Time swaps between collaborative consumers: analysis of the nature of
interpersonal relationships through social exchange theory
Valérie Guillard* and Dominique Roux**
Valérie Guillard*
Assistant professor
Centre de recherche DRM (CNRS - UMR 7088)
University of Paris-Dauphine
Place du Maréchal de Lattre de Tassigny
75775 Paris cedex 16
[email protected]
+33 (0)6 20 66 10 09
Dominique Roux**
Professor of Marketing
University of Paris Sud, RITM
69 rue des Petits Bouts
91330 Yerres
[email protected]
+33 (0)6 88 26 10 35
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Time swaps between collaborative consumers: analysis of the nature of
interpersonal relationships through social exchange theory
Introduction and theoretical background
The sharing economy is a fast-growing phenomenon. People increasingly share
their home, car, clothing or tools on Internet platforms, but also their time (Botsman and
Rogers 2011). Various organizations and websites such as Local Exchange Trading
Systems (LETS), Time Dollar, Cup of Teach as well as Banque du Temps, www.troqueursde-temps.com and Accorderies in France (www.accorderie.fr) organize the exchange of
services between individuals. Whether initiated by the commercial sector or consumers
themselves (Fare 2012), these new modes of collaboration are now booming.
In a theoretical point of view, time swapping between individuals has mainly been
studied through LETS, from the perspectives of economics and public policy (Williams
2001). Such studies show that the advantages of LETS are i/ economic, e.g. developing a
sustainable local economy, fighting unemployment (Williams 1996), ii/ communal –
developing a dynamic through an exchange network (Fare 2012; Seyfang 2002, 2004),
and iii/ in terms of social justice, enabling unemployed people to work informally.
However, these studies do not advance our understanding of what consumers expect
from such relationships in the collaborative context of Accorderies. Furthermore, timeswapping has been studied in a specific cultural context, namely Canada. Since
interpersonal relationships are determined by culture (Gudykunst et al. 1988), it seems
interesting to study them in another context, in this case France.
This research focuses on Accorderies, organizations that allow people to
coordinate their time-swaps. Relatively new in France, the first was set in up in 2011 in
Paris, where there are now four. To briefly describe our context, Accorderies enables
people to connect and perform services for each other on the basis of an exchange of
hours of work, which are recorded in accounts (1 hour given = 1 hour received). Unlike
LETS (Local Exchange and Trading Systems), which are entirely non-profit, Accorderies
functions as a hybrid organization. From an organizational standpoint, its governance
mechanisms rely mostly on the market. For example, insurance companies provide
funding for the functioning of Accorderies and the coordination of its members is done by
employees. From the standpoint of members, the exchange of services creates ‘private’
relationships between people who do not know each other.
Time swaps belong to the category of social exchanges. In contrast to an
economic exchange based on a contract, individuals enter the exchange process without
knowing exactly what will be offered to them in return. Kelley and Thibaut’s (1978) social
exchange theory assumes that all human relationships are driven by a subjective cost
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(contributions) / benefit (expectations) analysis. Hence, relationships depend on the
degree of intensity and warmth individuals wish to express to others. Institutionally,
time-swapping is based on equality matching between individuals (1 hour given = 1 hour
received); but we argue that links of a different kind can exist between people.
Interviews with people who time swap (“Accordeurs”) will allow us to clarify these
different kind of links.
Thus, our objective is twofold: first, to understand what users and givers of time
expect from each other; and second, what ‘working with/for’ someone means to them in
terms of relationship building.
Methodology
This research combines interviews with both consumers and managers of
Accorderies. Two managers of Accorderies in the Paris area were interviewed to gain
understanding of how their organization functions, its day-to-day activity and how it
establishes a framework for fostering relationships. Then 22 people aged between 21 and
78 from varied social and occupational backgrounds were interviewed about the way they
experience time swaps. We took care to interview people of different generations, both
economically active and inactive. The interviews lasted one hour on average.
The interviews relied on the phenomenological principle that a relationship is first
and foremost an experience, one whose significance can be discovered. The interviews
thus consisted in collecting the most detailed possible accounts of actual experiences
(Thompson et al. 1989). Analysis of the data produced some ermergent themes that are
presented below.
Findings
The findings reveal that time-swaps are experienced differently by individuals
according to i) their expectations: oriented toward the outcome – getting a service –
and/or the process, that is ‘what happens’ humanly speaking during the exchange; and
ii) the affinity they feel with the other.
Four types of collaborative relationships in time-swaps can be sketched from our data:

The purely service relationship characterizes individuals who enact or expect a
provision of service from a time-swap. This type of relationship is entirely
impersonal, but it provides help, assistance, and technical contribution (plumbing,
housework, etc.) that consumers do not have the time or skill to perform
themselves. A reciprocal relationship then emerges: consumers think in terms of
‘give and take'. Even so, such reciprocity never results in a search for exact
equivalence between what is given and what is received, as it is in a commercial
relationship.
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
The friendly service relationship is a hybrid relationship, in the sense that it
encompasses a utilitarian dimension – the service – and a relational dimension –
affinity or even friendship. It applies to people who want to provide services so as
to accumulate hours and receive an equivalent provision of time, but who are
open to developing more personal relationships if affinities exist.

The apprentice relationship characterizes consumers who wish to share a
competence with others without pursuing longer time relationships. Their sole
concern is to share their skills.

The co-operative relationship characterizes consumers who swap their time and
pass on know-how or a knowledge of life that will lead them to form long-term
bonds with other people, and share values, affinity or enthusiasms.
Discussion
In the context of car rental, collaborative consumption has been shown to be
devoid of interpersonal relationships (Bardhi and Eckhardt 2012). Differently, we show
that in the context of time-swaps in Accorderies, the nature of the relationships between
people may be more nuanced. The contribution of this study is to show that collaborative
relationships
may
have
various
meanings,
first
in
accordance
with
individuals’
expectations (between passive and having things done by other people; or active and
learning to do them oneself), and second in accordance with the affinity between them.
Moreover, through the lens of social exchange theory, data shows that there may be
relationships of a different kind (friendship, knowledge transfer, giving) than those
deriving from the relational mode intended by the organization (in this case, equality
matching, 1 hour given = 1 hour received).
The characteristics of time-swap collaborative relationships may be confronted to
two other types of relationships: commercial relationships and giving. In contrast to a
commercial relationship, the mutual exchange of services creates no expenditure, which
thus implies entering into a non-commercial relationship. In contrast to freely giving time
(voluntary activity, benevolence), time-swaps allow one to obtain a service in return.
People tend to shy away from voluntary activity today: i) it has a rather outdated image;
ii) it calls for personal commitment and regular availability, that people no longer really
want to provide; and iii) it does not provide anything in return (Fennis, Janssen, and
Vohs 2009). Time swaps can provide an answer to the limitations of acts of benevolence.
This research is a first step in studying the diversity of interpersonal relations
within a broader set of collaborative practices (crowdfunding, car sharing, couchsurfing,
participatory habitat, etc.) that shows the gradation of expectations and behaviors within
hybrid systems of exchanges.
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