Medium business: 5–20 staff
24
29
Large business: over 21 staff
26
31
Owner/Operator
45
54
Manager
25
30
Other1
13
16
Type of business
Size of business
Role in tourism business
173
Climate change eco-actions by tourism enterprises in Queensland, Australia
Number of Units
(%)
Age of business
Accommodation
1-78 years, mean = 17.4
Tour operator
2-38 years, mean = 15.4
Attraction
3-75 years, mean=16.72
Convention centre
7-16 years, mean = 12.6
Tourism organisation
42 years
Business certification3
Eco Certification
58
70
Eco Friendly Star
14
17
Earth Check
13
16
Climate Action Certification
9
11
Green Globe
8
10
Planet Safe Partnership (TTNQ)
8
10
Australian Automobile Association
8
10
Tourism Accreditation Australia Limited
7
8
Savannah Guides
5
6
ISO14001 EMS
3
4
Other4
7
8
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(Tourism Tropic North Queensland)
1) Other = environmental, business, operational, venue staff.
2) Mean excludes one attraction operating for 120 years.
3) Percentages add to more than 100 because some operators were certified in multiple programs.
4) Other Certification = Marine Safe (2), CRVA/Gumnut (2), EcoBiz (1), Respect our Culture (1), Nature Refuge (1).
Attitudes to climate change and reducing carbon emissions
The majority of the enterprises (88%) agreed that climate change was an important issue for
the tourism industry. They referred to impacts on the reef, weather, wildlife, and nature-based
destinations, protecting the environment, customer and industry expectations of sustainable
tourism practices, the impact of rising energy costs and the necessity for tourism businesses to
adopt eco-efficiency measures. A few respondents also commented on the carbon footprint of
travel and the impact of a carbon tax. A few operators (10%) thought climate change may be an
important tourism issue, while one operator each stated ‘not sure’ and ‘no’ on this. Comments by
those that responded ‘maybe’ indicated they wanted more research, were unsure about causes
or the credibility of climate information. They also referred to customer perceptions of climate
change, preference for environmentally friendly practices, or buying tourism products on price as
more important factors for tourism. One reef tour operator stated that “climate change will affect
us all but correct reporting is important to prevent hysteria, its (sic) being over marketed and desensitising pax (passengers)”.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Most enterprises (87%) either strongly agreed (53%) or agreed (34%) that it was important to reduce
the carbon footprint and emissions of their tourism business. Nine operators (11%) were neutral
on this point, one noting their resort development was based on being ecologically sustainable.
One accommodation manager strongly disagreed with this point, did not think climate change
was important, and noted that their only eco-efficiency measure was the installation of compact
fluorescent lamp (CFL) bulbs at their property, which was solely motivated by cost savings.
Just over 40% of tourism businesses had completed an audit of their carbon emissions/energy
usage, either with an online emissions calculator (23%) or by employing a consultant (18%). One
attraction had arranged for an energy company do an audit of their emissions. Another 34% of
tourism operators planned to do an emissions audit in the next twelve months while 28% did not
think an emissions audit was necessary for their business. One stated that they would “rather
spend AUD on action rather than audits,” while another commented “not required – NGERS
(National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Scheme) calculator reported that our emissions
level was below the threshold.” The online calculators that were used by tourism businesses to
assess their carbon emissions included: ClimateSmart (8), the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
Authority (7), EcoBiz (4), NGERS (3), Greenfleet (2), and Greenhouse Challenge Plus (2). Other
emissions calculators used were Earth Check/EC3 Global (7), Tourism Queensland (2), and the
Sustainable Regions Program (1).
Some 48 tourism enterprises (58%) had undertaken carbon reduction or green business training
or attended climate change workshops. Other types of green business learning were from forums
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(i.e. Qantas Sustainable Tourism Seminar), the Nature Refuge program, World Heritage listing,
EC3 Global, Gumnut awards for caravan parks, responsible business training and the Sustainable
Scenic Rim’s low carbon programs for tourism enterprises in South-East Queensland.34 One
rainforest attraction provided environmental awareness training for staff and contractors.
Carbon mitigation practices
Queensland tourism operators have adopted a range of carbon mitigation practices (table 16.2).
These include lower cost energy efficiency measures such as compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) or
light-emitting diode (LED) lighting (94%), low energy appliances (83%) and reducing energy use
practices such as turning off standby power (73%). Recycling and reducing solid waste (90%)
was also a key measure. More than half of the tourism enterprises were training staff (58%) or
informing visitors about reducing carbon emissions (53%). Less than half of all surveyed operators
had installed roofing insulation (47%), used room fans (46%), operated new fuel efficient transport
(39%), chose green suppliers (46%) or marketed their green actions (42%). About a quarter of
tourism operators had installed solar power, used solar/heat pump hot water heaters, implemented
other energy initiatives like conserving water, minimised energy use, gas heating or renewable
energy, or took part in carbon offsetting. Only a few tourism enterprises were using biofuels or
driving electric/hybrid-electric vehicles. One caravan park operator used electric golf buggies
to service sites within their premises. A few larger tourism businesses (12%) were purchasing
GreenPower from renewable energy. One accommodation owner stated: “Would invest in ‘Green
Electricity’ but currently way too expensive; cost should be at least on par with normal tariff
rates.” A few enterprises stated they lacked staff resources to adopt eco-actions or had difficulty
in measuring/calculating their carbon footprint.
175
Climate change eco-actions by tourism enterprises in Queensland, Australia
Overall, the average number of eco-actions adopted by the tourism enterprises was nine.
Convention centres were the most proactive, adopting eleven actions on average, followed by
attractions (ten), accommodation (eight) and tour operators (seven). Larger enterprises, and fixed
location businesses, were most likely to be implementing a range of carbon reduction actions.
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Table 16.2
Carbon mitigation actions implemented by Queensland tourism enterprises
Number of enterprises
(%)
Install energy saving CFL bulbs or LED lights
78
94
Practice recycling and minimise amount of solid waste
75
90
Purchase energy efficient appliances
69
83
Switch off appliances at the wall to reduce standby power
61
73
Train staff or volunteers on your emissions reduction actions
48
58
Provide information to visitors on reducing their emissions
44
53
Roofing insulation
39
47
Choose suppliers taking actions to reduce their emissions
38
46
Use room fans instead of air conditioners
38
46
Market the emissions reduction initiatives of your business
35
42
Operate new fuel efficient vehicles or vessels
32
3
Other energy initiatives
22
27
Carbon offsetting
21
25
Use solar or heat pump hot water waters
21
25
Install solar photovoltaic power#
20
24
Use ethanol mix or biofuels in vehicles
14
17
Drive electric cars or hybrid-electric vehicles
12
14
Purchase Green Power electricity from renewable energy
10
12
Motivations for implementing carbon mitigation practices
The survey results indicated that the main reasons for implementing carbon reduction initiatives at
environmentally certified tourism businesses (table 16.3) were:
––
Attract environmentally aware tourists to your business (82%);
––
Differentiate your business as a ‘climate friendly’ tourism product (81%);
––
Cost savings (71%);
––
Certification or permit requirement (63%);
––
Environmental regulations (36%); and
––
Other reasons (35%).
Environmental and business motivations were most important followed by cost savings and
complying with certification requirements where eco-efficiency actions were integral to these
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
schemes. The other reasons stated by tourism operators related to their personal environmental
ethic, corporate social responsibility, customer demand, being a role model, and no mains power
(Daintree). Comments included: Want to be green; want to make a difference; passionate about
the beautiful earth and nature we live in; philosophical – it is the right thing to do; to help our
environment; do the right thing; management company edict; guests today and in the future will
come to expect operators to be doing the ‘right thing’ by the environment; and acting as a role
model for other tourism operators and local residents. One attraction was “reinstating heritage
values by refurbishing original 1930s hydro” to reduce electricity charges. A few larger enterprises
(5%) mentioned a business reporting legal requirement, such as carbon emission thresholds in
the National Greenhouse Energy Reporting System (NGERS). Environmental ethics was a stronger
motive for eco-actions by smaller owner-operated enterprises, such as boutique accommodation
and nature tours.
When responses for carbon reduction actions were ranked by tourism operators from one (highest)
to four (lowest), the first ranked response was ‘other reasons,’ mainly related to environmental
ethics of owner-managers, with ‘cost savings from eco-efficiency actions’ ranked second (table
16.3). The third and fourth ranked reasons were ‘attracting environmentally aware tourists to the
business,’ and ‘being recognised as a climate friendly tourism enterprise.’ Lower ranked reasons
for carbon reduction actions were environmental regulations and permit or certification program
requirements (e.g., ecotourism, climate action). Hence, carbon reduction actions were largely
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driven by environmental ethics and business goals.
Table 16.3
Motivations for carbon mitigation by Queensland tourism enterprises
Unranked list of motivations for carbon mitigation actions
Attract environmentally aware tourists to your business
68
Differentiate your business as a ‘climate friendly’ tourism product
67
Cost savings
59
Certification or permit requirement
52
Environmental regulations
30
Other: environmental ethic, CSR, customer demand, role model, no mains power
29
Business reporting legal requirement
4
Operator motives ranked from one (highest) to four (lowest): Top six factors
1st: other: environmental ethic, CSR, customer demand, role model, no mains power
1.74
2nd: cost savings
2.32
3rd: attract environmentally aware tourists to your business
2.37
4th: differentiate your business as a ‘climate friendly’ tourism product
2.39
5th: environmental regulations
2.70
6th: certification or permit requirement
2.77
Climate change eco-actions by tourism enterprises in Queensland, Australia
177
16.4Discussion
Almost 90% of the environmentally certified Queensland enterprises believed that climate change
was an important issue for tourism. Much of the focus by operators was on the effects of climate
change on the environment and consequent impacts on tourism businesses such as rising costs
and changes in tourist demand, rather than on tourism’s contribution to the issue. There was also
some uncertainty and scepticism about the climate change issue by surveyed operators.35 However,
many saw the need for reducing the industry’s contribution to climate change and this was shown
by the overwhelming majority (87%) of respondents agreeing that it was important to reduce the
carbon emissions of their tourism businesses. This contrasted with another review, which found
only one-third of tourism operators in the Great Barrier Reef saw it as their responsibility to take
action on climate change.36 The widening publicity given to the climate change issue via Australian
Government and international publications, and the support and information on the topic provided
by Tourism Queensland37 may be responsible for these attitudes and increased uptake of carbon
mitigation measures. All participants in this study were environmentally certified, with these
programs supporting eco-efficiency actions. However, the focus for Eco Certification tends to
be more on nature conservation and education than on reducing greenhouse gas emissions.38
Many surveyed operators had undertaken green business training but fewer had completed an
emissions or energy audit, and this may be due to the relatively small size of many of these
businesses.
On average, the tourism enterprises undertook nine actions to reduce their emissions, and
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convention centres were the most proactive with an average of 11. Again, this may be a factor of
size, with the three convention centres all being classified in the ‘large business’ category. They
were also the newest of the businesses with an average age of 12.6 years, and the fact that they
were established in a period when climate change and sustainability issues were becoming more
prominent may also be pertinent. Larger enterprises, and fixed location businesses, were most
likely to be implementing a range of carbon reduction actions.
The Queensland tourism enterprises adopted a range of carbon mitigation actions in the four
categories of reducing energy use, improving energy efficiency, increasing the use of renewable
energy sources, and carbon offsetting.39 As found in related research,40 the most popular were
energy efficiency (i.e. energy saving lighting, energy efficient appliances), reducing energy use
(i.e. recycling and minimising waste), and adopting and encouraging energy conserving behaviour.
These were the easier measures to adopt and those that would provide immediate cost savings to
operators for limited outlay. Less popular measures were increasing the use of renewable energy
sources, and carbon offsetting.41 These higher cost items only deliver returns for operators over
a longer time frame. However, the finding that a quarter of respondents were using renewable
energy sources was a substantial increase on the levels found in previous studies.42 It was also
higher than other results of similarly certified operators, and indicated a progression in the uptake
of renewable energy sources by tourism enterprises during the period 2002 to 2011.43 There was
also an increase from 6% participating in a carbon offsetting program in the results to 21% in this
study.44 More than half of the surveyed operators also provided information to visitors on reducing
emissions.
The motives for carbon actions adopted by tourism enterprises focused on improving their
economic opportunities and profitability – for example being seen as a ‘climate friendly’ business,
attracting environmentally aware tourists, and creating cost savings. Slightly fewer specified
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
motives of complying with certification or permit requirements and environmental regulations.
A small number had motives related to ‘ecological responsibility’, identified as environmental
ethics from a range of comments in ‘other’ motives, such as ‘do the right thing’, ‘want to be
green’ and ‘help our environment’. However, when ranking their motives, most operators placed
environmental ethics in first place, along with differentiating their business as ‘climate friendly’
and cost savings. The latter two motives were specified as a choice in the survey whereas the
environmental ethics response came entirely from operators’ own free choice response without
prompting. Environmental ethics was also a stronger motive for eco-actions by smaller owneroperated enterprises, such as boutique accommodation and nature tours. In fact, environmental
concern may be what prompted these operators to become eco-certified.
16.5Conclusion
This chapter assessed climate change eco-actions adopted by environmentally certified tourism
enterprises in Queensland. It found the main drivers for adopting eco-friendly practices were: ownermanager’s personal environmental concern (ecological responsibility); being ‘climate friendly’,
attracting customers, and cost savings; and government regulations or tourism certification
requirements. The responses by environmentally certified enterprises indicate that dealing with
climate change is now an integral part of sustainable tourism development. They may have been
prompted to act by environmental ethics and cost savings from energy efficiency measures, but
they also believe that acting responsibly will lead to new commercial opportunities and improved
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relations with customers. Environmentally certified tourism operators may be more proactive in
adopting eco-efficiency measures than other tourism businesses. Future research on mainstream
or non-environmentally certified tourism businesses would provide a useful comparison with this
group to determine the level of uptake of carbon mitigation actions across the whole industry. This
would confirm the key motivations and drivers for adopting carbon mitigation actions in achieving
sustainable tourism at the business level. Barriers for tourism businesses in adopting climate
change eco-actions also need to be identified and addressed by government and industry tourism
bodies. The relative influence of climate or environmental policies, tourism networks and informal
learning by tourism operators about carbon reduction actions also requires further evaluation.
Climate change eco-actions by tourism enterprises in Queensland, Australia
Endnotes
1
Ruhanen, L. and Shakeela, A. (2013); Turton, S. et al. (2009, 2010);
Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2011).
21 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2010, 2012, 2012).
2
Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2007).
23 Tourism and Transport Forum (2011).
3
Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2007); Department of Resources, Energy
and Tourism (2009); Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2012);
Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Resource Centre (2009);
Turton, S. et al. (2009, 2010); Zeppel, H. (2012).
24 Zeppel, H. (2012).
4
Dalton, G. J. et al. (2007); Zeppel, H. (2012);
Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2013).
27 Zeppel, H. (2012), p. 3.
5
According to Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2007).
29 Dalton, G. J. et al. (2007).
6
Carmody, J. and Zeppel, H. (2009); Zeppel, H. (2012);
Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2012).
30 Nelson, V. (2010).
7
Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Resource Centre (2009), p. 5.
8
Sutton, S. G. and Tobin, R. C. (2011).
9
Turton, S. et al. (2009).
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10 Coghlan, A. (2011); Wilson, R. F. and Turton, S. (2011);
Zeppel, H. (2012).
22 Tourism and Transport Forum (2008).
25Ibid.
26 Biggs, D.; Ban, N. C. and Hall, C. M. (2012).
28 Curtis, I. A. (2002).
31 Warnken, J. M. et al. (2005).
32 Tourism Queensland (2010, 2010).
33 Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2011).
38 Scenic Rim Escapes (2010).
39 Turton, S. et al. (2010).
11 Steffen, W. et al. (2012).
40 Zeppel, H. (2012).
12 Dwyer, L.; Forsyth, P.; Spurr, R. and Hoque, S. (2010).
41 Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2012).
13 Byrnes, T. A. and Warnken, J. (2006).
42 Nelson, V. (2010).
14 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2008, 2009).
43 Becken, S. and Hay, J. E. (2007).
15 Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (2011).
16 Dwyer, L.; Forsyth, P.; Spurr, R. and Hoque, S. (013).
44 Carmody, J. and Zeppel, H. (2009); Dalton, G. J. et al. (2007);
Nelson, V. (2010); Warnken, J. M. et al. (2005);
Zeppel, H. (2012).
17 Zeppel, H. (2012); Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2012).
45 Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2013).
18 Tourism and Events Queensland (2013); Thomas, C. (2011);
Tourism Queensland (2011).
46 Curtis, I. A. (2002); Dalton, G. J. et al. (2007).
19 Zeppel, H. and Beaumont, N. (2012).
20 Queensland Tourism Industry Council (2008).
47 Nelson, V. (2010).
48Ibid.
179
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T
181
Chapter 17
Climate change as a major crisis event:
implications for a tropical nature based
destination In recent years there has been growing interest in the impact of crisis and disaster events on
the tourism industry. To date, the tourism literature has mainly focused on short term shocks,
generated by factors that may impact at destination, national or international levels. Examples
of recent shocks that were both destination and country wide in scale include the 2011 Bangkok
floods and the 2011 Japanese tsunami. The 9/11 terrorist attack on the United States of America
and the Global Financial Crisis (GFC) are examples of global scale shocks. Dealing with events
of this nature, scale and duration is relatively well understood.1 However, dealing with emerging
events such as climate change and peak oil,2 which will cause global scale disruptions over a
prolonged period of time, will require a new suite of response strategies.
Climate change is an example of an event that is far larger in extent, time, geographic scale and
economic cost than the events mentioned above. In dealing with long term disruptions such as
climate change, destinations will need to continually re-evaluate their product mix to ensure they
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remain competitive. For nature based destinations the problem may be even more complex as
their key natural resources undergo modification. To respond, destinations will need to adopt
adaptation strategies based on models of the type proposed in this chapter.
Climate change has the potential to radically change coastal landscapes, modify or extinguish
existing ecosystems and author a new extinction event on a scale not seen since the CretaceousPaleogene extinction event of 65 million year ago. The potential for the global climate to change
rapidly is demonstrated by the Younger Dryas event during the period 12,800 to 11,500 years ago
(12.8-11.5 ka BP)3. A sudden interruption of global warming towards the end of the last ice age,4
resulted in a fall in global temperatures by up to 8˚ C and a return to a colder global climate for
about 1,300 years (1,300 ± 70 years).5 This cold period ended suddenly and temperatures rose
by 8˚ C over a 40–50 year period in three discrete steps each lasting about five years,6 leading
to global temperatures that equal those of today. The Younger Dryas event demonstrates how
little we know about global climate patterns and how rapidly change occurs when tipping points
are reached. The ability to manage the impacts of large scale change of the nature likely to be
caused by climate change is beyond the capabilities of existing crisis and disaster management
models,7 and calls for an entirely different management approach. To undertake this analysis, the
chapter uses a new scale of crisis/disaster thinking termed disruption to give a sense of both the
magnitude and time scales involved. This chapter adopts a case study approach to consider how
climate change may affect Cairns, Australia, a coastal destination located in the tropics. Cairns
relies on its nature based attractions (the Wet Tropics rainforests and the Great Barrier Reef) to
provide both its comparative and competitive advantage, yet has largely ignored the long-term
implications of climate change on its landscapes, visitors and residents.
Disruptions are defined as events that cause a shock to the tourism system either through impacts
on the demand or supply side (or both), and which may be generated by natural events, human
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
generated events or a combination of both.8 Disruptions may be of short or long duration, and
may generate little through to significant long-term impacts. Disruptions include events that are
currently described as crisis or disaster events as well as a new class of longer term, often slowly
emerging shocks, which have the potential to fundamentally alter the equilibrium point that exists
under current conditions of demand, supply, price, environmental structures and public sector
policy settings. Examples of disruptions that have had a significant impact on the tourism industry
include the rapid growth of low cost carriers,9 ageing populations in many countries and social
media. The disruption that will be caused by climate change will be many magnitudes larger in
scale, cost and changes to travel patterns that the disruptions listed above. Major disruptions
such as climate change also have greater potential to change the shape and relationships that
definite tourism systems than the relatively short run shocks that are currently described as crisis
or disaster events by the literature.10
17.1
What we know
The scientific understanding of the potential impacts of climate change is relatively clear and
includes increased global temperatures, changes to global weather patterns, an increase in sea
levels and increasing acidification of oceans.11 These changes will flow through ecosystems,
causing significant changes to flora and fauna and creating new ecosystems that are likely to be
significantly different in scale and composition from those of today.
In recent years, considerable research has been undertaken into the implications of climate change
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in the study area.12 In a study of the likely impact of higher temperatures on species richness in the
Wet Tropics Rainforests of North-East Australia, it is estimated that a 1˚ C rise in temperature will
initiate a reduction in the range of every species of regionally-endemic vertebrate.13 If temperature
increase by 3.5˚ C it is expected that up to 30 of the 65 species surveyed will lose their core
environment and face the possibility of local extinction. If the temperature rises by 7˚ C all 65
species surveyed will be lost.
A growing amount of literature on the potential impact of increasing temperatures on the marine
environment paints a grim picture for the future health of the Great Barrier Reef14, one of Cairns’
major attractions. It was predicted that a 2˚ C increase in temperature above summer maxima
for three to four weeks will result in the region’s reefs experiencing significant coral bleaching
events.15 If temperatures exceed the current tolerance level of coral reef systems, these will begin
to rapidly degrade.
17.2
What we don’t know
What is apparent is that the region will undergo significant changes in the future and that these
changes will have a significant impact on the region’s tourism industry. What is not known is the
timing of these events and their magnitude. Current state of the art climate models show that there
is a clear causal relationship between increasing levels of greenhouse gasses,16 and changes
to global temperatures, sea levels and weather. The models do not yet agree on the extent of
temperature increase at any given level of greenhouse gasses or the precise level of sea rise at
any given level of temperature increase. As the science underpinning these models becomes more
accurate, the nature of the relationship between increased global levels of greenhouse gasses and
Climate change as a major crisis event: implications for a tropical nature based destination
183
temperature levels will become clearer and the likely level of global temperatures and sea levels
will be able to be predicted with more certainty.
There are several other important relationships that are not yet clear. These include the tipping
points that will trigger rapid increases in global temperatures and sea level rises, the ultimate
atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases and the time when this level will be reached. The
first of these unknowns, tipping points, is a factor that involves a series of scientific relationships
that are still not entirely clear to the scientific community. We do know however that there are
points that, when reached, cause rapid large scale changes in global temperatures and sea levels.
The Younger Dryas event is an example of how tipping points, when triggered, may cause rapid
climate change.
The second and third unknowns, the ultimate concentration that atmospheric greenhouse gases
will reach and the time that the ultimate concentration of greenhouse gasses will be reached,
are factors that are able to be controlled by mankind, but will require a political will that is not
yet apparent. If political leaders are able to agree to and rapidly implement policies that reduce
the level of greenhouse emission, or even wind back current levels, the most extreme impacts
of climate change at temperatures levels that are 6˚ C to 8˚ C higher than present are unlikely to
occur. The timing of changes that will be generated by increased global temperatures is largely in
the hands of global policy makers.
At a destination level, the tourism industry will be faced with a number of issues: having to cope
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with the future impacts of policy settings that are introduced by the public sector to both mitigate
and adapt to climate change; the impact that these will have on consumers, as they respond
to the costs of new public sector policy settings and begin to accept some level of personal
responsibility for the factors that generate climate change; and the impacts on landscapes that
currently comprise major tourism pull factors. In coastal areas, there will also be the impact of
rising sea levels. Naturally, the impacts of these factors on business profitability and the possibility
of firms disinvesting in significantly affected destinations must also be considered. There are far
too many unknowns in the factors outlined above to establish clear timelines of cause (impacts
of climate change) and effect (the response of firms, governments and consumers) on the tourism
industry.
The inability to develop clear timelines poses a problem for destination authorities. If a ‘waitand-see’ approach is adopted, the eventual impact may be larger than would have occurred if
early action had been taken. The United States of America, state of North Carolina appears to
have adopted a wait-and-see attitude and has outlawed “scenarios of accelerated sea level rise
unless such rates are [...] consistent with historic trends”.17 Where the opposite occurs and the
precautionary principle, described as “caution in advance,” is implemented but with an incomplete
understanding, policy settings may be overly restrictive. Both responses pose a danger for the
tourism industry.
184
17.3
Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
What destinations should do: the case of the Great Barrier Reef,
Australia
In circumstances where science is not yet able to give accurate timings but is able to predict
significant changes, destinations should begin exploring response strategies that will allow them
to increase resilience to deal with the structural disruptions that climate change will generate. In
the case of Cairns it is apparent that the quality of its major pull factors, the Great Barrier Reef
(GBR) and the Wet Tropics Rainforests will decline over time. It was identified,18 that as the quality
of the GBR declines, the certainty that tourists will continue to visit the attraction will also decline.
Of a sample of 368 respondents collected at Cairns airport in 2012, only 29.4% indicated that they
would still have visited Cairns if the GBR was affected by a major coral bleaching event described
in the questionnaire as “when the coral dies because of high water temperatures”. Almost half the
sample (51.3%) was ambivalent while 19.3% answered “no”.
At first glance, these findings appear alarming; however, they are built of perceptions of how
people may respond in the future based on their current belief set. Perceptions are just that, an
anticipated response made on the basis of current knowledge. Future knowledge may trigger a
different response. For example, if the GBR is able to continue to be marketed as the reef system
that is the world’s best managed and least impacted by climate change, it has the potential to
continue to attract future tourists because it will continue to be the best reef system available.19
Claims of this nature have a sound scientific basis.20 For first-time visitors to the reef, and who
have no personal experience benchmarks on which to compare the present with the past, the
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GBR may appear to be more interesting than to a person who had visited the GBR in the past and
has a personal experience based benchmark on which to judge the current perceived state of the
GBR. The same can be said about perceptions of rainforest quality. In a survey conducted three
months after Cyclone Larry struck the Mission Beach area, south of Cairns, in 2006 and stripped
the area’s rainforest trees of all leaves and many branches, respondents to a questionnaire on
cyclone impacts indicated they could notice substantial damage to the forest.21 When the same
questionnaire was administered twelve months later and many of the trees had partly regained
their foliage, respondents, most of whom lived in cities and had little knowledge of rainforest
ecology, reported that the rainforest looked in very good condition. A biologist or local resident
viewing the same forest would have certainly noticed the residual damage which took years to
restore. Similar findings were reported,22 following an experiment into perceptions of reef quality
that asked visitors for their opinions on a number of reefs of varying quality.
From a destination perspective, findings of the nature outlined above and the from large-scale
landscape changes that will be generated, it is probable that climate change will trigger a
response that includes a search for alternative attractions. Alternatives may include, for example,
new attractions and activities and new market segments. The following discussion will examine
a response strategy based on a model suggested,23 but adapted to include a wider range of
circumstances. In considering the following options destinations will also need to consider
impacts on competitiveness and comparative advantages, particularly where key resources are
nature based.
Climate change as a major crisis event: implications for a tropical nature based destination
185
Modelling adaptation alternatives
The adaptation strategies suggested by the following model (figure 17.1) fall into four discrete
response categories, commencing with technical adaptation, which is based on the resource
or resources that will be affected by climate change. This is followed by public sector funded
adaptation (response 2), behavioural adaptation (response 3) and business as usual with eventual
disinvestment (response 4). While depicted as four discrete responses in figure 17.1, in reality it
can be expected that at any one time multiple responses across some or all categories will be
taking place.
Figure 17.1
Possible adaptation strategies
Adaptation strategies
Response 1:
Response 2:
Response 3:
Response 4:
technical adaptation –
public sector funded
private Sector adaptation
business as usual
resource specific
adaptation – payment of
– construct new tourist
followed by
responses
subsidies
attractions
disinvestment (Business
management adaptation)
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Coral reef ecosystems
Subsidies provided by
Identify alternatives
government
water themed activities,
Disinvestment
(e.g., water sports)
Search for heat tolerant
Grants to build new
Move away from marine
Business as usual for
species
attractions
to terrestrial based
as long as possible
(i.e. artificial reef)
attractions
Promote fishing as
Annual subsidies to
an alternative
operate new attractions
Disinvestment
Build artificial reefs to
promote diving
Rainforest Attractions
Source: Australian Government and Queensland Government ( 2013).
Response 1, technical adaptation, describes responses that first seek to maintain the quality of
the resource followed by actions to reduce the level of impact while keeping the resource viable
as a system for as long as possible. In the case of the GBR, significant public sector funding has
been allocated to climate change research24 and on programs to improve water quality. The Reef
Water Quality Protection Plan25 was a joint strategy by the Queensland and federal governments
to halt and ultimately reverse the decline in reef water quality that has been adversely affecting
the reef ecosystem. Another initiative was a USD 176 million (AUD 200 million) program funded by
the Australian Government under its Caring for our Country Reef Rescue26 initiative to encourage
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
farmers to reduce the use of fertilizers and pesticides that were causing serious harm to the reef’s
ecosystem when these agents entered the sea through run-off. The Queensland Government will
also invest USD 154 million (AUD 175 million) over a five year period from 2013 on a range of
strategies to improve water quality.27
Other strategies adopted included a zoning system,28 that established sanctuaries that could be
used to rejuvenate surrounding areas if a major event such as a coral bleaching episode occurred.
Another strategy that has been discussed is seeding the GBR with coral species that have a
higher thermal tolerance level than species currently found on the reef adjacent to Cairns. Species
in some areas of Papua New Guinea, for example, have a higher thermal tolerance than corals
currently found off Cairns.
A further type of technical response could centre on promoting fish and other marine life as an
alternative reef attractions, although acidification may eventually reduce the practicability of this
response. Another potential technical adaption may be to build artificial reefs as an alternative for
divers. A further response may also be to build a large on-land based aquarium that features an
artificial reef. At first glance this appears to be an attractive proposition that not only provides an
opportunity for a new tourist attraction but provides a safe haven for remanent populations of reef
species. From a biological perspective the difficulties likely to be faced by this approach include
inbreeding of captive species, sudden loss of key species due to unanticipated events, disease
that spreads through the population and loss of biodiversity.
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In the long run, the potential success of technical responses rests on the eventual level to which
temperatures will rise. If temperature levels can be capped at a level that is below that which
causes frequent and regular coral bleaching, there is a possibility for long term recovery. If the
temperature threshold is breached, responses 2, 3 and 4 will need to be considered.
Response 2, public sector funded adaptation, centres on the propensity for governments to
introduce subsidies to cushion the impact of job losses and companies exiting an area or a specific
industry. In this instance, one response may be to offer subsidies to build new attractions and/or
pay annual subsidies to assist the destination. The danger inherent in subsidies is that price signals
are distorted and substitute attractions that may not be viable without subsidies are encouraged
to establish in the destination. While this solution may provide a short term politically desirable
solution, the long term may be a different proposition. In an article that examined the problems
that arise for the public sector subsidization of a loss making attraction, it was also warned that
the recurring cost of subsidization may be high with little overall gain. A further problem with a
response of this type is that viable alternatives may be ignored and even lost.29
Response 3, behavioural adaptation, offers the potential for more favourable outcomes and is
based on strategies that seek new attractions to replace those lost and also seek new markets
that may be attracted by new attractions. In this case, the decisions on new attractions are made
by the market, not on market distortions created when governments offer subsidies. There are
several approaches that may be followed in this response. The first is to identify alternative
resources that may be developed as a substitute for lost marine resources. In the case of the
Cairns region, this could include a shift to a more beach and water sport focus if alternative marine
activities are to be developed. It could also involve developing the region’s latent potential for food
tourism, based on its rich agricultural hinterland.30 As part of this shift in resource focus, it can
Climate change as a major crisis event: implications for a tropical nature based destination
187
be expected that parts of the region’s traditional market sectors will be lost and will have to be
replaced by new segments that will be interested in a different suite of activities and attractions.
Response 4, business as usual followed by disinvestment, can be expected to be adopted by
some tourism businesses. Under this response type, reef tour operators, for example, may elect
to operate reef trips until the quality of the resource declines to the extent that makes further
operations unprofitable. At that point, they either leave the area and relocate elsewhere or sell
their boats and exit the industry altogether. From a destination perspective, this response is the
least desirable.
As suggested earlier, it can be expected that elements of each response will occur as the climate
changes. In the least damaging scenario, temperatures may increase gradually providing the
region with a buffer period during which it can transition from its current state to a new state where
tourists are offered a different mix of activities. Unfortunately, the state of scientific knowledge is
such that we do not know when tipping points may occur and how dramatic these may be. The
rapidity of the cooling then warming that occurred during the Younger Dryas event provides a
salutary warning of how little we understand about global climate systems and how unprepared
we are for events of this magnitude.
17.4Conclusion
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The purpose of this chapter was to outline an adaptation model that suggested four categories of
responses that destinations can adopt when dealing with climate change issues. As the chapter
argues, the current understanding of events that cause shocks to the tourism system is inadequate
and a new term, ‘disruption,’ is suggested to describe not only the events usually labelled as crisis
or disaster events but also future, sometimes slow moving but large scale shocks such as climate
change.
The chapter also highlights the adaptation problems that destinations face because of the
imprecise state of scientific knowledge about tipping points and uncertainty about the eventual
level of global temperatures. Knowledge gaps of this nature and the propensity for policy makers
to adopt a wait-and-see attitude rather then apply the precautionary principle have important
implications for the tourism industry. The situation faced by Cairns, with its two major nature based
resources likely to be adversely affected by climate change, and its beachfronts lost to rising sea
levels, provides a timely warning to all destinations about the need to prepare sooner rather than
later for the coming disruption from climate change. Moreover, the potential for destinations to
lose key resources that currently comprise their suite of comparative resource advantages must
be considered and alternatives sort.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Endnotes
1
Prideaux, B. (2013).
16 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013).
2
Becken, S. (2011).
17 The Economist (2013), p. 34.
3
Ka BP: kilo annum before present.
18 Prideaux, B.; Sakata, H. and Thompson, M. (2013).
4
Berger, W. H. (1990).
19 Ramis, M. and Prideaux, B. (2013).
5
Alley, R. (2000).
20 Chin, A. et al. (2008).
6Ibid.
21 Prideaux, B. et al. (2007).
7
Faulkner, B. (2001).
22 Ramis, M. and Prideaux, B. (2013).
8
Prideaux, B. (2013).
23 Prideaux, B. et al. (2013).
9
Whyte, R.; Prideaux, B. and Sakata, H. (2012).
24 Marine and Tropical Science Research Fund (2006).
10 Ritchie, B. (2009).
25 Australian Government and Queensland Government (2013).
11 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
26 Commonwealth Government (n.d.).
12 Turton, D. S. et al. (2010); Ramis, M. and Prideaux, B. (2013);
Prideaux, B.; Coghlan, A. and McNamara, K. E. (2010).
27 Butler, M. (2013).
13 Williams et al. (2003)
29 McKercher, B. (2001).
14 Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999).
30 Thompson, M. and Prideaux, B. (2010); Thompson, M. (2013).
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15 Hoegh-Gulberg, O. et al. (2007).
28 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2009).
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Chapter 18
Conclusions and recommendations Climate change is an issue which is going to affect the entire Asia and the Pacific region over the
coming decades. Though specific impacts will vary, countries will have to engage in individual and
joint efforts to both mitigate and adapt to the impacts occurring as a result of global warming and
other climatic changes.
Responding to climate change requires understanding climate change, and a commitment to take
necessary adaptation and mitigation measures. “A wide array of adaptation options is available,
but more extensive adaptation than is currently occurring is required to reduce vulnerability to
climate change. There are barriers, limits and costs, which are not fully understood”.1 Similarly,
“no single technology can provide all of the mitigation potential in any sector. The economic
mitigation potential […] can only be achieved when adequate policies are in place and barriers
removed.” Adaptation and mitigation, according to the IPCC2 can do much to complement each
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other and together reduce the risks of climate change.
Barriers to addressing climate change risks for the tourism sector include a lack of human capital
and institutions, governance, national income and technology.3 National circumstances and local,
sectorial contexts play an important role, as can be seen from the examples presented in this
publication.
However, overcoming existing barriers will be an important step in ensuring the sustainability of
the tourism sector. Even beyond this, the IPCC states that climate change effects may impede
the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.4 It is essential therefore that the tourism
sector, with its strong potential to create jobs and reduce disparities, is developed in a responsible
way, taking into account the long-term risks associated with not addressing the impacts of climate
change.
Specifically, this will mean mitigating greenhouse gas emissions (especially from transport and
accommodation), and adapting the industry to changing climatic conditions. It will also mean
applying existing and new technology to improve energy efficiency, and securing financial
resources to help poorer regions and countries.5
The tourism industry and destinations need to take a leading role in implementing concrete
measures to mitigate climate change throughout the tourism value chain. This is important not only
for destinations but also for travellers themselves.6 Destinations should encourage investment in
energy efficiency, in order to reduce the carbon footprint of the sector; and integrate tourism into
national, regional and local climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.7
The sector also needs to recognise and do all it can to conserve biodiversity, natural ecosystems
and landscapes not only for today but for future generations, and implement technological
breakthroughs such as pollution reducers to achieve an increasingly carbon free environment.8
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Finally, nothing will be achieved without raising awareness among travellers and local populations
about climate change induced impacts, and incorporating their ideas and suggestions into
adaptation and mitigation efforts.9
18.1
Main issues covered in this publication
This publication has examined tourism and climate change in the wider Asia and the Pacific
region. Chapters have examined the risks to small island developing states, ski destinations and
specific locations including Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Nepal and Viet Nam.
Other chapters have focused on policy, operator-level eco-actions and air travel emissions; still
others on events and personal perceptions of risk. Finally, it was suggested that climate change
should be seen as a major crisis event or “disruption,” requiring a complete change of thinking in
the tourism sector.
18.2Recommendations
The authors of this publication have presented a number of key recommendations for addressing
climate change in the region. Some of these recommendations are broad and industry-applicable,
while others relate to the subject matter covered in individual chapters. These recommendations
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are outlined below:
Hall (chapter 1) notes certain gaps in current climate change research, and suggests that future
research should focus on the relative capacities of technological, managerial and behavioural
approaches to emissions mitigation and reduction.
In chapter 2, Su and Hall also outline existing research gaps, this time within the region. They
note that many studies to date have been focused on Europe and North America, and suggest
that future studies should address climate change and tourism in Asia and the Pacific. They also
highlight that there is a research gap in the field of emissions, with more examination needed into
emissions and responses from non-transport and accommodation sectors.
Noakes, Jiang and DeLacy emphasise in chapter 3 that a concerted effort is needed to strengthen
the resilience of the tourism sector in Small Island Developing States and Territories to climate
change related risks and challenges. They also suggest that the toolkit framework developed and
discussed in the chapter requires more testing in order for it to be operationalised.
Following their analysis of regional policies, Ruhanen and Cocolas (chapter 4) note that a challenge
remains across the region to integrate climate change implications into tourism policy.
Gössling (in chapter 5) warns of the dangers of inaction in the face of climate change. He suggests
that tourism and transport policy makers must make a choice between witnessing the sector
contributing to rapidly rising emissions or taking a serious stance on altering business practices
to transition towards a low-carbon tourism sector.
Conclusions and recommendations
191
Jiang, Cao and DeLacy (chapter 6) suggest that comprehensive destination level vulnerability
assessments are needed to investigate how climate change risks and impacts are relevant to
the localised context of the destination’s system. They also note that more research needs to
be conducted to fully understand the complexity of governance across the interactions between
tourism development, environmental conservation and climate change.
In chapter 7, after giving a summary of Australia’s climate change policies since 1988, Buultjens
and White note that Australian’s tourism industry will bear a proportion of the cost of inaction
unless a federal climate change policy is implemented which more meaningfully addresses both
adaptation to and mitigation of climate change.
Haque Howlader (chapter 8) highlights the notion that managing climate change should be a
joint effort between concerned parties, involving collaboration between government ministries
and other stakeholders.
In chapter 9, Bhandari and Van Strien emphasise the need for stronger integration of tourism into
climate change adaptation strategies.
Carter et al (chapter 10), in their chapter on Cambodia, recommend that tourism should further be
integrated into the National Climate Change Committee’s work. They also suggest that Cambodia
should undertake a comprehensive assessment of climate change’s impacts on the tourism
sector and confirm adaptation needs and policy directions. Furthermore, the authors recommend
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that climate change considerations be included in all new developments, and mandated by the
government in line with an overarching commitment to sustainable tourism. Again, a collaborative
approach between stakeholders (in this case the public and private sectors) is recommended in
order to generate joint, sector-wide climate change adaptation strategies.
The recommendation of addressing climate change in collaborative manner is also reiterated by
Pham Trung Luong in chapter 11, who emphasises that the responsibility for adapting to and
mitigating the effects of climate change must be carried jointly by individual businesses and
legislative levels.
Jopp (chapter 12) presents another possible avenue of research, noting that there is limited
knowledge on the impact of climate change adaption on the consumer. He also suggests that
there is a lack of research into the degree of knowledge and understanding that tourists have
regarding both climate change and adaptation.
In chapter 13’s discussion about all-year-round tourism at alpine ski resorts in the face of
climate change, Walters and Golubovskaya note that ski resort facilities and amenities should
be improved to meet customer demands. Again, they emphasise collaboration between industry
stakeholders, suggesting that cooperative marketing agreements with neighbouring destinations
would be beneficial, as these can provide a cost-effective means to promote the destination’s
tourism product, increase visitor awareness, length of stay and expenditure within the region. The
authors also recommend that mutual assistance among climate-affected destinations can help to
establish unified objectives, demonstrate cooperative commitment and reduce vulnerability of the
conglomerate to the effects of climate variability.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Shakeela, in chapter 14, recommends future research opportunities into cross cultural and
religious differences in climate change risk perceptions, while Mair (chapter 15) suggests that
more flexibility and adaptability are needed in the events sector if it is to be sustainable in the face
of global climate change related impacts.
In chapter 16, Zeppel and Beaumont suggest that future research could address why certain
businesses have or have not adapted eco-actions, as well as the barriers related to this. They
also suggest that the influence of policies, tourism networks and informal learning by tourism
operators (about carbon reduction actions) should be investigated.
Finally, Prideaux (chapter 17) makes the recommendation that to increase our understanding of
the impact of climate change on the tourism sector, the term “disruption” should be used. He
emphasises that it is time for the tourism industry to stop its “wait and see” attitude and seriously
start taking precautionary measures. As he notes, the sector should prepare sooner rather than
later for the continued upcoming disruption of climate change, or else risk losing the key resources
on which it so heavily relies.
18.3
Looking forward
At the time this volume went to print the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) had
just released the second of three instalments of the IPCC’s fifth assessment of climate change;
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Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. This report has focused on the
latest assessments of impacts, adaptation and vulnerability associated with climate change.
Key messages of previous reports were echoed including the fact that society must adapt, and
become resilient against a changing climate. The report claims that “nobody on this planet is going
to be untouched by the impacts of climate change” and that “if the world doesn’t do anything
about decreasing the emission of greenhouse gases, the extent of climate change will continue
to increase”. In a tourism context, the initiatives presented in this volume are just a start to the
ongoing challenges associated with climate change in Asia and the Pacific.
Endnotes
1
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013), p. 4.
5
2
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007).
6Ibid.
World Tourism Organization (2007).
3Ibid.
7Ibid.
4Ibid.
8Ibid.
9Ibid.
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Glossary
Accreditation: an auditory or assessment process against set
performance measures and criteria.
Acidification (ocean): decreases in the pH of the Earth’s
oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere.
Adaptation: seeking to reduce the vulnerability of biological or
socio-ecological systems to climate change effects.
Adaptive capacity: the capacity of a system (biological or
socio-ecological) to adapt to change.
Alternative energy sources: an energy source that is
alternative to fossil fuel such as wind, solar and thermal.
Beach erosion: the removal of beach or dune sediments from
wave and tidal currents and drainage
Benchmarking: comparing performance against a set of
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metrics or best practices.
Biodiversity: the degree of variation of life.
Bio-physical environment: is the biotic and abiotic
surrounding of an organism or population, and includes
the factors that have an influence in their survival,
development and evolution.
Capacity building (capacity development): those barriers
that inhibit people and/or organizations from achieving
their development goals and enhancing the abilities that
will allow them to achieve measurable and sustainable
results.
Carbon abatement: a reduction in the amount of carbon
dioxide that is produced when coal and oil are burned.
Carbon dioxide (CO2): a naturally occurring chemical
compound composed of two oxygen atoms double
bonded to a single carbon atom.
Carbon emissions: the release of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere as a result of burning fossil fuels such as
gas, coal or oil.
Carbon footprint: the outputs of carbon that an individual is
responsible for.
Carbon neutralisation (zero carbon footprint): net zero
carbon emissions.
Carbon offsetting: a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide
Carbon pricing/trading (emissions trading): a market based
approach that provides incentives for achieving a
reduction in carbon emissions and/or pollutants.
Carbon sinks: a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates
and stores some carbon containing chemical compound
for an indefinite period.
Carbon tax: a form of carbon pricing through a tax on the
carbon content of fuels.
Carrying capacity: the maximum tolerance that the
environment or species can sustain indefinitely given the
food, water, habitat and other necessities available in
the environment.
Certification program: an assurance to the public of an
organization’s performance on a range of particular
criteria.
Climate: the weather averaged over a period of time; the
conditions one would anticipate experiencing at a
specific destination and time.
Climate change: a change in the state of the climate that can
be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests), by changes
in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and
that persists for an extended period, typically decades
or longer.
Climate dependent industry: tourism is considered a climate
dependent industry as the weather and weather patterns
are key criteria in a destinations’ attractiveness.
Climate variability: variations in the mean state and other
statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence
of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all temporal and
spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events.
Coral bleaching: a stress condition in reef coral involving a
breakdown in the symbiotic relationship between corals
and unicellular algae.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): a form of corporate
self-regulation, monitoring and compliance with laws,
ethical standards and international norms.
Critical natural habitats (CNHs): a habitat area that is critical
to an endangered species.
Cyclone: the general term for a variety of low pressure system
or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for
types, such as tropical cyclones, extra tropical cyclones
or to offset an emission made elsewhere.
and tornadoes.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Desertification: a form of land degradation where a relatively
low-lying coastal countries that tend to share similar
losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and
sustainable development challenges, including small but
wildlife
growing populations, limited resources, remoteness,
Disaster management (disaster risk management):
the discipline of dealing with and avoiding natural and
manmade disasters through preparedness, response
and recovery,
Eco-efficiency: a management philosophy that encourages
business to search for environmental improvements that
yield parallel economic benefits.
El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): is a naturally occurring
temporary change in the climate of the Pacific ocean
around the equator.
Extreme weather events: unusual, severe or unseasonal
weather at the extremes of historical distribution.
Food security: the ongoing availability of food.
Fossil fuels: fuels formed by natural processes and include
coal, oil and gas.
Global warming: an unequivocal and continuing rise in the
average temperature of Earth’s climate system.
Green consumerism (also called ethical consumption,
ethical purchasing, moral purchasing, ethical
sourcing, ethical shopping): recycling, and using
eco-friendly products that minimize damage to the
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Small Island Developing States and Territories (SIDST):
dry land region becomes increasingly arid, typically
environment.
Greenhouse gas: a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and
emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This
process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse
effect.
Kyoto Protocol: the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change is an international treaty that sets
binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases.
Mitigation: actions to limit the magnitude and/or rate of
long-term climate change generally involving reductions
in human (anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse
gases (GHGs).
Renewable energy: energy that comes from resources which
are naturally replenished such as sunlight, rain, wind,
tides, waves and geothermal heat.
Resilience: the capacity to recover from adversity and the
speed in which recovery occurs.
Salinity: the presence of salt in the land surface, in soil or
rocks, or dissolved in water in our rivers or groundwater.
Sea level rise: rising sea levels caused by thermal expansion
(ocean water expanding as it heats up) and additional
water flows into the oceans from ice that melts on land.
susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to
external shocks, excessive dependence on international
trade, and fragile environments.
Vulnerability: the ability to withstand the effects of a hostile
environment.
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List of acronyms and abbreviations
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ABARE Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics
ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
AEZs Agro-Ecological Zones
ALP Australian Labor Party
APPCED
Asia-Pacific Parliamentarians’ Conference on Environment and Development
ARCC Alpine Resorts Coordinating Council
BAU Business as Usual
BCCRF
Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund
BPC
Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation
CCEP Climate Change Enabling Project
CCTF Climate Change Trust Fund
CDA Cox’s Bazar Development Authority
CDRI Cambodia Development Research Institute
CFCChlorofluorocarbon
CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp
CH4Methane
CNTA
China National Tourism Administration
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
COAG Council of Australian Governments
CPRS
Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme
CRDT Cambodian Rural Development Team
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
DIICCSRTE Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate Change, Science, Research and Tertiary Education
DNP Department of National Planning
DRET
Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism
DSE Department of Sustainability and Environment
EC
Environment China
EC European Commission
ETS Emissions Trading Scheme
EU European Union
GBRMPA Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GEF Global Environment Fund
GFC Global Financial Crisis
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
GHG
Greenhouse Gas
HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons
ICCTF Indonesian Climate Change Trust Fund
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
IEA
International Energy Agency
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IMF
International Monetary Fund
IUCN International Union of Conservation of Nature
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
JCG
Jiuzhaigou County Government
JNNRA
Jiuzhaigou National Natural Reserve Administration
KP Kyoto Protocol
LDCF Least Developed Countries Fund
LED Light Emitting Diode
LGED Local Government and Engineering Department
LNP Liberal National Coalition Party
MOEF Ministry of Environment and Forests
MONRE Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment
MRV Measurement Reporting and Verification
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MtMegatones
MTAC Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NCCAP National Climate Change Action Plan
NCCARF
National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility
NDMC National Disaster Management Centre
NEP New Ecological Paradigm
NGERS National Greenhouse Energy Reporting System
NGRS National Greenhouse Response Strategy
NIEIR National Institute of Economic and Industry Research
NOx
Nitrons Oxides
NTNC National Trust for Nature Conservation
OECD
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PCCSP
Pacific Climate Change Science Program
PFCs Perfluorocarbons
PJPetajoules
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
QTIC
Queensland Tourism Industry Council
RCPs Representative Concentration Pathways
REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation
RGC Royal Government of Cambodia
RIMES Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System
SF6
Sulphur Hexafluoride
SLR Sea Level Rise
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List of acronyms and abbreviations
SPGLIN
Sichuan People’s Government Legal Information Network
SPPG Sichuan Provincial People’s Government
STCRC Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Resource Centre
STREAM
Sustainable Tourism through Energy Efficiency with Adaptation and Mitigation Measures
TAT
Tourism Authority of Thailand
TEQ
Tourism and Events Queensland
TTF Tourism and Transport Forum
TV
Tourism Victoria
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme
UNWTO World Tourism Organization
VIC Visitor Information Centres
VNAT
Viet Nam National Administration of Tourism
WMO
World Meteorological Organization
WTA Wildlife Tours Australia
WTTC
World Travel & Tourism Council
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199
List of contributors Narelle Beaumont
University of Southern Queensland, Austalia
[email protected]
Dr. Narelle Beaumont is an Adjunct Lecturer in the Australian Centre for Sustainable Business
and Development at the University of Southern Queensland. She was previously a Lecturer in
Tourism in the School of Management and Marketing at the same institution. Dr. Beaumont has
produced a number of journal articles, conference papers and working papers on climate change
and tourism, and has a range of publications on other sustainable tourism topics. Her research
interests include tourism industry responses to climate change, sustainable tourism and green
consumerism, visitor management in protected areas, ecotourism and education for sustainability,
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Riho Saisho (513-03-762)
Tuesday, January 27, 2015 8:35:28 AM
and local tourism planning and governance.
Kalyan Bhandari
University of the West of Scotland, United Kingdom
[email protected]
Kalyan Bhandari is a Lecturer in Events, Hospitality and Tourism Management at University of
the West of Scotland. Prior to this he was a post-doctoral research assistant at Oxford Brookes
University, Oxford. He completed his Ph.D. on Scottish tourism from the University of Glasgow
and has published papers on Scottish culture, identity and nationalism. He has a decade long
work experience in Nepal and maintains a strong research interest on tourism, society and culture
of his native Nepal.
Jeremy Buultjens
Southern Cross Business School, Southern Cross University, Australia
[email protected]
Jeremy Buultjens is an Associate Professor in the Business School at Southern Cross University.
He is also the Managing Editor of the Journal of Economic and Social Policy. He has taught in
a number of units ranging from Economics and Industrial Relations through to Tourism Planning
and Indigenous Tourism. Mr. Buultjens research interests include sustainable tourism, indigenous
entrepreneurship, regional development and tourism, tourism in protected areas and employment
relations. His publications have appeared in Tourism Management, Journal of Industrial Relations,
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
International Journal of Employment Studies, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, Labour and Industry and the Australasian Journal of Business and Social Enquiry.
He has also presented widely at national and international conferences. Jeremy has conducted
numerous consultancies. His clients have included the New South Wales National Parks and
Wildlife Service, the New South Wales Crown Solicitor’s Office, the Western Australia Department
of Conservation and Land Management, and the Northern Rivers Area Consultative Committee.
Dan Cao
School of History, Culture and Tourism, Sichuan Normal University, China
[email protected]
Ms Dan Cao is an assistant Research Fellow at School of History, Culture and Tourism, Sichuan
Normal University, Chengdu, and doing a Ph.D. on adaptation to climate change for Chinese
tourism destinations. Sponsored by the Chinese Government’s State Scholarship Fund, Mr. Cao
conducted a six month study visit at the Centre for Tourism and Services Research, Victoria
University, Australia in 2011. She has published in areas of tourism adaptation, Chinese waterbased tourism, and Chinese travel blogs. Mr. Cao also has a lot of experience in tourism planning
projects in China.
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Tuesday, January 27, 2015 8:35:28 AM
RW (Bill) Carter
Sustainability Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
[email protected]
RW (Bill) Carter Ph.D. Ph.D.is Associate Professor for Heritage Resource management and
Deputy Director of the Sustainability Research Centre at the University of the Sunshine Coast.
His research focus is on adaptive management of heritage resources with tourism and climate
considered as forces for change in management practice. His recent work has been in the
sustainable development of tourism in the coastal zones of Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam,
with an emphasis on community-based tourism.
Nicole Cocolas
School of Business, The University of Queensland, Australia
[email protected]
Nicole Cocolas is a Research Assistant in Tourism for the School of Business at The University
of Queensland. Nicole Cocolas has worked on various projects with the school, focusing on
indigenous tourism, tourism policy and climate change. After working within UNWTO’s Programme
for Asia and the Pacific, she was invited to attend the World Tourism Forum Lucerne for a paper she
wrote on the eco-labelling process in tourism. Through her research projects, she has developed
a specific interest in tourism and climate change research. She is currently an Honours student at
the University of Queensland, focusing her thesis on the impact of climate change on consumer
behaviour in the Australian Alps.
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201
Terry de Lacy
Centre for Tourism and Services Research, Victoria University, Australia
[email protected]
Terry de Lacy is Professor of Sustainable Tourism in Victoria University’s Centre for Tourism
and Services Research, leading research into the tourism sector’s transformation as part of
the emerging green economy. He was previously CEO and Director of the Australian national
Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism. He has extensive research, policy, project
and educational experience in Asia and the Pacific, in particular China, and is a joint founder of the
Oceania Sustainable Tourism Alliance. His research area is in environmental policy, specialising
in natural resources, sustainable tourism, climate change and most recently destinations in the
green economy.
Maria Golubovskaya
School of Business, The University of Queensland, Australia
[email protected]
Maria Golubovskaya has recently completed her Master Degree of International Hotel and Tourism
Management at the University of Queensland. She continuously participates in various tourism-
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related projects and research. Recently, she was volunteering for Ipswich City Council in order to
conduct a desktop research, related to the improvement of one of the area of their existing tourism
policy. Another recent achievement was due to her research on responses to climate change that
was highly recognised on World Tourism Forum in Switzerland in 2013. Currently, she is a Tutor in
Tourism Programs at the University of Queensland.
Stefan Gössling
Department of Service Management and Service Studies, Lund University, Sweden
[email protected]
Dr. Stefan Gössling is a Professor at the School of Business and Economics at Linnaeus University,
Kalmar, and the Department of Service Management, Lund University. He is also the research
coordinator of the Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism at the Western Norway Research
Institute. He has worked with climate change since 1992, focusing primarily on aviation, transport,
mobilities, energy, mitigation, and adaptation.
C. Michael Hall
[email protected]
C. Michael Hall is a Professor in the University of Canterbury, New Zealand; Docent, Department
of Geography, University of Oulu, Finland; and Senior Research Fellow, School of Tourism and
Hospitality, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. He is also a Visiting Professor at Linnaeus
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
University School of Business and Economics, Kalmar, Sweden, and the University of Eastern
Finland. Co-editor of Current Issues in Tourism he has published widely in the areas of tourism and
environmental change, regional development, public policy and gastronomy.
Ziaul Haque Howlader
Bangladesh Tourism Corporation
[email protected]
Mr. Ziaul Haque Howlader, a visiting Fellow of the Tourism and Hospitality Management Department
of Dhaka University since 2007 and a part-time lecturer of the IBAIS University in Dhaka joined
the government tourism organization of Bangladesh (Bangladesh Tourism Corporation) in 2000.
He currently works as a Senior Deputy Manager for the Planning and Training department. He is
also President of Bangladesh Eco-Tourism. Since completing his B.A. (Hons.) and M.A. in English
Literature in 1995, Mr. Howlader has partaken in various research-oriented activities on gender,
climate, environment and tourism in Bangladesh. He obtained training on tourism management
at Thailand’s Prince of Songkla University in 2005, and in the same year participated in the World
Tourism Organization (UNWTO) scholarship Training Programme on Tourism Planning and Strategy
in Madrid, Spain.
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Min Jiang
College of Business, Victoria University, Australia
[email protected]
Dr. Min Jiang is a Research Fellow at the Centre for Tourism and Services Research of the College
of Business, Victoria University. An environmental lawyer by training, Dr. Min Jiang has been
leading the climate change research group at the centre and coordinating a number of major
research projects on tourism, climate change, and the green economy. She has published in toptier tourism journals and has extensive research and consultancy project experience in tourism
and climate change in the Asia and the Pacific. Her current research interests are in adaptation to
climate change, sustainable tourism and water governance.
Ryan Jopp
Faculty of Business and Enterprise, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia
[email protected]
Dr Jopp is a Lecturer in Tourism and Management at Swinburne University, in Melbourne. In 2012
he successfully completed his Ph.D. research looking at climate change adaptation at regional
tourism destinations. He has published several articles in top rated journals and presented his
findings at international conferences. Ryan has also travelled extensively, during which time
he developed a greater understanding of the complex relationship between tourism and the
natural environment. This interest grew into a desire to continue his research into tourism and
sustainability, with a particular focus on climate change adaptation.
List of contributors
203
Pham Trung Luong
Institute for Tourism Development Research, Viet Nam National Administration of Tourism,
Viet Nam
[email protected]
Pham Trung Luong is an Associate Professor in National Ha Noi University, Ha Noi Pedagogical
University and Ha Noi Open University. He is also the member of the Editorial Board of the
Viet Nam Review Tourism Journal. He is leading in implementing numerous of tourism development
planning projects at national, regionaland local levels and scientific research projects (both basic
and applied) related to tourism development in Viet Nam. His publications have appeared in
Viet Nam Review Tourism Journal and National Cultural Heritage Journal. He has also presented
widely at national and international conferences andhas conducted numerous consultancies.
His clients have included the national and provincial tourism organizations, UNWTO, SNV Viet
Nam, IUCN Viet Nam, WWF Viet Nam, JICA, Mekong Wetlands Biodiversity Conservation and
Sustainable Use Programme (MWBP), among others.
Judith Mair
Department of Management, Monash University, Australia
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Riho Saisho (513-03-762)
Tuesday, January 27, 2015 8:35:28 AM
[email protected]
Dr Judith Mair is a Senior Lecturer in Tourism and Events at Monash University. She is joint
Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Event and Festival Management and Co-convenor
of the Council for Australasian Universities Tourism and Hospitality Education (CAUTHE) Event
Studies Special Interest Group. Her research interests include climate change, sustainable tourism
and events, post-disaster recovery for tourism destinations and the social and environmental
impacts of festivals and events.
Steve Noakes
Steve Noakes, Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University, Australia
[email protected]
Steve has over 35 years of experience in the travel and tourism industry across the Asia and the
Pacific region. He is part-owner of nature and culturally focussed tourism businesses in Asia and
the Pacific, has been a member of the UNWTO World Committee on Tourism Ethics and has been a
lead contributor to UNWTO Themis Foundation projects in Asia and Africa. Mr. Noakes has worked
as an international consultant with a range multilateral and bilateral international agencies, as well
as national governments and industry organizations. He has served on numerous not-for-profit
boards including the Global Sustainable Tourism Council and Sustainable Travel International.
He has also served as an Adjunct Professor at Griffith University (Australia) and the University of
Queensland , as Head of the Tourism and Hospitality Program at Central Queensland University
and as Visiting Professor at the University of Lapland, Finland.
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Lina Preuss
University of Queensland Business School, The University of Queensland, Australia
[email protected]
Lina Preuss is a Research Assistant at the University of Queensland, Australia. Previously, she
worked as Marketing and Communication Coordinator for Asia and the Pacific at the World Tourism
Organization (UNWTO) in Madrid, Spain. She has worked on a number of regional and international
publications, including the UNWTO Tourism Stories and the UNWTO/Tourism Australia Study
on Key Outbound Tourism Markets in South-East Asia. Ms. Preuss is also a journalist for Our
Planet Travel, an Australian magazine dedicated to promoting responsible travel and showcasing
sustainable tourism operators. She is interested in tourism’s potential to make a positive impact
in the world, especially in developing countries.
Bruce Prideaux
School of Business, James Cook University, Australia
[email protected]
Bruce Prideaux is Professor of Marketing and Tourism Management at James Cook University. He
has a range of interests in the tourism phenomenon in tropical areas including community based
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ecotourism and the impact of climate change. He also undertakes extensive research into crisis
and disaster management and tourism transport issues.
Lisa Ruhanen
University of Queensland Business School, The University of Queensland, Australia
[email protected]
Dr Lisa Ruhanen is Senior Lecturer and Director of Postgraduate Coursework Programs in
Tourism in the School of Business at The University of Queensland. Her research is in the area
of tourism policy and planning in the contexts of sustainable tourism destination policy and
planning, climate change, and indigenous tourism. She has been involved in over 30 international
and Australian research and consultancy projects. She has worked extensively as a consultant,
external collaborator and executive committee member with a variety of divisions of the World
Tourism Organization. In 2010 Lisa was awarded a fellowship under the Oxford Brookes University
International Visiting Fellow Scheme in the United Kingdom.
Aishath Shakeela
Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith University,Australia
[email protected]
Dr Aishath Shakeela is a Lecturer at the Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management and
a member of the Centre for Tourism, Sport and Services Research at Australia’s Griffith University.
List of contributors
205
Her research interests include climate change impacts on tourism, climate change risks on coastal
communities, sustainable tourism, emotions in tourism, cultural influence on risk perception, and
island tourism.
Y. P. (Melissa) Su
Department of Management, Marketing and Entrepreneurship, University of Canterbury,New
Zealand
[email protected]
Ms. Y.-P. Su has recently completed her doctoral thesis on Environmental Behaviours and Practices
and Responses to Climate Change in the Taiwanese Hotel Industry at the University of Canterbury.
Her work has also been published in the Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research and the Journal
of Hospitality and Tourism.
Tim Smith Ph.D.
Sustainability Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast ,Australia
[email protected]
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Tim Smith is Professor of Sustainability and Director of the Sustainability Research Centre at
the University of the Sunshine Coast. Mr. Smith’s research explores the relationships between
people, place and change, particularly within the contexts of coastal management, climate change
adaptation, and water governance.
Sokhom Thok
[email protected]
Sokhom Thok is Director of the Department of International Cooperation and ASEAN at the
Ministry of Tourism, Cambodia. Apart from fostering international tourism cooperation, he has
been responsible for developing community based tourism standards within ASEAN.
Dana Thomsen Ph.D.
Sustainability Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
[email protected]
Dana Thomsen is a Senior Lecturer in Sustainability Advocacy and leader of sustainability program
at the University of the Sunshine Coast. She is also a foundational member of the Sustainability
Research Centre. Her research is focused on sustainability communication and advocacy.
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Responding to Climate Change – Tourism Initiatives in Asia and the Pacific
Marjorie Van Strien
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Nepal
[email protected]
Marjorie van Strien is a tourism specialist at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development. Her current work is focussing on sustainable tourism development as an alternative
source of livelihoods for rural mountain people across the Hindu-Kush Himalayan range, especially
in the light of climate change and other contemporary transformations.
Gabby Walters
University of Queensland Business School, The University of Queensland, Australia
[email protected]
Dr. Gabby Walters is a Lecturer in Tourism at the University of Queensland. Her primary research
interests evolve around tourism marketing and more recently tourism crisis recovery marketing.
Her publication portfolio includes a number high ranking tourism research journals and she has
contributed to a number of leading handbook publications in this area.
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Nadine E. White
Centre for Children and Young People, Southern Cross University, Australia
[email protected]
Nadine E. White has a tourism industry and wine industry background and is now a researcher
at Southern Cross University in New South Wales. She has a Bachelor of Environmental Tourism
Management and received First Class Honours for her thesis on climate change and tourism
planning by local governments in New South Wales. She is currently completing her Ph.D. which
further investigates contemporary institutional, policy and regulatory planning frameworks for local
government climate change adaptation planning and tourism planning. Her research interests
include: adaptive planning for climate change, the interrelationship between tourism and climate
change, the social and emotional wellbeing of children and young people pre-, during, and postclimate related disasters, indigenous peoples´ relationship with ecotourism, sustainable tourism
and destination management.
Heather Zeppel
University of Southern Queensland,Australia
[email protected]
Associate Professor Heather Zeppel is a Mid-Career Research Fellow with the Australian Centre for
Sustainable Business and Development, University of Southern Queensland. She has produced
four working papers on climate change and tourism, including carbon mitigation actions by
tourism enterprises. Her research interests include environmental practices of tourism operators,
List of contributors
207
sustainable tourism, ecotourism, protected areas, indigenous tourism, and wildlife tourism. She
has written over 50 book chapters and journal articles on sustainable tourism, and is the author
of Indigenous Ecotourism (CABI, 2006). She was previously Senior Lecturer in Tourism at James
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Cook University Cairns, Australia.
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T
209
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