Reading for the UNHCR Emergency Management Training
Reading 10.9.1. Distribution of Relief Food and Material
executive Summary: main learning points

Control of the humanitarian assistance provided to the refugees - and of the distribution
system - is a critical issue and has important protection implications for the refugees.

The composition of the refugee population (nationality, place of origin, village/commune,
ethnic origin, religion, tribal affiliation) must be gathered and analyzed when planning the
distribution system.

Well-functioning, fair, and efficient distribution systems are vital to management of the
provision of emergency relief aid. All segments of the refugee population - women in
particular - should be represented on a distribution committee to be consulted on the
organization and setup of the distribution system.

Special arrangements may have to be made for the distribution of humanitarian
assistance to particularly vulnerable groups

Refugee representatives together with relief workers should be actively involved in
monitoring to ensure fair, equal and non-discriminatory distribution.

Refugee food committees should be set up as quickly as possible and reviewed regularly
to ensure that they are representative. Women, as the major collectors of firewood, water
and food, must form the majority on these committees.

The usual distribution models used in emergencies include:
1. Distribution to the leadership (in bulk)
2. Distribution to groups of heads of households
3. Distribution directly to heads of households

UNHCR takes the approach that distribution systems should support and be
supported by the basic social unit in the community - the family.

The division of food distribution responsibilities between HCR and WFP has been
clarified in the Joint Memorandum of Understanding.
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DISTRIBUTION systems in Emergencies:
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES FOR FIELD STAFF
These sessions are intended to enable participants to:
1. plan distribution programs with a clear understanding of the different role of women
and men refugees
2. plan distribution systems that support the key role of the family unit in meeting basic
needs
3. describe how distribution problems can be avoided through appropriate registration
4. understand the practical impact of distribution on refugee welfare.
Introduction
Planning for registration should include planning for distribution of relief assistance, since the
method of distribution is strategically linked to the information collected during the registration
process. This paper covers various ideas and techniques which can be applied or adapted to
different situations where information must be collected on refugee populations and
population numbers ascertained. The following topics are addressed.

Overview of Distribution Types and Principles

Food Distribution Methods

Annexes - Sample Forms and Diagrams
COMMODITY DISTRIBUTION
UNHCR has the ultimate responsibility for arranging final distribution of commodities and for
undertaking a continuous assessment of the nutritional status of the refugee population.
UNHCR must ensure that the system for distribution and monitoring put in place is the best
possible one, in view of the information collected in registration or estimations. Therefore, a
distribution plan should be drawn up during the planning phase, prior to the start of
registration, and included in any relevant sub-agreement with operating partners.
Key points about distribution systems
The Ideal Distribution System should be safe and easily accessible to the intended
beneficiaries.
Safe:
Organised in such a way that the system is free of threat to all who use
it, with particular attention to women and the vulnerable.
Accessible:
Distribution points are close to where people live and are located in
places which do not restrict the access of particular groups. The timing of
distributions should suit the intended beneficiaries.

Inform the refugees. They must know what they should receive, how much, when
and how. The refugees themselves can be the best monitors and controllers of the
distribution process. Refugees should be able to see the distribution process for
themselves. Involve them directly, don't let information on the distribution process
come to them only through their leadership. Ensure the participation of the refugees
(women and men) at all levels of the distribution process.
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
In the early stages of an emergency there will probably be a period when it will not be
possible to register or issue ration cards. However, you will have to distribute
commodities in that period. Effective distribution is possible without ration cards.

The provision of plastic sheeting, tents and other shelter material is very important for
the structuring of refugee sites. The distribution of shelter material reduces the
fluidity of the population. Once it is issued, the population can settle.

The family, as a natural unit, is the target of distribution. This applies to food and
non-food items. However this does not mean that you always have to hand the ration
to each family directly, in some situations this can also be done more effectively
through groups of families or other community structures.

Irregularities in the distribution cycle undermine the confidence of the
beneficiaries and increase their need to circumvent the system.

In camps, aim to have at least 1 distribution site per 20,000 refugees.

You should aim to have a distribution system which allows beneficiaries to collect
rations close to where they live and at regular intervals of about one month. For
dispersed populations refugees should not have to travel more than 5 to 10 km to
distribution sites. In camps, refugees should not have to travel far to the distribution
sites. Depending on the situation, and having met site selection criteria, the centre
should be located as close as possible to the beneficiaries, and not more than 5 km
away.

Distribution of dry uncooked rations in bulk is usually the most desirable. Avoid mass
cooked food distribution for the general ration.

In your distribution system plan to have a minimum of 2 staff per 1,000
beneficiaries.

Avoid payment in kind for distribution workers. It makes monitoring difficult. In
times of shortages, vulnerable people may be deprived of the commodities in order to
pay staff.
In the early stages of a new programme, particularly in large emergencies, effective control
over distribution may not be possible. However, from the start, each action you take should
contribute to a process whereby stable control is progressively established.
Distribution systems should both depend on and support the family unit
“The family is the basic social unit in almost all societies. It plays a key role in meeting basic
needs and solving the problems of individuals. Strengthening families will improve the ability
of refugees to take care of themselves”.
From Refugee Emergencies A community-based approach, UNHCR Geneva 1996
The objective of UNHCR distribution systems is to provide material assistance to and through
families, respecting the guiding principles of humanitarian action. Thus, the distribution
system should aim to support the family as the most effective coping structure. Only in
exceptional circumstances, and for short periods, should the focus of assistance move from
the family level to individuals within the family.
Distribution should enable families to function as the basic social unit. Persons outside
families must, of course, also be assisted through the distribution system. This group often
includes unaccompanied minors, single women, unsupported elderly and young men. Often,
efforts are made to build household groups from these individuals to facilitate the provision of
shelter and other services and commodity distribution itself.
Getting the commodities to families does not necessarily mean handing the commodities
directly to the head of the family. Commodities may be channeled through existing community
structures, leaders etc., or structures which you help to create; groups of families, women
family representatives etc.
Registering to prepare for distribution - Thinking about the type of distribution system
envisaged while planning the registration or estimation exercise will help define the types of
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information to gather, and the way in which the information is analyzed and presented to
government or operational partners and beneficiaries. For example, will you need to identify
heads of family, group leaders, local community leaders or others by name on distribution
lists? Will the system you are planning enable you to both aggregate numbers of families and
also to access more detailed information on individuals to solve problems arising at
distributions? The following points should help in reaching decisions about needed
information before planning a registration or estimation exercise.
Effective distribution of food and relief goods will require:
a. a comprehensive picture of the population and its leadership.
b. a decision on the groupings (families, sections, communities etc.) to be used as
distribution units based on sufficient knowledge of who are the refugees.
c. a system that is easily understandable and acceptable to the refugees.
d. constant monitoring and review.
Regardless of the system put in place, it should be consistently applied, with the same
entitlements for an entire area or country to avoid population movements to areas perceived
as more preferred. Generally, distribution can be divided into three general types, based on
the distinction of to whom the commodities are given:
1. Distribution to groups of beneficiaries through the group leadership
2. Distribution to groups of heads of family
3. Distribution to individual heads of family
The matrix below presents the three basic distribution types for comparison. Each type is
described , and typical examples of the use of each are presented for an understanding of the
context in which each type has been used.
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Three Basic Categories of Distribution Systems
Distribution to groups of
beneficiaries through the
group leadership.
Distribution to groups of heads
of family.
Distribution to individual heads
of family.
1
2
3
System Description
Commodities are given in
bulk to a representative of
a group of beneficiaries
who further divide it among
the group.
All of the commodities for the
group of families are handed
over to a representative of the
group. The commodities are
then immediately redistributed
to the individual family heads
by the representatives.
Commodities are handed over
directly to each family head.
Type of situation in which these systems have been used
Early days of an
emergency.
When people are settled.
Settled population.
When registration is done and
ration cards are available.
Registered population.
Mass influx of refugees.
No formal registration.
Homogeneous groups.
Large populations.
Can be used in camps with
small or large populations.
Eastern Zaire, large influx,
no registration or ration
cards.
Former Yugoslavia.
Somali refugees in Eastern
Ethiopia.
Rwandese refugees in
Tanzania
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Beneficiaries living in camps,
settlements or integrated within
the local population.
Somalia, Malawi, ThaiCambodian border, Cambodian
repatriation.
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Choosing the right system
Two basic questions to consider in choice of a system include: how much responsibility is it
appropriate to give to the refugees themselves? How much resources do you have available
to set up and run the system? (refer to the diagram below). Resources include time, space,
experienced staff as well as financial resources.
Selecting the right system based on; degree of refugee control and resources required
Degree of control given to
the beneficiaries themselves
Type of distribution system
Level of resources required
to implement the system
LEAST
Distribution to individual heads
of family (Type 3)
HIGHEST
MEDIUM
Distribution to groups of heads
of family (Type 2)
MEDIUM
HIGHEST
Distribution to groups of
beneficiaries through the
leadership (Type 1)
LEAST
Note: In case of food distribution, the methods of distribution as well as the reporting
requirements will be set out in a tripartite agreement between UNHCR, WFP and the
implementing partner.
As shown above, each of these three types of distribution systems have advantages and
disadvantages which must be weighed in light of the emergency context at hand. An
understanding of these trade-offs and comparative benifits should inform emergency
decision-making regarding distribution. The following three tables further summarize these
issues for each type of distribution system.
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Distribution to groups of beneficiaries through the leadership
Advantages
Disadvantages
 You need limited staff.
 You can use community leadership structures
already in place.
 The beneficiaries themselves can act as
monitors of the distribution process.
 Gives responsibility to the community, places
some responsibility for assisting at risk
groups on the community itself.
 Easy for community leadership and/or
the 'strongest' to abuse their position
and discriminate against parts of the
population.
 There may be many levels of redistribution, from the leadership to
many layers of "sub-leaders" until it
reaches the individual household, this
makes monitoring by outsiders difficult.
 Distribution may not be equal. Based
on the communities’ own norms,
certain groups or individuals (not at
risk) may receive more than others.
 Gives possibility for community to allocate
commodities according to their priorities
including giving extra to at risk groups.
 Can be used in first stages of a large influx
with limited space for distribution.
 Can be difficult for the most at risk to
receive their share.
 Can be implemented without registration or
ration cards.
 Lack of control on beneficiaries figures.
 Distribution is relatively quick to get started.
 Difficulty in monitoring the distribution.
 If women are not properly represented
in the leadership, they may have
difficulty of access.
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Distribution to groups of heads of family
Advantages
Disadvantages
 Promotes social interaction within the
refugee community and enhances social
adjustment to the new situation and
environment.
 Needs registration and substantial
administration to organise family
groups
You can have some influence over the
selection of leaders, you can introduce new
community leadership structures, ensure the
representation of women etc. Depending on
how you select the family groups, this can be
used to help replace an existing
unrepresentative leadership.
 You can set up specialised groups of families
e.g. all female headed in separate groups, all
families of marginalised groups together.
 Shares responsibility for distribution with the
beneficiaries.
 An extensive information campaign is
needed.
 Needs homogeneous group of
beneficiaries
 Needs reliable and verified population
figures
Abuses by family group representatives
may happen.
 Monitoring of the final re-distribution
within the groups is needed when this
is taking place away from the agency
distribution site.
 The beneficiaries themselves act as monitors
of the distribution process.
 Requires a small number of distribution staff
 Because the food is handed over in bulk to
groups, individual scooping by the
distributing agents is avoided. Can be used
when standardised scoops are not available
while food rations are frequently changing.
 Quick implementation.
 Security problems related to crowd control
are minimized by the presence of the family
group representatives.
Distribution to individual heads of family
Advantages
Disadvantages
 You retain control over the whole delivery
process right to family level. This may be
important in situations where there are
inadequate community structures.
 Very staff intensive
 Needs a lot of infrastructure.
 Needs registration and a substantial
administration.
 Makes it possible to target at risk groups.
 Commodities reach the beneficiaries directly.
 Takes away most of the responsibility
for distribution from the beneficiaries
themselves.
 Easy to monitor that female headed
households, and vulnerable families have
proper access.
 Can be difficult for the beneficiaries
themselves to act as monitors of the
distribution process.
 Transparency.
 Not applicable in early stages of an
emergency
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 Standardised scoops are needed,
these need to change every time there
is a change in the ration.
 Scooping could prove difficult to
monitor.
Refugee Participation: Control, Leadership, & Committees
A sense of control over all aspects of distribution can be illusory. Redistribution can occur
independently of any official distribution system. The way a refugee community is structured
socially will greatly influence the way in which commodities are redistributed and used.
Therefore the question is not, should you have refugee participation in distribution but rather
how to ensure that the participation works with rather than against programme objectives.
Refugee populations are rarely random collections of families or individuals. A degree of
social organisation will be present from the start. You need to identify the existing structures
and take account of them in the design of your system.
Refugee “Leadership” and Representation
The support of the refugee leadership will be important to success, but the leadership may not
be properly representative of all the refugees. UNHCR and implementing partner staff will
have a role to play to ensure that refugee representatives are as truly representative as
possible of the whole community, its different social groups, women, the most vulnerable.
This is difficult and will take time. It is rarely as simple as organising an election among the
refugees. A thorough and subtle understanding of the social norms of the refugee community
and how these may have changed in exile will be needed.
Refugee Committees
In most refugee communities there are formal/informal structures or committees formed by
refugees. These most often reflect those existing before flight. Ideally, the representatives in
such structures should change periodically in order to limit the potential for abuse which can
accumulate over time. Often, the leadership starts out predominantly (or totally) male.
Through community development activities, women's participation can be increased in order
to allow full community representation. How to implement this will depend on the social
context and implementation is an ongoing process. It should start at once. In an emergency
situation, directive action may be necessary to ensure the participation of women and any
marginalised groups.
The role of refugee women
Refugee women and UNHCR distribution policy
UNHCR's and WFP’s policy is to ensure the maximum possible appropriate involvement of
refugee women in all aspects of distribution, as in all activities. Determining the nature of this
involvement requires consultation with refugee women and men and a careful evaluation of
the totality of the responsibilities of refugee women, and their needs and those of their
families. This process is an integral part of the design and operation of a distribution system,
and references are to be found throughout these guidelines. The most important
considerations are summarised here as they concern distribution. Failure to take these
considerations into proper account has negative implications that go well beyond the
distribution system itself, yet most food distribution systems have been designed and
operated largely without refugee women.
Women play a key role in household food management
The reasons why refugee women must be involved are clear. In almost all cultures, women
are the family food manager: budgeting for, obtaining and preparing food, and controlling food
stocks. In many cultures women also do much of the work towards food production, and
collect the fuel with which to cook. In refugee settings the role of women becomes even more
important to the well-being of their families. UNHCR’s programmes must support the key roles
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that women play in ensuring food and nutritional security at the household level. Food is, by
far, the most important universally distributed resource and refugee women generally have
little or no possibility to compensate for an unfair, inequitable or ill-adapted distribution
system.
What was the role of women prior to flight?
The first stage in the assessment is to establish what was the role of the refugee women in
their home communities. Were they producers, full food managers, collectors of water and
fire wood for cooking, etc? What part did men play? (UNHCR’s Framework for PeopleOriented Planning is directly relevant for this and other parts of the assessment.)
How has the refugee situation changed the role of women?
The next stage is to establish the factors that are likely to affect the nature of their
involvement as a result of their new situation. It may be helpful to group these in two broad
categories: those which are largely common to all; and those which are family specific.
Common factors include both the role of the women in their home communities and the
impact of their new environment. The layout of a refugee camp, the distance travelled to
fetch water or firewood, the location of schools and services, the frequency of food
distribution, the means and time taken to cook the ration being distributed are examples of
such factors. Protection and security considerations may be critically important.
Family-specific factors include the demographic composition of the family: the number, age
and health of children, the presence of men or other adult support, and the presence of
dependent adults, for example, the elderly. Optimum use of the women's time is a key
consideration. Some generalisations are possible: for example, on average some 10 % of the
women will be pregnant or lactating and thus should be using MCH services. Other
assessments require an analysis of the situation of individuals within the community. The
health and the educational needs of children will help determine women's priorities for the use
of their time. Health needs are likely to be most acute in the early stages of an emergency,
demanding, for example, a mother's presence at selective feeding centres.
The role of men may also have changed
Many of the necessary practical decisions covered in these guidelines can and must take
account of the needs of women. For some arrangements, however, there may be no choice,
and the involvement of women will be conditioned accordingly. The implications of different
approaches for the role of refugee men must be considered, and the possibility of their
relieving women of some of their traditional and most time-consuming tasks investigated.
Before flight, most heads of household were male and the providers or "bread-winners", while
the women bore the major domestic burden of work. With flight, refugee men have often lost
much of their role, while the tasks of refugee women have both increased and become more
difficult.
Deciding the nature of involvement of refugee women
All of the previously mentioned factors influence the type of involvement in food distribution
that is possible and appropriate. The benefits for women of their involvement, and the
advantages of using their expertise, must be considered against the additional burden and
any attendant risks. The refugee women’s own assessment of the relative importance of
each factor should generally be determining. In some societies establishing this may not be
possible unless those seeking the information are not only well informed and sensitive to
these issues, but are themselves women (interpreters, if needed, should also be women).
Areas for women’s involvement
There are three broad possible areas for the involvement of refugee women: in the decisionmaking processes and monitoring; in the food distribution itself (women supervise and/or
hand out the commodities); and in collecting the food (where it is distributed to women not
men).
Women must be involved, through their own representation, in decision making and
monitoring, from the elaboration of the system and the determination of their own participation
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in its implementation, to membership of the food or supervisory committees that should be
established to monitor both the system's effectiveness and each distribution. In the great
majority of refugee communities, the objective will be better served if refugee men are
represented too.
Women should choose representatives who will be involved in the food distribution itself. The
extent and nature of this participation will depend on factors specific to that situation.
Women should actually collect, or at least be present at the distribution of, the food for their
household (whether or not they are its head), if they themselves feel that this is the most
effective way to ensure that they receive their fair share and retain control of its use
thereafter.
The involvement of refugee women must be kept under review. As for other aspects of the
design and implementation of the distribution system, constraints at a given time, and
particularly in the early stages of a refugee emergency, may prevent optimal involvement. As
soon as these constraints can be removed or are no longer present, the involvement of
refugee women must be improved.
Information to all the beneficiaries, the crucial factor
Experience shows that one of the most important factors underlying the success of
distribution systems is to ensure that all of the refugees are well informed. Otherwise,
information and misinformation concerning the distribution system will circulate among the
beneficiaries in a way which you cannot control. In particular, make sure that information
reaches women. You must ensure that information is not monopolised and manipulated by
special groups within the beneficiary population. Make sure that ordinary refugees have direct
access to accurate information about the system.
Communication with beneficiaries

Set up a distribution committee to represent the refugees in discussions concerning
the distribution system.

Keep in mind the cultural context but ensure that women are well represented on this
committee.

Use local interpreters (women and men as appropriate) to inform refugees about
distribution.

Hold community meetings in the place where the recipients are most at ease. Go to
them instead of having them come to you.

Choose locations to which women have easy access.

Ask questions, listen to the answers.

Allow refugees to see commodities being measured and distributed.

Provide refugees access to measuring equipment.
Identify and create communication with specific groups which may not be well represented in
the refugee leadership, women, elderly, handicapped or ethnic or social groups which may be
excluded from the refugee mainstream.
Structures should be developed to allow direct communication with the mass of the
beneficiaries. Field Officers should set up a schedule of regular, open, meetings with the
beneficiaries so that information gets directly to the mass of the people. Information filtered
through the leadership alone may be distorted. Even in the best functioning distribution
system there will be complaints. Provide channels for these, and act quickly on those that are
well founded.
Posters
Posters are one means of informing the refugees of their entitlements. This is particularly
important in situations where the quantity or composition of the ration is changing. Posters
should be designed so that they can be easily understood by the population, whether literate
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or not. Posters should be placed in locations where women will see them. They should be in a
language and format which can easily be understood by the woman in the population. This
will entail finding out which language is most easily understood by women. For example,
among Rwandan refugees in Zaire, while many of the male refugees spoke French and
Kiswahili, many of the women spoke only Kinarwanda. Posters should have an official stamp,
or other sign of authenticity, to guard against bogus information.
Refugee involvement in distribution
1. Refugee food committees should be set up as quickly as possible and reviewed
regularly to ensure that they are representative. Women, as the major collectors
of firewood, water and food, must form the majority on these committees.
2. Refugees should be informed of their entitlements, and the system which will be
used to distribute the food.
3. Refugees, particularly women, should be involved in both the information
campaign and the distribution process.
4. Refugees should be employed where possible in the distribution system.
5. Refugee food committees should be communicated with regularly, not merely
informed of procedures. They should be involved in problem solving, reviewing
systems and in the composition of the food basket.
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Annex A
Some representative distribution models
The following short descriptions of example distribution systems were based on a draft
publication from UNHCR on Registration and Distribution and are used here only to illustrate
some of the concepts discussed in the session.
Principal distribution schemes
The following section presents some distribution schemes, followed by relevant case studies
to illustrate how the schemes were applied. Given the progressive phases of an evolving
emergency operation, and the various potential combinations of distribution methods, some
mixture of these schemes is possible, as the case studies show.
Distribution of food and non-food items is accomplished in similar ways, but non-food
distribution can apply undue pressure on distribution staff, and therefore requires a different
approach. Immediate factors influencing non-food distribution are the type of non-food
commodity to be distributed, the size and condition of the affected population, the staff
resources available, the extent of geographic dispersion of the recipients, and the capacity of
the logistics system to supply non-food commodities to various points.
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Distribution Type 1: To groups through the group leadership
TYPE OF OPERATION: Common in older, closed camps (no longer registering arrivals) with
large populations where leadership structure is fairly representative of population;
coercion/corruption (e.g. military activity) is limited or absent. Use of ration cards and identity
cards. Number of distribution staff is limited.
HOW: Distribute to section leaders, for further distribution to heads of families. Distribution
based on fixed distribution times. Documentary control using ration cards which are marked
at the time of distribution. Distribute standard ration for each adult and child. Account by
recording the name and ration card number. Confirm correct distribution by spot monitoring
of the amounts actually received.
ADVANTAGES: Strengthens basic social unites of the community (e.g. family: but first
clarify what “family” means in the local context). Convenient for recipients. Manageable
numbers of people at the distribution point.
DISADVANTAGES: Limited effectiveness where it is impossible to accurately determine
family size. Limited effectiveness where the population contains few intact families.
Impossible to use where distribution to male family heads is unacceptable. Fixed distribution
times are often inflexible.
(Note: For further details, please refer to the related case study below.)
Distribution case study: Distribution through section/ commune leaders:
Northeast Kenya, 1992 - 1994.
ENVIRONMENT: Large camps that have been officially “closed”, but where freedom of
movement is still possible, ethnically non-homogeneous caseload of refugees.
BACKGROUND: Distribution systems for Somali refugee camps (Mandera, El Wak, and
Bandissa) were beset by major problems from the start. The method used for distribution (to
the elders) was found to be the major reason for the high malnutrition and mortality seen in
these camps. Assessment revealed that malnutrition/mortality was linked with distribution,
and not necessarily reflective of the supply of food to the camps.
HOW: Distribution through clan elders in Mandera and El Wak. The local chief registered
clans and the number of people within each clan. When refugees arrived in Mandera, they
were received by the Kenyan Government, as UNHCR was not present. Somali clan elders
reported to the local chief in Mandera town, who recorded the clan, and the number of people
in the clan. This served for repatriation also—people could hand in a ration card with their
number deducted from the total population as they went home.
COMMENT: From a nutritional point of view, the need for changes in the distribution system
had been obvious at a much earlier point. The first registration was attempted in April, 1993,
but failed due to a lack of security and inadequate preparation. General ration distribution
was stopped until the next registration in June, 1993, which was successful and reduced the
population from the official figures of 80,000 people to the actual figure of 40,000. Population
figures were clearly exaggerated, and this ironically resulted in malnutrition. Political
influence and relations with local chiefs increased the likelihood of entitlement. (To
complicate matters, local Kenyan clans also registered themselves for food.) Most families
received well below their entitlement.
LESSONS LEARNED: UNHCR or international presence/monitoring needed for proper
registration and to “de-politicize” the allocation of ration entitlement. Where political or ethnic
factions, or where the local “authorities” are likely to exert pressure on these, direct family
distribution is more desirable than via the leaders. In reorganizing the distribution, the
physical layout of the site was important. A centralized distribution point allowed control. The
open space near the main warehouse was found to be a suitable location, and a large center
with various units was constructed. The units contained two distribution lanes, and 10 bays
for different commodities. The bays near the exit were used for the heavier commodities
(cereals and pulses), while the lighter commodities (salt, sugar and oil) were given near the
entrance. As the distribution center was connected to the main warehouse, only 30% of the
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food requirement for a day was kept in the center. The following personnel were employed:
Porters: 5 per unit; Scoopers: 14 per unit; Monitors: 6 per unit. The modified distribution
center eliminated trucking from warehouse to the center, fewer staff, reduced waste, and
allowed a faster and more easily monitored distribution.
Distribution Type 2: To groups of family heads.
TYPE OF OPERATION: A common system in older open camps where initial controls were
poor. Use of ration cards; smaller populations. Leadership structure is not reliable, and
coercion/corruption (e.g. military activity) is likely. Must have adequate distribution staff.
HOW: Distribute to groups of family heads with direct distribution by employees of the
agency. Distribute dry rations in bulk, with open distribution times. Control by marking family
ration cards at distribution. Individual recipients identity not established. Distribute a
standard ration for each size of family. Accounting by recording the ration card matching the
total number of families served, with the closing commodity balance in the hands of the
distributor.
ADVANTAGES: Increases the probability of equal distribution. Helps limit problems with
inflated family size. Promotes reasonable crowd-control when no pre-registration has been
made.
DISADVANTAGES: Overly labor-intensive for operation staff. Number of recipients can be
too large and un-manageable, presenting problems for distribution staff.
(Note: for further details please refer to the related case study below.)
Distribution case study: Type 2 - To groups of family heads: Eastern Ethiopia,
1989.
ENVIRONMENT: Very large, open, and older camps. Homogeneous ethnic group, and
“freedom” of movement, but in harsh and remote rural environment, and settled in potentially
hostile area. Mixture of families, and single adult male combatants. War related famine/food
insecurity in nearby area of origin.
BACKGROUND: The food and non-food commodity distribution system in Eastern Ethiopia
was characterized by considerable abuse and ineffectiveness due to faulty/multiple
registration. The design of a new distribution system and re-registration became a necessity.
The ration cards used were designed in such a way that they formed the physical record of a
distribution having taken place, thus re-enforcing the monitoring system.
HOW: The distribution system was based on a three week cycle with family heads receiving
food and non-food rations every week. Due to the quantities involved, the frequency of
distributions was an important factor in maximizing the use of trucks and storage facilities. In
order to facilitate the work done on each distribution day, a maximum of three commodities
were distributed in any one day. Due to the bulky nature of cereals, the cereal component of
the food basked was distributed every week with a one week supply.
COMMENT: The distribution system was characterized by:

Replacing the “scooping method” with a “self-policing” mass distribution method

Refugees divided up into groups of 20 ration card holders of the same family size.
The group lined up outside the distribution pen and entered one group at a time. As
the food was distributed to the group, their ration cards were hole-punched in the
appropriate square. Those who came to the pen with a notched card for that week’s
distribution were refused entry

After receiving their share, and after the cards were notched, the group of 20 took the
food to a quiet corner and divided the supplies among themselves. The method of
dividing the group ration was decided by the group itself. Once the recipients had
been through the system once, they brought their own measuring implements with
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them. This distribution method allowed refugees to be responsible for ensuring that
they all received the correct food ration

An important element in the system was that of crowd control, with recipients formed
into groups of 20 outside the distribution pens and distanced from the front of the
entrance. This diminished the occurrence of pushing and pressure on the gate.
LESSONS LEARNED: Registration must be corrected before any new distribution system
will be effective. Self-monitoring (by informing refugees of their “entitlement,” and setting up
monitoring teams for each distribution site can also diminish abuse.
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Distribution Type 1B:To groups through the group leadership
TYPE OF OPERATION: This system is usually used in the early stages of operations, where
the overall recipient population or influx is overwhelmingly large, where proper registration
has yet to take place, where distribution systems have not yet been established or are
evolving, and the pressing demand is to get food out to meet critical needs.
HOW: Distribution responsibilities transferred to the de facto balance of power in camp.
Several distribution points are identified (ideally one per 10,000 persons), and the food is
transferred directly to the identified “leaders” who then have responsibility to distribute to the
segment of the population under their responsibility. This may also be referred to as
“dumping” commodities, but should not be confused with air-dropping of bulk commodities.
The term “fixed-ratio” refers to distribution carried out according to a best estimate of the
numbers of recipients, equivalent to the quantities and types of available supplies.
ADVANTAGES: Added responsibility strengthens the authority of the refugees’
representatives. Strengthens refugees’ interest in the choice of their representatives.
Reduced manpower costs.
DISADVANTAGE: Can introduce or initiate harmful protection problems (e.g. where military
are involved), and can result in the most vulnerable (women and children) receiving
inadequate commodities. The “de facto” balance of power may be negative and irresponsible
and will be reinforced by this system. Representatives may not be working in best interests of
recipients.
(Note: for further details please refer to the related case study below.)
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Case study for Type 1 distribution scheme B: Goma, Zaire, 1994.
ENVIRONMENT: Huge emergency influx of approximately 1.2 million refugees from the
same ethnic group escaping war and persecution; settling in large open camps in an isolated
rural environment, with little or no personal belongs and suffering from hunger, disease, and
exposure to the climate. Leadership is not acting in interests of general population.
BACKGROUND: The Rwanda refugee crisis presented an enormous humanitarian
assistance challenge for UNHCR and implementing agencies. Between July 14 - 18, 1994,
one of the largest refugee influxes of contemporary history occurred in Eastern Zaire. The
influx was caused by the advance of the forces of the Front Patriotique Rwandais (FPR), and
the fear of the Hutu majority that they would be killed by the victorious Tutsi minority.
Refugees entered through several border posts, and spread in uncontrollable disorder
through the surrounding area. UNHCR and government officials made efforts to identify
additional and alternate sites. Refugees had just started moving to designated sites when a
cholera epidemic occurred. The epidemic, compounded by a lack of water, no sanitation or
health facilities, and weakened condition due to exposure, had a disastrous impact.
Refugees and nationals began to die in large numbers.
HOW: Under these conditions options for distribution were very limited. To meet the urgent
need, non-food items were distributed to recipients through refugee leaders as rapidly as
possible, based on need, estimated numbers of recipients, and available personal
identification. Distributing through the leadership was perceived by many as supporting a
segment of the population largely responsible for inciting the ethnic killings in Rwanda. The
most important non-food items distributed were plastic sheeting, jerry cans for water, blankets
and kitchen stets. Items were distributed from central warehouse sites directly to refugee
leaders, based on available registration lists.
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Some additional methods for supporting distribution systems
In addition to the main distribution schemes identified above, four related distribution methods
to consider are discussed below.
Optional distribution method 1: Ration shops
TYPE OF OPERATION: Large, open refugee camps with a homogeneous population, where
problems of diversion, short rations, or theft of bulk food has compromised effectiveness.
HOW: An attempt to “commercialize or normalize” the system. One ration shop constructed
for a given number of recipients. Rations are collected according to an official ration card
presented to the shopkeeper and/or registrar. The shopkeeper and/or registrar is provided
with printed lists (tally sheets) of the numbers of all the cards which may be presented at the
shop. Each list contains the number of cards corresponding to one family size (e.g. three
member or five member).
When a card is presented for collection of rations, its serial number is compared with those on
the tally sheet. The commodity distributors then hand out the food using standard size and
correctly measured containers.
ADVANTAGES: Very convenient for refugees. Increases probability that beneficiaries will
receive the specified ration. Permits close control over distribution staff. Recording
procedures will allow tracking of card numbers presented (and not presented) and give a
precise picture at any time of the number of individual rations issued. System facilitates
monitoring of stock quantities of rations collected by individual refugees. In its own terms,
within the limitation set by the registration arrangements, the system can be very successful,
and serve as a model for distribution procedures elsewhere.
DISADVANTAGES: Initial expense of building and creating a ration shop can be quite high.
Must have cooperation from community leaders and participation of recipients. Ration shop
system is quite technical and detailed. Relief staff with prior knowledge of system is required.
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Case study: Ration shops—Somalia, 1982.
TYPE OF OPERATION: The distribution system in the Somalia refugee program started in
1979 as an type 1 system managed by camp officials and section leaders drawn primarily
from the refugee community. There were initial serious problems with diversion, short rations,
creaming-off rations during distribution, and theft of large quantities of bulk food at the camp
end.
HOW: The new ration shop system was introduced, involving direct employment of
distribution staff. The system was designed so that food could be collected at any time during
a five or six day ration period. The issue of cards to signify ration entitlement made it much
easier to make substantive checks on the performance of distributors and storekeepers.
One ration shop was constructed for every 4,000 - 5,000 recipients. Each consisted of a two
roomed building containing a secure storage area large enough to hold a 10-day ration
“basket” for the number of people to be served; and a distribution room. The whole building is
screened by crowd control fencing.
Entitlement to rations provided by an official ration card. Refugees collecting food present the
card to the shopkeeper and /or registrar. The shopkeeper and/or registrar is provided with
printed lists (tally sheets) of the numbers of all the cards which may be presented at the shop.
Each list contains the number of cards corresponding to one family size (e.g. three member or
five member). The numbers of the cards that have been reported lost, or canceled are
marked.
When a card is presented for collection of rations, its serial number is compared with those on
the tally sheet. Invalidated cards are retained and noted: otherwise, the serial number on the
sheet is crossed out, and the card punched at a predetermined number on its edge. The
scoopers then hand out the food using specially marked standard size containers.
At the end of the day, the tally sheet should thus contain a record of all the cards presented,
and the number of rations issued (easily calculated because each list covers a specified
family size). Since the ration card itself is punched during the process, spot checks can be
made to deter staff from stealing rations when a card is not presented during the ration
period.
Optional distribution method 2: Bulk air-dropping/dumping of relief items
TYPE OF OPERATION: Operations of extreme emergency, under severe security conditions
or armed hostilities; or when roads are impassable making normal supply and logistics
impossible.
HOW: Commonly by airdrop operation in coordination with the WFP or military transport from
donor nations. Once supplies have been recovered, distribution occurs either by the recipient
population itself (e.g. former Yugoslavia) or by means of one of the five main distribution
schemes previously discussed.
ADVANTAGE: Temporarily satisfies the urgent need. The military-supplied “meals ready to
eat” (MRE’s) are an example of this. In certain unique environments (Bosnia and Azerbaijan)
these can be a viable option when access to an area is impossible or limited because of
military activity and an accompanying lack of security.
DISADVANTAGES: Often a politicized issue where a decision usually necessitates
discussions and/or negotiations at higher levels between several different entities,
organizations or groups. Final distribution is difficult to control, therefore most vulnerable are
not assured of receiving supplies. Monitoring can be difficult, therefore impact is often
unverifiable. Cannot be maintained for sustained periods of time.
(Note: For further details please refer to the case study below.)
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Case study: air dropping relief items—Upper Lofa County, Liberia, 1992.
ENVIRONMENT: Dispersed, mixed caseload of refugees and displaced nationals in an open
rural and semi-rural setting.
BACKGROUND: This operation took place in a context of immediate and local armed
struggle and civil strife, and was characterized by a preventive effort to persuade people to
remain in their homes and areas of origin. In addition, the aim was to avoid disruption of any
possible agricultural/food production activities, and resume such activities as soon as
conditions permitted. The assistance provided to Liberian displaced and Sierra Leonan
refugees in Upper Lofa county, was within an extremely challenging physical environment
(rain forest and mountainous), with a limited logistics capacity, during armed struggle and a
need to make a choice to serve vulnerable groups first.
HOW: The estimated 145,000 recipients were dispersed over a large geographic area, with
few passable roads, which made enumeration, registration, population control, distribution,
and effective monitoring difficult. In the early stages of the operation, despite efforts to reach
remote areas, recipients were still required to walk major distances (10-20 miles) to receive
their rations. Because of the logistical constraints, relief agencies were also forced by low
supplies to cut the planned monthly ration of 13.5 kg per person per month to an emergency
ration of five cups of rice and six cups of CSB per person. This condition was alleviated by
the initiation of an emergency WFP food-drop air operation. A designated dropping site was
established, and the dropped commodities were collected and stored in a temporary
warehouse. Despite the risk of bad drops, diversion, and damaged goods, the recovery rate
was over 90%. Because of the area covered, a local staff of 95 was required to maintain the
distribution, monitoring, and reporting system. Non-food rations delivered by truck as road
transport conditions allowed, and distributed as needs were assessed.
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Optional distribution method 3: Monetization
Selling of relief commodities and items to beneficiaries to provide or increase
incentives for self-sufficiency—by approved and organized (formal) or bartering
(informal) means.
TYPE OF OPERATION: In operations where suitable local market conditions exist (or can be
initiated and supported) to allow refugees or displaced to exercise their more usual
purchasing power. The availability of food in the camps and the overall market price and
demand are important factors which impact the success of monetization.
HOW: Refugees bartering and/or selling food and non-food assistance, often “informally,” as
an income transfer as much as an actual nutritional ration, to acquire more varied and
culturally appropriate foodstuffs, as well as other necessities such as fuel, footwear, and
cooking implements. Informal monetization is less efficient than if the food assistance were
“formally” sold by implementing agencies, and cash delivered directly to refugees. Two key
monetization elements are access to local markets, and the ability of these markets to absorb
the impact of a potentially dramatic increase in refugee spending power. Constant monitoring
of the market is an essential element of a monetization program.
ADVANTAGE: In the right environment and under proper conditions, can significantly
increase a population’s ability to achieve a more normal existence or to approach selfsufficiency. Monetization can be an effective technique leading to durable solutions.
Decreases the common danger that distribution may destroy local markets or marketing
systems.
DISADVANTAGE: A relatively new strategy which requires operational trials, field-testing,
monitoring, and evaluation in a planned and controlled manner, as there is the potential for
abuse.
(Note: For further details please refer to the case study below.)
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Case study for monetization: North-West Somalia, 1992.
ENVIRONMENT: Somaliland (Northwest Somalia) contained large, open camps in a harsh
and remote rural environment, with a homogeneous ethnic group, and no restriction of
movement, but in a potentially hostile area. War-related famine and/or food insecurity existed
in nearby area of origin.
BACKGROUND: The self-proclaimed independent Somaliland (or Northern Somalia) was
made up of five administrative regions and nineteen districts. There were fourteen refugee
camps with an estimated population of around 370,000, wholly supported by UNHCR and
WFP, with operational support from implementing agencies. Private commercial trade was
well evident. Food prices were fairly stable and consistent across the country. The selection
of food and non-food commodities in local markets indicated the abilities of private traders to
provide a large percentage of these goods. Money from external sources appeared to be
circulating freely.
HOW: CARE managed and implemented the monetization program. The monetized food
was limited to wheat grain, with an average target of 1000 - 3000 MT/month. CARE was
responsible for identifying wholesalers from selected areas. Problems with wholesaler
selection affected the ability to deliver the food to target areas. A Second problem was the
lack of re-circulation of funds to support local development projects, with local businessmen
commenting on the lack of “cash” in circulation, thereby reducing purchasing power. The
money raised through the monetization program was channeled into several priority projects:
road infrastructure and water supply; garbage collection and sanitary projects; repair and
renovation of reservoirs.
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Optional distribution method 4: Distribution by coupon, token or chit.
TYPE OF OPERATION: Used accordingly in both new refugee crises or older operations
where clear but not crucial need is present, and adequate staff and time allow a more
thorough and proper assessment. Recipients’ physical condition varies widely, some clearly
more in need than others. Logistics system has limited capacity, with little information of
incoming supplies, therefore limited stores require carefully controlled, regulated, and
monitored distribution.
HOW: Similar to the process of household monitoring: assess needs of each family or group,
either as they enter or are moved to a camp with their belongings, or by visiting the family hut
or tent. According to need, they are given a chit, token, or coupon. Either direct or indirect
general distribution of non-food items by exchange of coupons either at central warehouse on
a flexible-time basis or at dispersed distribution points on a fixed-time schedule.
ADVANTAGES: A flexible system which can be adjusted according to the needs, conditions,
and varied supplies and types of commodities being distributed—such as clothing, kitchen
set, and soap distribution. Any individual or member of a family holding a valid token or
coupon can retrieve the item(s) from the warehouse. General distribution to a population
being moved is particularly effective as household goods are readily assessed and
distribution can be carried out based on the need.
DISADVANTAGES: Must have honest leadership and no coercion or forced transfer of
coupons. A common complaint with coupon systems is that refugees are threatened with
reprisal by military/soldiers, and therefore hoarding of supplies becomes prevalent. A large
number of relief workers volunteers, or refugees are needed to manage assessment and
monitoring, and control distribution, therefore making it quite labor intensive.
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Distribution case study: Token, chit, or coupon—Afghan refugees in Iran,
1980’s.
ENVIRONMENT: An estimated 1.8 to 2.3 million Afghan refugees, the majority passing
through reception centers before being dispersed into towns and villages. Areas of refugee
concentration include very inaccessible areas with harsh terrain and climatic conditions.
BACKGROUND: A number of towns and villages bore the brunt of the influx. The Islamic
Republic of Iran strove to cope with the situation with its own resources, without external aid
and with no assistance from NGOs. UNHCR assistance was provided on an ad hoc basis,
responding to requests from the Iranian Ministries of Health and Interior. UNHCR focused its
assistance on providing internal transport, procurement and distribution of supplies,
equipment and commodities, in accordance with needs determined by the national
authorities, including the Council of Afghan Refugees (CAR).
HOW: Iran already used a coupon system to distribute basic goods to the general population.
Once registered, issued with ID cards and dispersed to towns/villages, Afghan refugees
collected goods as Iranian citizens, and engaged in semi-skilled or unskilled income-earning
activities.
Note: In Goma, Zaire, the implementing agency World Vision also attempted to distribute
non-food items by coupon or token. The system was abandoned after a short period because
of coercion. Political leaders or elements of the military co-opted the system, forcing refugees
to hand over coupons, therefore hoarding non-food items for themselves.
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POP ANNEX FOR FOOD DISTRIBUTION
PROGRAMMING
This material is taken directly from the UNHCR Handbook entitled “People Oriented Planning
at Work Using POP to Improve UNHCR Programming, A Planning Tool for Refugee Workers”
written by Mary Anderson of the Collaborative for Development Action, Inc.
Using POP Programming in Food Delivery
 Your Goal
Your goal is to get the right kinds of the right amount of food to all the refugees in the most
efficient way possible.
The Right Kinds
What you need to know about
this particular group of refugees
Why you need to know this
1. Cultural background
2. Cooking/food preparation conditions
3. Refugee profile
4. Activities analysis
5. Resources analysis
Culture: If there are clear and prevalent food taboos,
either for the general population or for particular groups
within it, you must know them so that you do not waste
food and/or fail to meet the nutritional needs of certain
groups. Examples include port for Muslim populations or
foods forbidden for young children or for pregnant or
lactating women.
Cooking/food preparation: If there is limited fuel or water,
or these resources must be gathered at a distance, the
refugees will not be able to prepare raw food. Examples
include beans or grains that require long soaking and
cooking when either water or fuel is limited or when time
or labor constrains collecting water or fuel.
Refugee profile and activities analysis: If the people
normally responsible for preparing food (or gathering fuel
and water for its preparation) are not part of the
population of refugees, and others do not know how to do
these activities or are proscribed by tradition and culture
from doing these things, then providing raw rations to
people will not ensure that they can eat them. For
example, groups of young male refugees who have no
experience cooking have suffered high rates of nutritionrelated illness and death until programs were redesigned
to address their lack of food preparation knowledge.
Resources analysis: If refugees have not been able to
bring household utensils with them, cooking equipment
must be provided. If time, as a resource, is limited for
some groups and not for others, extra provisions may be
required to meet the special needs of those for whom
time is limited. Urban refugees may not know how to
cook under rural conditions or vice versa.
The Right Amount
What you need to know about
this particular group of refugees
1. Numbers
2. Refugee profile
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Why you need to know this
3. Context
If food packages are based on average adequacy for a
“normal” population distribution but the refugee group is
not “normal,” you will need either more or less food than
normal. If many are growing young men or if there is a
large proportion of pregnant or lactating women, you will
need more calories than in an average package; if there
are cold weather conditions or many of the refugees are
elderly, you will need foods with particular nutrient
densities.
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To All the Refugees
What you need to know about
this particular group of refugees
Why you need to know this
1. Refugee culture
2. Refugee profile
3. Activities analysis
4. Resources analysis
Because food is an essential resource for refugees, the
control of food represents power which can be, and often
is, misused or abused. Therefore, decisions about
allocating and distributing food are among the most
critical that refugee assistance workers make.
There are numerous examples of instances in which food
distribution systems have disadvantaged particular
groups of refugees. These include:
 young girls and women who were forced to provide
sexual “favors” to receive their food allotments
 female-headed households or women whose
husbands were absent in the refugee camp setting
who were unable to collect food because only males
were recognized as heads of household (HOH) for
food receipts
 elderly who were pushed to the end of the food
distribution queues and were shortchanged when
there were food shortages
 second and third wives (and their children) who did
not receive adequate provisions because food
distributors assumed that the male head and first wife
would organize a fair, intra-family distribution
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Lessons Learned from UNHCR Experience in Food
Programming
UNHCR experience provides many examples of POP issues in food allocation and
distribution programs. Some of these are:
Problems that Arise
Possible Solutions
1. Young women must provide sexual
favors for food.
1. Put women in charge of food
distribution.
2. Men do not know how to cook.
2. Provide wet rations; organize some
women to cook; teach the men how to
cook.
3. Foods are culturally inappropriate.
3. The food package must be changed.
4. Weaker members of society cannot get
access because of being pushed aside.
4. Have more on-the-ground control and
special distribution points for these
people (e.g., elderly or FHH).
5. Pilfering means that those who come
last, get least.
5. Ditto to solution 4 above; change and
control the order in which refugees
queue up for rations (e.g., eldest first,
FHHs next, etc.).
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