Word Break Assignment Answers (for LUMUN Sudan)ː
Deletion
V   before + V
/kʷɔkkɔt̪ɛ-ʊŋ/ 
[kʷɔkkɔðʊŋ]
‘He made you SG.’
Voicing and Weakening
/t/  [ɾ] in-between vowels
Or /t/  [ɾ] / V ___ + V
/kʷɪmmat-ʊŋ/ 
[kʷɪmmaɾʊŋ]
‘He saw you SG’
Complete assimilation
/t/  [n] before + n
 [k] before + k
/kʷɪmmat-nɔn/ 
/kʷɪmmat-kɪn/ 
‘He saw you PL’
‘He saw them’
[kʷɪmmannɔn]
[kʷɪmmakkɪn]
Word Break Review
True or False?
If there are sound changes when two morphemes come
together, the morphemes must be connected and in the
same word.
Word Break Review
True or False?
If there are sound changes when two morphemes come
together, the morphemes must be connected and in the
same word.
Falseǃ
Original
In roots
Across morpheme
boundary
/pɪcɔk/
/ɪ-carak/
Sound
 [pɪjɔk]
 [ɪjarak]
‘tree type’
‘in-stomach’
Across word boundary /ana/ /caɽɪ/ /cɛn/  [anajaɽɪjɛn]
‘and that day’
Sound can change across word boundaries. SOUND CHANGE IS NOT A GOOD ENOUGH REASON FOR
CONNECTING MORPHEMES. Morphemes with sound changes could be separate words. There
must be other evidence besides sound changes that morphemes are connected.
How does phonology help literacy development?
2. Sometimes sounds change when words
or parts of words are joined in various
ways. Phonology helps us find the best
spelling rules for these difficult
situations.
Assimilation (ENGLISH)
/n/
Negative 
Original Sound
(Underlying)
(Phonemic)

/m/ before + p
/l/ before + l

/r/ before + r
Written
(Surface)
(Phonetic)
in-tolerant  intolerant
in-possible  impossible
in-logical  illogical
in-reverent  irreverent
We write the sounds produced by this rule.
(Orthographic)
intolerant
impossible
illogical
irreverent
Devoicing (ENGLISH)
/z/  voiceless after a voiceless plosive +
Plural
Voiceless
Voiced
Original Sound Written
Original Sound Written
cap-z  caps caps
bit-z  bits bits
buck-z bucks bucks
cab-z  cabz
bid-z  bidz
bug-z  bugz
cabs
bids
bugs
We don’t write all the sounds produced by this rule. Instead we write the plural
morpheme -s the same in all nouns.
(Writing –z in all plural nouns would also have been acceptable to speakers.)
Sometimes it’s best to write the sounds produced by the rule.
Original
Sound
Written
in-tolerant  intolerant
in-possible 
impossible
intolerant
impossible
Sometimes it’s best not to write the sounds produced by the rule.
Original
Sound
Written
cab-z
cap-z


cabz
caps
cabs
caps
How do we know when to write the different sounds produced by the rule and
when not to?
Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the
sound differences should be written
/n/
Original Sound
(Underlying)



/m/ before + p
/l/ before + l
/r/ before + r
Written
(Surface)
in-tolerant  intolerant
in-possible  impossible
in-logical  illogical
in-reverent  irreverent
(Orthographic)
intolerant
impossible
illogical
irreverent
Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of;
the sound differences should not be written.
/z/  voiceless after a voiceless plosive +
Voiceless
Original Sound Written
Voiced
Original Sound Written
cap-z  caps caps
bit-z  bits bits
buck-z bucks bucks
cab-z  cabz
bid-z  bidz
bug-z  bugz
cabs
bids
bugs
How do we know if the process is a word rule or phrase rule?
Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound
differences should be written
a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule.
b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule.
c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a
word rule.
d) If speakers are aware of the sounds produced by a process, the process must be a
word rule.
Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of;
the sound differences should not be written.
a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule.
b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule.
c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient (partially voiced, partially aspirated, etc.),
the process must be a phrase rule.
d) If speakers are not aware of the sounds produced by a process, the process must be a
word rule.
These rules are only a starting point for deciding spelling in the
orthography. After discussion and testing, speakers should
have the final say about spelling.
Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound
differences should be written
a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule.
/n/
Original
Sounds



/m/ before + p
/l/ before + l
/r/ before + r
Written
in-possible  impossible
impossible
but in-famous  infamous *iɱfamous infamous
in-complete  incomplete *iŋcomplete
incomplete
un-professional  unprofessional *umprofessional unprofessional
Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound
differences should be written
b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule.
The phonetic environment does not decide which of the following three plural suffixes
attaches to the words. (Nor does the meaning of the noun decide.) The suffix is
random and must be memorized with the noun to which it attaches.
GAAHGM Sudan
Original Sound
/d̪ɛ̀ɛ̀l-g/ 
/d̪ɛ̀ɛ̀l-g/ 
/tɛ́ɛ́l-g/ 
Written
/d̪ɛ̀ɛ̀lg/
deelg
‘shelf-PL’
/d̪ɛ̀ɛ̀lɛ̀ɛ̀g/
deeleeg ‘town-PL’
/tɛ́ɛ́lààg/theelaag ‘anchor-PL’
Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound
differences should be written
c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a
word rule.
LARU Sudan
/ŋʷ/ - /ŋ/ŋ-állʊ̀ ‘you went up’
ŋʷ-àllʊ̀ ‘he went up’
/ŋʷ/ is a phoneme but only occurs in prefixes
Deletion and Labialization
/ŋʊ/
Original
 /ŋʷ/ before + V
Sounds
/ŋʊ-ɟʊr/ 
/ŋʊ-ɪra/

/ŋʊ-algad̪/ 
/ŋʊ-ɟʊr/
/ŋʷ-ɪra/
/ŋʷ-algad̪/
Written
ngujur
ngwira
ngwalgad
‘PL-rock’
‘PL-lion’
‘PL-door’
Word Rules (Lexical processes) produce sounds speakers are aware of; the sound
differences should be written
d) If speakers are aware of the sounds produced by a process, the process must be a word
rule.
[+ATR] rightward spreading (LARU Sudan)
V  [+ATR] after V[+ATR] +
Original
/d̪ɔ́gɔ́r-álʊ̀/
/d̪ʊ́rt̪ʊ́n-álʊ̀/
/gìd̪ìn-álʊ̀/
/gùgùn-álʊ̀/
Sounds




Written
/d̪ɔ́gɔ́rálʊ̀/
/d̪ʊ́rt̪ʊ́nálʊ̀/
/gìd̪ìnə́lù/
/gùgùnə́lù/
dogoralu ‘on tree t.’
durtunalu ‘on tablet’
gï dï nä lü ‘on chicken house’
gü gü nä lü ‘on hare house’
Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of;
the sound differences should not be written.
a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase
rule.
Weakening (ENGLISH)
/t/  [ɾ] when it occurs between two vowels, the first of which is stressed. ([ɾ] is not a
phoneme in English.)
Original
meet-ing
mat-ing
boat-ing
Sounds



Written
[miiɾiŋ] meeting
[meɾiŋ] mating
[boɾiŋ]
boating
Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of;
the sound differences should not be written.
b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule.
Vowel Deletion (Elision) (EJAGHAM) ( = nothinɡ)
V   before + V
Original
Sound
Written
/ka/ /eti/

/ka/ /oso/  [keso]
/ka/ /n̩ju/  [kan̩ju]
[keti]
ka eti
ka oso
ka nju
‘in tree’
‘in sky’
‘in house’
Phrase Rules (Postlexical processes) produce sounds speakers are not aware of;
the sound differences should not be written.
c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient (partially voiced, partially aspirated, etc.),
the process must be a phrase rule.
[+ATR] rightward spreading (MUNDARI Sudan)
V  [+ATR] after V[+ATR] +
Has [-ATR] /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /ɛ/, /ɔ/, /a/
and [+ATR] /i/, /u/, /ə/ but not */e/, */o/
Original Sounds like
/kʊjʊ-sɔ/ 
/sɛɾan-sɔ/ 
/ɗiɾi-sɔ/ 
/t̪iɾən-sɔ/ 
Written
[kʊjʊsɔ]
kuyuso
‘bone-SG’
[sɛɾansɔ]
seranso
‘star-SG’
[ɗiɾisɔ/o] (between [ɔ, o]) ‘d ï rï so ‘virgin-SG’
[t̪iɾənsɔ/o] (between [ɔ, o]) t ï rä so ‘produce-SG’
Exercise 1ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followinɡ
consonant when that consonant is alveolar
/l/
 /d/ before + d
 /n/ before + n
 /s/ before + s
/il-dars/  /iddars/
/il-nimra/  /innimra/
/il-satr/  /issatr/
/il-kursi/  /ilkursi/
‘the lesson’
‘the grade’
‘the line’
‘the book’
Exercise 1ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followinɡ
consonant when that consonant is alveolar
/il-dars/  /iddars/ ‘the lesson’
/il-nimra/  /innimra/ ‘the grade’
/il-satr/  /issatr/
‘the line’
/il-kursi/  /ilkursi/ ‘the book’
There are doubled /dd/, /nn/, /ss/ in the middle of roots such as /gaddam/ ‘go before’, but no consonant sequences
/ld/, /ln/, /ls/ in roots.
/l/
 /d/ before + d
 /n/ before + n
 /s/ before + s
There are no word rule indicators
a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule.
We don’t know about any exceptions. (Not an indicator)
b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule.
The rule does not lack a phonetic reason; the sound changing according to the position in the mouth is a phonetic
reason. (Not an indicator).
c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a word rule. Since there are
doubled consonants /dd/, /nn/, /ss/ in roots, the same process could also occur in roots such as /ld/  /dd/.
If so, the process is not just across morpheme boundaries. (Not an indicator).
Exercise 1ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followinɡ
consonant when that consonant is alveolar
/l/
 /d/ before + d
 /n/ before + n
 /s/ before + s
/il-dars/  /iddars/
/il-nimra/  /innimra/
/il-satr/  /issatr/
/il-kursi/  /ilkursi/
‘the lesson’
‘the grade’
‘the line’
‘the book’
There are no phrase rule indicators
a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule. No sounds produced by the
process in our data are allophones. (Not an indicator)
b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule.
We don’t find the process across word boundaries in the data (Not an indicator)
c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient (partially voiced, partially aspirated, etc.), the process must be a phrase
rule.
We don’t know about any gradient sounds in the data. (Not an indicator)
Exercise 1ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Complete Assimilation (+ = morpheme break) (CAIRO ARABIC) The final /l/ assimilates completely to the followinɡ
consonant when that consonant is alveolar
If there are no word rule indicators, the process must be a phrase rule, even if there are also no phrase rule
indicators. Since the process is a phrase rule, we should not write the sound differences produced
by the rule. The same alveolar symbol should be used for all of the definite nouns.
Original
/l/
 /d/ before + d
 /n/ before + n
 /s/ before + s
Sound
Written
/il-dars/  /iddars/ ildars
/il-nimra/  /innimra/ ilnimra
/il-satr/  /issatr/ ilsatr
/il-kursi/  /ilkursi/ ilkursi
‘the lesson’
‘the grade’
‘the line’
‘the book’
Exercise 2ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan)
 /ɟɔŋga/
‘Don’t takeǃ’
 /kɔnd̪a/
‘Don’t doǃ’
/gɔɲ-ɟa/  /gɔɲɟa/
‘Don’t giveǃ’
There are no consonant clusters *CC or pre-nasalized plosives */ᶮɟ/,/ᵑg/,/ⁿd̪/ in roots, although /ɟ/ - /ɲɟ/
/kɔɟa/
‘Don’t biteǃ’ /gɔɲɟa/ ‘Don’t giveǃ’
/ɟ/
 /g/ after ŋ + /ɟɔŋ-ɟa/
 /d̪/ after n + /kɔn-ɟa/
Exercise 2ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan)
 /ɟɔŋga/
‘Don’t takeǃ’
 /kɔnd̪a/
‘Don’t doǃ’
/gɔɲ-ɟa/  /gɔɲɟa/
‘Don’t giveǃ’
There are no consonant clusters *CC or pre-nasalized plosives */ᶮɟ/,/ᵑg/,/ⁿd̪/ in roots, although /ɟ/ - /ɲɟ/
/kɔɟa/
‘Don’t biteǃ’ /gɔɲɟa/ ‘Don’t giveǃ’
/ɟ/
 /g/ after ŋ + /ɟɔŋ-ɟa/
 /d̪/ after n + /kɔn-ɟa/
There is one word rule indicator
a) If there are genuine exceptions to a process, it must be a word rule.
We don’t know about any exceptions. (Not an indicator)
b) If a process lacks a phonetic reason, it must be a word rule.
The rule does not lack a phonetic reason; the sound changing according to the position in the mouth is a phonetic
reason. (Not an indicator).
c) If the process is not found in roots but only across morpheme boundaries, it must be a word rule. The process
cannot occur in roots because there are no consonant sequences in roots. Since the process only occurs at
morpheme boundaries, we must refer to a morpheme boundary, and it must be a word rule (Indicator).
Exercise 2ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan)
 /ɟɔŋga/
‘Don’t takeǃ’
 /kɔnd̪a/
‘Don’t doǃ’
/gɔɲ-ɟa/  /gɔɲɟa/
‘Don’t giveǃ’
There are no consonant clusters *CC or pre-nasalized plosives */ᶮɟ/,/ᵑg/,/ⁿd̪/ in roots, although /ɟ/ - /ɲɟ/
/kɔɟa/
‘Don’t biteǃ’ /gɔɲɟa/ ‘Don’t giveǃ’
/ɟ/
 /g/ after ŋ + /ɟɔŋ-ɟa/
 /d̪/ after n + /kɔn-ɟa/
There are no phrase rule indicators
a) If a sound produced by a process is an allophone, the process must be a phrase rule. No sounds produced by the
process are allophones;
/ɲɟ/ or /ᶮɟ/ is contrastive with /ɟ/ and not an allophone. (Not an indicator)
b) If a process occurs across a word boundary, it must be a phrase rule.
We don’t find the process across word boundaries in the data. (Not an indicator)
c) If a sound produced by a process is gradient, the process must be a phrase rule.
We don’t know about any gradient sounds in the data. (Not an indicator)
Exercise 2ː Find indicators that the following process is a word rule or phrase rule. Then chose how to write the
example words.
Assimilation to place of articulation (MUNDARI Sudan)
Since the process is a word rule, we write the sound differences produced by the rule. We write g, d, j.
Original
/ɟ/
 /g/ after ŋ + /ɟɔŋ-ɟa/
 /d̪/ after n + /kɔn-ɟa/
Sound
Written
 /ɟɔŋga/
joŋga
 /kɔnd̪a/
konda
/gɔɲ-ɟa/  /gɔɲɟa/
‘Don’t takeǃ’
‘Don’t doǃ’
gonyja
‘Don’t giveǃ’
Class Assignmentː
(no class assigment other than to understand the
examples given in this lesson)
Reading Assignment
Tone Analysis for Field Linguists (Chapter 5) pg. 103 – 107;
113 - 123