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Introduction:
After the paleolithic period, the next stage in India is variously
labeled as Late Stone Age, microlithic or mesolithic period. Microliths are
the main industry of the period. The first microliths were discovered by
A.C.L. Carlleyle in 1867 from the Vindhyan rock shelters and this was
followed by more discoveries by J. Cockburn and Rivet Carnac in the
nineteenth century. In the first half of twentieth century, L.A. Cammiade,
K.R.U. Todd, G.R. Hunter and D.H. Gordon reported microliths from
different parts of the subcontinent.
The term mesolithic is conventionally applied in India to denote the
cultural stage represented by microlithic industries not associated with
pottery and generally antedating the earliest farming-based village
cultures. The evidence for this stage in India is both qualitatively and
quantitatively richer than that of the preceding stages of the Stone Age.
Distribution Pattern of the Mesolithic Culture :
Systematic and scientific works by different scholar have brought to
light several mesolithic sites in the country. Some of the major works were
conducted by R.K. Varma in Uttar Pradesh; R.V. Joshi and M.D. Khare in
Madhya Pradesh; H.D. Sankalia in Karnataka, V.N. Misra in Rajasthan
and Madhya Pradesh. Microliths have been reported practically from all
over the subcontinent. In the northern part of India, several sites have
been reported from Rajasthan and Gujarat. The mesolithic sites are
known both from western and eastern Rajasthan.
The upper paleolithic period was succeeded by this mesolithic
period. The subsistence economy of this period continued to be based on
hunting and gathering. There was a marked growth in human population
as is attested by the significantly increased number of sites.
Below is listed some of the major excavated mesolithic sites in
India as well as the excavators of the sites:
· Tilwara in Rajasthan by V.N. Misra
· Bagor in Rajasthan by V.N. Misra
· Langhnaj in Gujarat by H.D. Sankalia
· Sarai Nahar Rai by G.R. Sharma
· Lekhahia in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma
· Baghai Khor in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma
· Morhana Pahar in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma
· Mahadaha in Uttar Pradesh by G.R. Sharma
· Damdama in Uttar Pradesh by R.K. Varma and J.N. Pal
· Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh by V.N. Misra
· Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh by R.V. Joshi and M.D. Khare
· Birbhanpur in West Bengal by B.B. Lal
· Sanganakallu in Karnataka by H.D. Sankalia
Principal Environments preferred by the Mesolithic People :
Mesolithic sites have a wide distribution in India and cover almost
the entire country. The following are some of the principal environments
preferred by the mesolithic people:
Sand dunes: In Gujarat and Marwar hundreds of dunes of varying sizes
dot the alluvial plain. In Gujarat these dunes often enclose a shallow lake
or pond which was the source of aquatic food for the inhabitants. The
dunes themselves were covered with thorny scrub vegewhich supported a
rich fauna. Human occupation took place on the top of the dunes. In
Marwar the dunes along perennial lakes as well as others near seasonal
sources of water were inhabited. In Rajasthan dunes are not so common,
but wherever they exist the mesolithic man occupied them.
Rock shelters: The Vindhya, Satpura and Kaimur hills in central India are
very rich in caves and rock shelters. Some examples of rock shelters
which were occupied by mesolithic people are Bhimbetka, Adamgarh etc.
These forests produce a large variety of plants with edible flowers, fruits,
seeds and roots. Water was available near the shelters either from natural
perennial springs or from seasonal or perennial streams. This vast rocky
country is ideally suited for a hunting-gathering way of life.
Alluvial plains: Numerous mesolithic sites are located on alluvial terraces
along river banks in all parts of the country. Birbhanpur on the Damodar is
one of them.
Rocky plains: In Mewar numerous microlithic sites occur on low rocky
outcrops which were probably better wooded in pre-agricultural days and
occupied by mesolithic people. On the Deccan plateau, microlithic sites
are common both on hilltops and the flat rocky plain.
Lake shores: Mesolithic settlements in the Ganga valley were centered
on the shores of lakes formed by abandoned meanders of changing rivercourses. The mesolithic settlers had ample food supplies from the lakes
as well as the dense primeval forests of the fertile alluvial plains.
Coastal environments: A number of microlithic sites are known very
close to the coast, such as on the Salsette Island and on the teri dunes.
Though no organic remains have survived at any of the known sites, it
seems certain that their inhabitants drew upon marine food resources.
Typo-Technology during the Mesolithic Period:
The technology of the mesolithic period is primarily based on
microliths. These are tiny tools made from microblades by blunting one or
more sides with steep retouch. The microblades were mass-produced by
pressure technique. The commonly found beautifully fluted cylindrical or
conical cores and thin parallel-sided blades testify to the high skill of the
mesolithic craftsmen in the production of microblades. These blades were
then retouched on one or more edges, mostly by steep blunting, to
produce a variety of microlithic types such as blunted-back blades,
obliquely truncated blades, points, triangles, crescents, trapezes and drills.
The technology of producing a large number of thin, strictly parallelsided blades from a single core by pressure flaking was, however,
characteristic of the mesolithic.
Except in parts of south India where very fine grained quartzite was
available and used, in all other areas people switched over to chalcedony
and chert for making these new tools. Quartz was also occasionally used.
The main tool types are:
· backed blades
· obliquely truncated blades
· points
· crescents
· triangles
· trapezes
These microliths were used as components of spearheads,
arrowheads, knives, sickles, harpoons and daggers. They were fitted into
grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts and joined together by natural
adhesives like gum and resin. Evidence for such hafting comes from later
sites in India and from mesolithic and neolithic sites in the Near East,
Africa and Europe. The use of bow and arrow for hunting became
common in this period, which is evident from many rock paintings in
central India. Small flake tools like side, end, round and thumb-nail
scrapers, and burins also form part of these industries.Bifacial points
made by pressure flaking are a characteristic feature of the mesolithic
industries of coastal dunes of southern Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Bored
stones are believed to have been used as weights in digging sticks and as
net sinkers.
Similarly, shallow querns and grinding stones also occur at several
sites. No plant remains have as yet been recovered from any site. But at
several sites, such as Tilwara, Bagor and Bhimbetka, shallow querns and
rubbers are very common, suggesting an extensive use of plant foods.
These new technological elements led to enhanced efficiency in hunting,
collection and processing of wild plant foods. Heavy duty tools like
choppers and core scrapers have been found occasionally at mesolithic
sites in Orissa and along the West Coast.
Some Important Sites:
Bagor
In 1967, V.N. Misra discovered the site of Bagor on the left bank of
Kothari, a tributary of the Banas river. It is a large and prominent sand
dune covering an area of about 200 m east-west and 150 m north-south
and rises to a height of about 6 m above the surrounding plain. The site
was excavated from 1967 to 1970 which yielded settlements having more
substantial structures, stone-paved floors, pottery and a rich stone
industry. In the later phase metal and wheel-made pottery also occurs. To
date, Bagor is the best studied mesolithic site in the subcontinent.
A deposit of 1.5 m at Bagor has been divided into three phases and
five layers. The site reveals an uninterrupted settlement over a period of
5,000 years. The site represents basically a single culture undergoing
evolution through time by the appearance of new material traits and
decline or disappearance of others. On the basis of the material changes,
the following three phases of the Bagor culture have been recognized.
Phase I (50-80 cm deposit) is marked by extensive stone-paved
floors and occasional circular alignments of stones probably to hold
plastered reed walls. Numerous bones, many of them charred and split
open, as also stone pebbles, used both to break the bones and to make
microliths, were found in this phase. Querns and rubbers indicate use of
plant food. Only one extended adult burial with head pointing west was
found; the grave was inside the habitation and had no funerary
appendage. Hunting-gathering economy with the possibility of
domestication of sheep, goat and cattle is indicated.
Phase II (30-50 cm deposit) shows contacts with the contemporary
Chalcolithic cultures, indicated by the use of copper tools and beads.
Other features of Phase I continue but a handmade pottery with incised
and applied designs appears for the first time. Burials are more elaborate
having pots and pans, copper tools and ornaments. The skeletons all in
the habitation area were found interred in a flexed position. From one
grave alone 36 stone and bone beads were discovered. One spearhead,
three arrowheads and one awl comprise the copper repertory, all found in
burials.
Phase III (35-75 cm deposit) was restricted to the central part of
the mound. Microliths and animal bones become scarce. Iron tools, wheel
made pottery, glass beads and brick structure form new traits.
A faunal analysis indicates a declining dependence on wild game.
The animal remains are a mixture of wild and domestic varieties and
comprise sheep/goat, buffalo, humped cattle, pig, blackbuck, chinkara
(Gazella gazella), chital (Axis axis), sambhar (Cervus unicolor), hare, fox
and mongoose; tortoise and fish bones were also found.
On typo-technological consideration, the beginning of the culture
may be placed in the geometric phase of microlithic industries
unassociated with pottery. Subsequently, handmade pottery was added to
the microlithic and bone assemblage.
In the absence of any radiocarbon date from the lowermost levels
of Phase I, the excavator places the beginning of the culture around 5000
BC. The lower limit of Phase II can be placed in the middle of third
millennium BC, i.e., contemporary to the Harappans, if not earlier. But for
fixing the upper limit of the phase, no date is available. On the basis of the
occurrence of iron arrow-heads, glass beads and wheel-thrown pottery in
Phase III, the excavator extends the upper limit of Phase II to the middle
of the first millennium BC or a little earlier.
Langhnaj
The site of Langhnaj is situated at a distance of 59 km from
Ahmadabad, almost to its north. The site has been excavated several
times between 1942 and 1963 by H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College,
Poona and the University of Baroda, as a result of which a good number
of microliths, 14 human skeletal remains, animal bones, etc. have been
brought to light. Langhnaj has a sandy deposit of about 2 metres divisible
into three phases.
Phase I has produced microliths, burials, animal bones and an
occasional potsherd. The main microlithic horizon lay between 90 cm and
1.5 m. Out of the 14 skeletons exposed so far, 11 have been found
between these depths.
In the debris of the habitation were found the skeletal remains of
men, women and children kept intentionally in a highly flexed posture. The
13 skeletons excavated earlier followed east-west orientation, the head
being placed in the east.
The faunal remains recovered from the site are all of wild species
comprising bovids, rhino, swamp deer (Cervus duvaceli), chital (Axis
axis), hog deer (Axis percinus), Nilgai (Boselaphus tmgocamelus),
mongoose, and wolf. Besides there were found the bones of tortoise, fish,
rodents and squirrels. Except those of rodents and mongoose, most of
the bones were broken and charred, probably for eating.
On the basis of typo-technological consideration, H.D. Sankalia
dated the Mesolithic phase, the phase associated with the burials to a
time going before 2500 B.C.
Teri Sites
A rich microlithic industry is associated with the red sand dune (teri)
sites of the Tirunelveli district at the extreme end of the peninsula. A.
Aiyappan, F.E. Zeuner, B. Allchin and V.D. Krishnaswamy explored many
sites in this area. Due to older transgressions of the sea, there are three
terraces of sand-dunes, at 1.5 m, 6 m and 15 m, quite inland from the
present day coast. The dunes obviously must have formed during arid
conditions, but man occupied them only during wetter conditions as
indicated by weathering of sand. Even the microliths are stained red by
the hydrated ferric oxide, a product of weathering. F.E. Zeuner assigned
the 6 m terrace, from which most of the microliths derive, to circa 4000
B.C.
The teri microliths are made both from chert and quartz; the former
is more dominant. Discoids, crescents and points are the main tool types.
The pressure flaking used on some almond-shaped points and other tools
has no parallels in India. From two teri sites chopping tools are also
reported. Thus the teri assemblage is distinguished by a dominance of
flake tools and discoids and a paucity of blades and almost an absence of
geometric forms. Though the industry thus shows an archaic character, it
cannot be dated beyond 6000 B.C.
Dwelling Structures:
Increased food security during this period led to reduction in
nomadism and to seasonally sedentary settlement. This is reflected in the
large size of mesolithic sites, thickness of habitation deposit both in openair and rock shelter sites, and the presence of large cemeteries,
particularly in the Ganga plains.
There is evidence for rudimentary structures at some sites. At Sarai
Nahar Rai there was a large oblong floor made by ramming burnt clay
nodules. On the floor occurred several hearths and plenty of bones and
microliths. Four postholes on the sides of the floor suggest a
superstructure of some kind. At Bagor and Tilwara numerous stones were
brought on the dune to make stable floors. At Tilwara, structural activity is
denoted by stones arranged in a circular fashion with diameters up to 3 m.
Hearths with charred bones and ash and stone querns and rubbers were
found from these structures. In one of the shelters of Bhimbetka a stone
wall was made probably to partition off a part of the shelter.
Disposal of Dead:
The first evidence of intentional disposal of the dead comes from
this period. Mesolithic human burials have been found at Bagor in
Rajasthan, Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, Lekhahia,
Baghai Khor, Morhana Pahar, Sarai-Nahar-Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama
in Uttar Pradesh etc. At the last three sites cemeteries containing many
individuals have been found. The dead were buried in graves both in
extended and crouched position. In some cases two individuals were
buried in a single grave. The dead were occasionally provided with grave
offerings which include chunks of meat, grinding stones, stone, bone and
antler ornaments, and pieces of haematite.
Artistic Expressions: Rock Painting:
Another significant feature of the mesolithic period is art, mostly in
the form of paintings. Several thousand of rock shelters in the Vindhyan
sandstone hills in central India contain enormous quantities of paintings on
their walls, ceilings and in niches. They are found in both inhabited and
uninhabited shelters. The paintings are made mostly in red and white
pigments which were produced from nodules found in rocks and earth.
Pieces of haematite used for producing pigment have been found at
Bhimbetka and other sites. The paintings mostly depict wild animals and
hunting scenes. There are also scenes of fishing, plant food and honey
collecting, social and religious life. The paintings throw a light not only on
the aesthetic sensibilities and artistic creativity of the mesolithic people but
also on their behaviour with respect to hunting and food gathering
techniques, dwellings, their social and religious activities and
contemporary fauna.
Though a number of stylistic and chronological phases can be
distinguished on the basis of superimposition, subject-matter and painting
styles, the paintings can be broadly divided into two cultural and
chronological stages. The poorly preserved earlier paintings are mostly
dominated by the depiction of wild animal life. In these one sees the
animals that still live in the area, as also others which have now
disappeared, like the rhinoceros, elephant, tiger and gaur or Indian bison.
The paintings are characterby naturalism, accurate rendering of the
animal body, depiction of the animals in their various postures and moods
like standing, moving, running, grazing, etc. There are scenes of hunting
with men hunting individually or in a group with spears and bows and
arrows. The spears and arrows have barbs and tips which seem to be
made of microlithic forms. There are also scenes of trapping of animals
and of collection of wild fruits and honey. The later paintings which overlie
the older ones and are in a much better state of preservation depict
scenes that relate them to the historical period. They show processions of
men riding caparisoned horses and elephants, and carrying metal-tipped
spears and bows and arrows. More frequently they show battle scenes
with men fighting with swords and shields. Both human and animal figures
in these paintings are highly stylized and show considerable deterioration
in the technique of portrayal.
Material Culture of the Mesolithic Period:
The mesolithic people had little by way of material culture. Stone
querns, rubbers and hammers occur at Bhimbetka. A few bone points,
some bone pieces with incised decoration and an animal rib with a long
narrow perforation possibly to be used as a pendant has also been found.
It is only in the later contact with contemporary metal-using and farmingbased economy that we find them acquiring such items as pottery, metal
tools and stone beads for ornaments.
Chronology:
The mesolithic period is well dated by a large number of 14C dates
from many sites in western and central India. These dates range from ca.
10,000 to 2,000 B.P. The earliest 14C date from a mesolithic deposit in a
rock-shelter at Bhimbetka is 7790 ± 220 B.P. Another date associated
with a burial in another shelter of the same place is 6025 ± 110 B.P. The
earliest date from Adamgarh is 7450 ± 130 B.P. and that from Bagor is
6430 ± 200 B.P. The beginning of the Mesolithic culture can therefore be
put at c. 8000 B.P. and as more dates from excavated sites become
available this antiquity is likely to be pushed back. Two dates from Bagor
Phase II are 4710 ± 105 B.P. and 4060 ± 90 B.P. Several dates from the
upper levels of the Bhimbetka shelters have readbetween 3000 and 2000
B.P. It is significant that occupation in the caves as well as on sand dunes
came to an end soon after iron tools made their appearance in these
deposits.
Conclusion:
Mesolithic sites have a wide distribution in India and cover almost
the entire country. Of the three important sites studied so far, Bagor is the
best studied mesolithic site in the subcontinent. The technology of the
mesolithic period is primarily based on microliths. The commonly found
beautifully fluted cylindrical or conical cores and thin parallel-sided blades,
testify to the high skill of the mesolithic craftsmen in the production of
microblades.
Increased food security during this period led to reduction in nomadism
and to seasonally sedentary settlement. The first evidence of intentional
disposal of the dead comes from this period. Another significant feature of
the mesolithic period is art, mostly in the form of paintings.