Session 9: Development of
Emotions and Social Skills in
Infants & Toddlers.
Trainer: Manju Nair
Defining Emotions
Emotions are defined as a “complex set of
behaviors produced in response to some external
or internal event, or elicitor, that serve to motivate
and direct thoughts and actions
(Bukato & Daehker, 2004, p, 381)
Emotions
Children;s reactions and show of emotions are
related to:
1. Personality development.
2. Development of basic emotions.
3. Temperament development.
4. Development of attachment.
Basic Trust vs Mistrust
Infants depend on the quality of caregiving.
Trusting infants expect the world to be good and gratifying.
They feel confident about venturing out & exploring the
world.
Mistrustful baby cannot count on people’s kindness and
compassion.
They protect themselves by withdrawing from people and
things around themselves.
Autonomy vs Shame &
Doubt.
Young children must be able to have opportunities to decide for
themselves.
When caregivers provide children with suitable guidance and
reasonable choices, self confidence emerges.
Parent/caregiver who is over and under controlling will affect child’s
emotional development.
Child who is shamed will feel forced, shamed, and will doubt own
ability to control impulses and act competently.
Basic trust and autonomy grows out of warm, sensitive caregiving
and reasonable expectations for impulse control.
Development of Basic
Emotions
Primary emotions - appear in the first six months.
Surprise, interest, joy, anger, fear, & disgust.
Self conscious emotions require self awareness.
Jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame &
guilt.
Occur at some point in the second half of the first year.
Continues through second year.
Crying
Basic method for infants to communicate. There
are three types of cries:
1. Basic [hungry] cry - vocalization pause, intake of
air, pause,.....
2. Anger cry - stronger vocalization, pause, intake
of air, pause.
3. Pain cry - longer vocalization, longer pause,.....
Smiling
There are two types of smiles:
1. Reflexive smile: a smile that does not occur in
response to external stimuli [birth to six weeks].
2. Social smile: a smile that occurs in response to
an external stimuli, appears between 6 to 10 weeks
and later appears as exuberant laughter.
Fear
One of baby’s earliest emotions.
Appears at about 6 months.
Abused & neglected infants can show fear as early
as 3 months.
Stranger anxiety is a form of fear: show of fear and
wariness of strangers.
Anger & Sadness.
Newborns respond with distress to unpleasant
experiences.
From 4 to 6 months and into the 2nd year: infants
want to control own action and effects they
produce. Loss of control evokes strong angry
response.
Anger & Sadness
Sadness occurs when:
Infants are deprived of a familiar or loving
caregiver.
Parent-infant interaction is seriously disrupted.
Self-Conscious
Emotions
Appears at about 18 month.
Become aware of self as a separate, unique
individual.
Show shame and embarrassment by lowering
eyes, hanging their heads, & hiding their faces with
hands.
Basic Emotions
Temperament
Temperament is a behavioral style.
Innate aspect of an individual’s personality.
Temperamental differences are present at birth.
Temperament characteristics explain how
individuals with many stresses may do well while
some with little or no stress may not, and some
others may just have difficulty.
Temperament
3 basic types are identified:
The Easy Child
The Difficult Child
The Slow-to-warm-up Child
Temperaments
Easy child: A child whose temperament is such that he
quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, is generally
cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences.
Difficult child: A child whose temperament is such that she
is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new
experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely.
Slow to warm up child: A child whose temperament is such
that he is inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to
environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts
slowly to new experiences.
Goodness to Fit Model
A goodness of fit model: good fit between child’s
temperament and child rearing practices leads to
favorable psychological development.
Social & Emotional
Development
Emotional communication
Understanding of self
Ability to manage one’s feelings.
Understanding and knowing other people’s
relationships.
Interpersonal skills
Moral behavior
Social Orientation
Newborns stare intently at faces and are attuned to
sounds of human voices.
Face-to-face play begins at about 2 to 3 months of age.
Characterizes the caregiver infant interactions.
Focused social interactions of face to face play include
vocalization, touch & gestures.
Frequency decreases after 7 months as infants become
more mobile.
Interaction with peers increases considerably in the last
half of 2nd year.
Intention, Goal-Directed
Behavior & Cooperation
Occurs near end of 1st year.
Joint attention and gaze allow infants to
understand other people have intentions.
To cooperate, children have to connect own
intention with adult or peer’s intention, then interact
with the adult or peer to reach a goal.
Social Referencing
Infants develop the ability to read the emotions of others
near end of 1st year.
This ability; social referencing helps infants to read
emotional cues in others and help to determine how to
act in a particular situation.
Mother’s facial expression [smiling or fearful] influences
whether infant will explore an unfamiliar environment.
In 2nd year, a child will check with his/her mother before
he/she acts.
Attachment
Attachment is a close emotional bond between two people
There are five characteristics that define attachment.
1. Physical proximity seeking
2. Comfort.
3. Security.
4. Separation upset.
5. Reciprocity.
John Bowlby’s Theory
Preattachment phase [birth to 6 weeks]:
Infants instinctively direct their attachment to human figures.
Strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit
smiling or crying.
Attachment in the making pahse [6 weeks to 6-8 months]
Attachment becomes focused on one figure, as baby gradually
learns to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people.
John Bowlby’s Theory
Clear-cut attachment phase [from 6 to 24 months].
Specific attachment develop
Babies display separation anxiety
Formation of reciprocal relationship [from 18 month
on]
Children become aware of other’s feelings, goals, and
plans, and begin to take these into account in forming
their own actions.
Strange Situation
Was formulated to observe and assess quality of
attachment between caregivers and children
between the age of 9 and 18 months.
It was developed by Mary Ainsworth a
developmental psychologist.
A series of introductions, separations, and reunions
with caregiver and stranger were used in the
experiments.
Attachment Theory:
Mary Ainsworth
Observed how babies reacted when caregivers returned.
Discovered four types of attachment styles:
1. Secure
2. Avoidant
3. Resistant.
4. Disorganized-Disoriented.
They show how well the child will form relationships in adulthood.
Most are the result of the way the parents rear the child.
Types Attachment
Secure attachment: infants who use parents as a
secure base from where to explore and when
separated are easily comforted when the parent
returns.
Avoidant attachment: insecure attachment
characterized by infants who are usually not
distressed by parental separation and avoid them
on return.
Types of Attachment
Resistant attachment: insecure attachment where
infants stay close to parent and fail to explore.
When separated display angry resistant behavior
when parent returns.
Disorganized/disoriented attachment: insecure
attachment characterizing an infant who responds
in a confused, contradictory fashion when reunited
with parent.
Attachment theory
helps us to shape the
way we work with
children
Children need to form secure attachments with their
caregiver if their development is not to be hindered in the
future.
Children need a secure base from which to explore the
world around them.
Children can feel insecure with strangers and will become
distressed.
Separation from parents is difficult for children.
Hello Daddy
Paternal involvement is an important indicator of
attachment. After infancy children show equal
attachment. Father’s more often provide playful
stimulations than mothers do.
Attachment and later development: warm, sensitive
environment are not just important in infancy and
toddler-hood but crucial right through childhood
and adolescence.
References.
http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk
/bowlby.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLrBrk9DXVk
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Harlow
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLrBrk9DXVk
Child Development in
Infancy and
Toddlerhood, Lecture 9
Behavior Management
Lecturer: Manju Nair
Behavioral Management in
infants and toddlers
• Regular observation.
• Checking against developmental
checklists.
• Planning activities to develop pro-social
behavior.
• Controlling elements in the environment.
• Encourage making friends and play.
Facilitation during the
different stages of
attachment
Attachment Stage 1Facilitating Indiscriminate
attachment
• Babies respond to most caring adults if needs are
met promptly.
• Crying may persist even after babies get response
because neurological system needs to register the
change.
• Respond quickly to crying, try to differentiate the
different cries, hold, cuddle and speak to the child.
Attachment Stage 1Facilitating, Indiscriminate
attachment
• Individualize response to each individual
infant.
• Provide reminders of home.
• Engage infants in repeated games, finger
play and rhymes.
Attachment Stage 2Facilitating, Discriminate
Attachment.
• Continue to respond promptly to crying.
• Describe all that you are doing.
• Establish arrival and departure routine.
• Encourage use of security items.
• Consistent transition routines.
• Play peek-a-boo to show babies you do
reappear.
Attachment Stage 3Facilitating, Separation
Anxiety
• Don’t push or encourage interaction till the
baby is ready.
• Give non- verbal cues that the new person
is a friend and allow infant to stay close to
a secure base.
• Explain the baby’s behavior to others.
Attachment Stage 4 Facilitating , Stranger
Anxiety
• Prepare child for new experience
especially going into a room full of
strangers.
• Stay close.
• Always celebrate reunions!
• Develop home school partnership.
Handling Biting
• Investigative/exploratory biting: from
infancy to about 14 months. To explore.
• Action/reaction biting: from 9 months to 20
months. To get a reaction.
• Purposeful biting: 18 month onwards. To
change the outcome of a situation.
Handling Biting
• Prevention: by arranging the classroom
into small nooks and crannies rather than
having unbroken spaces.
• Anticipation: by observing when, where
and how high instances of biting take place
and avoiding such situations.
• Substitution: by using cooling teething rings
etc.
Handling Biting.
• Supervising and Shadowing biters: if biting
occurs three or more times a day, increase
supervision or shadowing the biter.
• Teaching Children Social Interaction Skills:
using limited amount of toys, delaying
gratification, use of language for asking,
trading toys, taking turns etc.
Aggression
• Aggression: behavior that injures or diminishes a
person. There are different types of aggression
• Accidental aggression: when a child bumps into
someone during play.
• Instrumental aggression: aimed at getting something
you want.
• Hostile aggression: aimed at hurting someone.
• Relational aggression: designed to modify relations
between peers or child and adults.
Aggression
• Aggression develops from watching parents,
siblings, peers, and the media.
• Some aggression is normal in children under the
age of three.
• The continuum of aggression: Indiscriminate
aggression, Directed aggression, Limited
aggressive responses, Verbal aggressive
response, Regulated aggressive responses
Handling Aggression
• Set clear limits for the classroom.
• Teach social problem solving.
• Offer alternatives to aggressive behavior like
grabbing.
• Help children communicate using words.
• Encourage cooperative behavior.
• Apply appropriate consequences where
required.
Some Observational
Checklist that can be
used .
Self Esteem Checklist
• Separates from primary caregiver.
• Develops a secure attachment relationship with
teacher.
• Completes a task successfully.
• Makes activity choices without teacher’s help.
• Seeks other children to play with.
• Plays roles confidently in dramatic play.
• Stands up for own rights.
Emotional Development
• Releases stressful feelings in appropriate manner.
• Expresses anger in words rather than negative actions.
• Can be calmed in difficult or dangerous situations.
• Overcomes sad feelings in appropriate manner.
• Handles surprising situations with control.
• Shows fondness, affection, love toward others.
• Shows interest, attention in classroom activities.
• Smiles, seems happy much of the time.
References
• Beaty, J.J., 2010, Observing Development of the Young Child.
Janice J. Beaty. New Jersey, Pearson Education Inc.
• Puckett B.M., Black J.K., Wittmer D.S., & Petersen S.H. (2009).
The Young Child - Development From Prebirth Through Age Eight.
New Jersey. Pearson Education, Inc.
• Rosenblight J.F., & Sims-Knight J.E. (1989). In the Beginning.
• Cole M, Cole S.R., & Lightfoot, C. [2005]. The Development of
Children. New York, N.Y. Worth Publications.
References
• Albrecht, K. & Miller, G. [2001]. Infant & Toddler
Development. Beltsville, MD. Gryphon House Inc.
• Berk, L.E., 2003. Child Development. USA. Pearson
Education Inc.
Additional References
Seven Essential Life Skills:Ellen Galinsky, Mind in the
Making
• Skill 1: Focus and self control.
• Skill 2: Perspective taking.
• Skill 3: Communicating.
• Skill 4: Making Connections.
• Skill 5: Critical Thinking.
• Skill 6: Taking on Challenges.
• Skill 7: Self-directed engaged learning.
Five Minds for the Future Howard Gardner
• The Disciplined Mind
• The Synthesizing Mind
• The Creative Mind
• The Respectful Mind
• The Ethical Mind.