Effectiveness of Character and Leadership Development
through Sport using Game For Life Framework
Sean Huang and Shane Hong
Sport Singapore
Abstract
‘Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire, it has the
power to unite people in a way that little else does. It speaks to youth in a language
they understand. Sport can create hope, where once there was only despair.’
– Nelson Mandela
At Sport Singapore, we believe sport can inspire national pride and transform
individuals, teams, communities and an entire nation. To this end, a Game for Life
framework was developed to aid in the intentional design of sports to instil
character and leadership development. An impact analysis based on Kirkpatrick’s
four-levels of evaluation was conducted to determine the effectiveness of the
framework in integrating values inculcation into existing sports curriculum of five
education institutions. Three hundred and forty one students participated in the
study, which employed a combination of independent groups and repeated
measures research design over a period of approximately ten weeks. Two scales
were developed to measure sports educators’ application of character and
leadership development through sport principles and students’ demonstration of
values-based behaviours during sports. Overall, the results provided positive
evidence that the framework was effective in supporting sports educators to
integrate and apply various values inculcation principles and practices into their
existing sports curriculum and lessons, and in turn, increased the behavioural
frequency of students demonstrating values such as respect, responsibility,
resilience, integrity, care and harmony during lessons. Implications and practical
applications of the framework will be discussed.
Key Words: Character, leadership, character development, leadership
development, sport, sports, values, values inculcation, intentional design.
*****
1. Introduction
‘The moral value of exercises and sports far outweigh the physical value.’ –
Plato.1 This quote by Plato clearly indicates how the value of sport as a vehicle for
personal development has been long recognized. In fact, the idea that ‘sport builds
character’ can be traced back to the Muscular Christianity ideals in the Victorian
era. Male students in Britain’s private boarding schools then were required to
Effectiveness of Character and Leadership Development through Sport using
Game For Life Framework
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participate in competitive sports to be ‘gentlemanly’ and learn values such as
justice, fairness and sportsmanship.2 This is mirrored in the current times through
the establishment of physical education programs in schools, which aims to
promote holistic development in our youths. Evidently, there exist a strong interest
in character and leadership development through sport, but what is not so clear is
how exactly does one do that? The purpose of this paper is to propose a framework
for developing character and leadership through sport and evaluate its effectiveness
in Singapore schools.
2. Character and Leadership
Character development is often viewed as an integral part in education.
Nonetheless, the term ‘character’ is subjected to varying definitions and
interpretations.3 Some sport scholars attach specific values to it, such as justice,
honesty and compassion.4 Others distinguished the different aspects of character.
Rudd and Stoll proposed two aspects: moral (e.g., honesty and fairness) and social
values (e.g., perseverance, self-sacrifice and teamwork).56 Vierimaa and colleagues
suggested a third aspect, defining character as having performance values, which
are values necessary for sport proficiency (e.g. discipline and resilience). 7
Following this reasoning, character therefore is the composite of core values that
define an individual. More than that, it is the outward manifestation of those values
or basically, ‘values in action’.8
Leadership is more than one’s personal character. It is a complex process that
involves the effort of an individual to help his/her group identify and achieve
personal and group goals.9 This reckons that an individual needs to first build
his/her own character and take responsibility for his/her own actions before he/she
can learn to lead.
3. Developing Character Through Sport
Seeing the importance of possessing good character in individuals, the demand
for character development efforts has been steadily increasing. Sport has been
widely accepted as an excellent training ground for developing character. Yet,
despite this persistent and widespread belief, results from empirical research on
sport and character development do not entirely paint a positive picture. In a quasiexperiment by Rees, Howell and Miracle, where 1628 participants responded to
measures of character values before and after sports participation, sports
participation was found to have little effect on one’s character. 10 Other researchers
have also documented findings expounding the less positive effect of sport on
character development such as a decline in sportsmanship orientation and an
inclination to endorse aggression and cheating behaviours.11 12
Nevertheless, it is imperative to note that the abovementioned research tended
to assume sport as a passive, dichotomous variable (i.e. play sports or don’t play
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sports), discounting the different dimensions of the sporting experience and the
interactions that will occur in such an intricate social setting. It is illogical to
expect character development to occur after mere participation in some games. As
Shields and Bredemeier contended, the experience of sport is ‘far from
uniform...the social interactions that are fostered by the sport experience varies
from sport to sport, from team to team, from one geographical region to another,
from one level of competition to another, and so on.’13 Therefore, positive
outcomes are not likely to result from the mere participation in sports but instead, it
is the variations in contextual conditions of the sporting experience that could
possibly influence the effect of sport on one’s character.14 Case in point, research
that has taken into account such individual differences in sporting experiences does
demonstrate significant results. For example, in Camire and Trudel’s qualitative
study, personal interviews conducted with athletes revealed that most athletes felt
that their sporting experience has taught them the importance of communication,
empathy and encouraging others, and helped develop their social character values
such as teamwork and loyalty.15
Lumpkin highlighted the importance of the mentors – coaches, parents and
teachers – in character development through sport.16 In order to develop character,
mentors must first teach athletes what character is, regularly model and reinforce
character values like fairness, respect and teamwork, and also provide
opportunities that will facilitate learning of such character values. 17 Research has
shown that coaching actions and climate can influence the personal development of
individuals.18 Hence, in other words, for sport to develop character, the process has
to be deliberate and planned.
Sports programs that were meticulously designed have been shown to have
positive effects on character building. ‘The First Tee’, a specially constructed life
skills training program and curriculum that is based on golf, was evaluated to be
effective in developing character as youths in the program achieved higher scores
on social responsibility, honesty, integrity and self-efficacy than youths in other
activities.19 Positive character developmental outcomes were also found for other
specially designed sports programs and curriculums such as ‘Fair Play for Kids’.20
As such, it is increasingly evident that the difference between whether sport
build character or not has less to do with the playing of the sport but more to do
with the quality of coaching, involvement of mentors’ and the intentional design
of the sporting experience. With that in mind, Sport Singapore developed a
framework to aid in the deliberate design of sports programs for schools in
Singapore.
The Game-For-Life Framework
The Framework contains practical approaches to enhance character and
leadership development efforts based on three elements that have to be integrated
for effectiveness: identifying the values and attributes of good character and
Effectiveness of Character and Leadership Development through Sport using
Game For Life Framework
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leadership; establishing the platforms through which desirable values can be
developed; and executing a purposeful action plan for intentional teaching and
effective values development.
To test the framework’s effectiveness of developing character through sport,
the following hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis 1 – sports educators in the
treatment group apply the framework principles more frequently than sports
educators in the control group; Hypothesis 2 – sports educators in the treatment
group apply the framework principles more frequently at time 2 than at time 1;
Hypothesis 3 – students in the treatment group demonstrate values-based
behaviours during sports lessons more frequently than those in the control group;
Hypothesis 4 – students in treatment group demonstrate values-based behaviours
more frequently at time 2 than at time 1.
4. Method
Figure 1 - Research Design of this Study
This study employed a combination of a treatment-control and pre-post
research design (see Figure 1). Five Ministry of Education (MOE) schools
participated in this study, but at the time of publication, only data from three
schools are available. The study followed the timeframe of a standard school term
of approximately ten weeks, with participants in the treatment group (n = 341)
receiving the framework intervention/treatment as part of their sports curriculum
and those in the control group (n = 365) receiving their usual sports curriculum
across the period of ten weeks. Participants comprised of students’ age ranged
from 10 to 13 years old.
Although the type of sports played differed between schools, sports educators,
who received train-the-trainer training from Sport Singapore, administering the
treatment group in their respective schools integrated the framework into their
respective sports curriculum by ensuring key principles and practices of the
framework were deliberately designed into the structure of the lesson plans.
With reference to Kirkpatrick’s well-established four levels of training
evaluation framework, measures for level 1 workshop feedback and level 2 sports
educators’ learning were designed and collected during the train-the-trainer
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workshop conducted by Sport Singapore for the sports educators prior to the start
of the study. The intent of these measures is to collect feedback about the conduct
of the workshop and to ensure the sports educators took away the essential learning
of applying the framework in their sports curriculum. These results will not be
discussed here.
Two scales were developed to measure level 3 sports educators’ application of
the framework principles and students’ demonstration of values-based behaviours,
forming the impact analysis instrument. The first measure is a 15-item values
inculcation practices scale that measures the frequency to which sports educators
applied the various principles and practices in their sports lesson (e.g., ‘During the
PE lessons, my PE teacher explains how certain values can be demonstrated’). The
second measure is a 30-item student values scale that measures the frequency to
which students demonstrated values-based behaviours during their sports lessons
(e.g., ‘I follow the rules of the game even when others do not’). This scale was
adapted from the Prosocial and Antisocial Behaviour in Sport scale developed by
Kavusannu and Boardley and contextualised to measure core values of respect,
responsibility, resilience, integrity, care and harmony. Both measures used a 5point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = Never to 5 = Very often. Cronbach’s Alpha
and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) were conducted to test for reliability and
validity of both scales, and results revealed that both scales demonstrated good
reliability and validity.
Measures were collected at time 1 (T1) prior to the start of the first lesson of
the school term and at time 2 (T2) which is after the last lesson of the school term
for both treatment and control groups. All measures were administered via a paperand-pencil survey in a large group setting. Participants were told that the data were
collected as part of a research project to gather feedback about their PE lessons.
Participants were asked to indicate their class and registration number (in order to
match T1 and T2 data), but were assured that the data would not be revealed to
their teachers for any assessment purposes.
5. Results
Hypothesis one and two predicted that sports educators in the treatment group
applied the framework principles more frequently than those in the control group
and at time 2 as compared to time 1. A between-groups t-test revealed that sports
educators in the treatment group (M = 4.0) applied the framework principles
significantly more frequently than those in the control group (M = 3.6; t = 7.70, p <
.001). A repeated measures t-test also revealed that sports educators in the
treatment group significantly applied the framework principles more frequently at
time 2 (M = 4.0) than at time 1 (mean = 3.6; t = -9.90, p < .001). See Figure 2 for a
graphical representation of the results. Overall, these results suggest that students
who participated in sports lessons that were integrated with the framework
observed that their sports educators applied the framework principles and practices
Effectiveness of Character and Leadership Development through Sport using
Game For Life Framework
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more frequently than those in the control group and at week 10 of their sports
curriculum as compared to the start of the sports curriculum.
Figure 2 - Results for sports educators’ application of the framework principles
Hypothesis three and four predicted that students in the treatment group
demonstrated values-based behaviours more frequently than those in the control
group and at time 2 as compared to time 1. Results of a between-groups t-test
revealed that students in the treatment group (mean = 4.0) demonstrated valuesbased behaviours significantly more frequently than those in the control group
(mean = 3.8; t = 4.50, p < .001). Results of a repeated measures t-test also revealed
that students in the treatment group significantly demonstrated values-based
behaviours more frequently at time 2 (mean = 4.0) than at time 1 (mean = 3.9; t =
3.70, p < .001). See Figure 3 for a graphical representation of the results. Taken
together, these results suggest that students who participated in sports lessons that
were integrated with the framework reported demonstrating the values-based
behaviours more frequently than those students in the control group and at week 10
of their sports curriculum as compared to the start of the sports curriculum.
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Figure 3 - Results for students’ demonstration of values-based behaviours
Additional analyses were performed to explore the possibility of decreasing
levels of actual skill development and enjoyment of the sport during sports lessons
that were integrated with the framework. To address this concern, students were
asked ‘How much did you enjoy learning that sport/activity?’ and ‘How confident
are you now in playing that sport/activity?’ using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Not at
all to 5 = Very much) during data collection at time 2. Bivariate correlations
revealed a positive relationship between skill development (r = .32; p < .001),
enjoyment (r = .42; p < .001) and sports educators’ application of the framework
principles. In other words, the more frequent sports educators facilitated values
inculcation through the framework during sports lessons, students perceived
greater levels of enjoyment and actual skill development of the sport.
Finally, qualitative data were also collected to gather sports educators and
student feedback regarding their experiences of integrating the framework into the
sports curriculum and participation in sports lessons that were infused with values
inculcation principles and practices respectively. In addition, sports educators and
students shared positive stories about some of their lessons learnt regarding the
character and leadership development through sport framework. Taken together,
both quantitative and qualitative data provided converging evidence for the
effectiveness of the framework to facilitate values inculcation through sport.
6. Discussion
The Game-for-Life framework aims to enhance character and leadership
development efforts through sport by providing coaches and sport instructors with
practical approaches to design customised sports programs for individuals and
institutions. This study examined the effectiveness of the framework. Results
indicated that sports educators who were trained in the framework were perceived
by their students to have applied framework principles significantly more often
than sport educators who conducted the traditional sports curriculum. Sport
educators in the treatment group were also perceived to significantly apply
Effectiveness of Character and Leadership Development through Sport using
Game For Life Framework
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framework principles more frequently at week 10 of the sports curriculum than at
the beginning. Taken together, these results showed that sports educators who were
trained in the framework successfully applied the key framework principles into
their existing sports curriculum. More importantly, these results demonstrated the
efficiency and effectiveness of the framework in facilitating character development
through sports without the need to increase the amount of curriculum time. With
the framework to assist in the design of sports curriculum, sports educators were
able to weave in both skill and character development practices into the conduct of
sports activities in a very practical and balanced manner.
Furthermore, results revealed that students who received the framework
intervention perceived themselves to have exhibited values-based behaviours
significantly more often than their peers in the control group. Students who
received the intervention also reported more values-based behaviours at week 10 of
the sports curriculum than at the beginning. These findings provided some
preliminary evidence that character development, or at the very least, positive
behavioural change, have taken place. Overall, the results of this study provided
positive evidence that the Game-For-Life framework was effective in supporting
sports educators to integrate and apply various values inculcation principles and
practices into their existing sports curriculum and lessons, and in turn, increase the
behavioural frequency of students demonstrating values such as respect,
responsibility, resilience, integrity, care and harmony during lessons. More
significantly, from an application perspective, the integration of the framework to
facilitate values inculcation in sports did not reduce students’ enjoyment and actual
skill development aspects of the sports activity.
One limitation of this study is that measures of values-based behaviours were
self-reported. As such, participants may have biased views of their own behaviours
or be compelled to present themselves in a more positive light by inflating their
scores (i.e., social desirability). However, the negative effects of self-report bias
were considerably reduced by collecting data at two different points in time (T1
and T2), as temporal separation have been argued to reduce common method
variance by allowing earlier responses to leave short-term memory, diminishing
participants’ ability to use prior responses to answer subsequent questions.21
Another potential limitation of this study is that evidence for positive character
development was based on short-term, self-reported behavioural change measures.
To truly determine the enduring effects of the treatment or framework intervention,
more objective indicators or the use of longitudinal studies must be employed.
Nevertheless, preliminary findings have showed the potential of the framework
in developing character and leadership development through sports, it is
recommended that further research be done to explicate the findings and address its
limitations. The effectiveness of the framework can be investigated with other
samples, such as those of different cultures and age groups, and validated with
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more objective indicators of positive character development/change such as using
coaches’ ratings to assess character development in individuals instead of a selfreport scale.
Moving forward, expanded applications of the framework are already being
considered. Game-For-Life framework has been adopted by tertiary academic
institutions in Singapore such as Ngee Ann Polytechnic and the Institute of
Technical Education (ITE). A possible application, which has been implemented
by ITE, is to infuse the framework into a course or module for sports coaching to
educate future coaches on how to develop leadership and character through sports.
Besides using the Game-For-Life framework in academic or sport institutions,
it can also be modified to be applicable in other settings such as the corporate
world. Sport Singapore has recently initiated the Team Development Through
Sports (TDTS) programme, which is based off principles from Game-For-Life –
however, instead of seeking to enhance character development, TDTS essentially
seeks to enhance the team constructs of team trust, team communication, team
accountability, team belief and team satisfaction. The framework is applied
through the design of sports situations to bring to bear different behaviours
associated within a team context.
Conclusion
Sport Singapore conducted an impact analysis study to determine the
effectiveness of the framework for inculcating values as part of the schools’ sports
curriculum. The impact analysis study employed a combination of a treatmentcontrol and pre-post research design over a school term of approximately ten
weeks. Two scales were developed to measure sports educators’ application of the
framework principles and students’ demonstration of values-based behaviours
during sports lessons. Overall, the results provide positive evidence that the
framework is effective in supporting sports educators to integrate and apply
various values inculcation principles and practices into their existing sports
curriculum and lessons, and in turn, increase the behavioural frequency of students
demonstrating values-based behaviours during sports lessons. Finally, the
integration of the framework to facilitate values inculcation in sports did not reduce
students’ enjoyment and actual skill development aspects of the sports lesson.
Effectiveness of Character and Leadership Development through Sport using
Game For Life Framework
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Notes
1
Quoted in Plato, ‘Protagoras’, In Readings in the history of education, ed.
Ellwood P. Cubberley (New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1920), 46.
2
Christopher F. Armstrong, ‘The lessons of sport: Class socialization in British
and American boarding schools’, Sociology of Sport Journal 1 (1984): 314-331.
3
Carwyn Jones, ‘Character, virtue and physical education’, European Physical
Education Review 11, no. 2 (2005): 139-151.
4
Peter J. Arnold, ‘The virtues, moral education, and the practice of sport’, Quest
51, no. 1 (1999): 39-54.
5
Andy Rudd and Sharon Stoll, ‘What type of character do athletes possess? An
empirical examination of college athletes versus college non-athletes with the
RSBH value judgment inventory’, The Sport Journal 7, no. 2 (2004): 1-10.
6
Ibid.
7
Matthew Vierimaa, et al., ‘Positive youth development: A measurement
framework for sport’, International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 7, no. 3
(2012): 601-614.
8
Matt L. Davidson, Kelli Moran-Miller and Jeffrey P. Beedy, Performance and
moral character: A blueprint or developing character in competitive context (New
York: Center for the 4th and 5th Rs, 2004).
9
Daniel Gould, Dana K. Voelker and Jed Blanton, ‘Future directions in youth
leadership research in sport’, In Sport for development, peace and social justice,
eds. Robert J. Schinke and Stephanie J. Hanrahan (Mogantown, WV: Fitness
Information Technology, 2012), 163-180.
10
C. Roger Rees, Frank M. Howell and Andrew W. Miracle, ‘Do high school
sports build character? A quasi-experiment on a national sample’, The Social
Science Journal 27, no. 3 (1990): 303-315.
11
See results of Robert F. Priest, Jerry V. Krause and Johnston Beach, ‘Four-year
changes in college athletes’ ethical value choices in sports situations’, Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 70, no. 2 (1999): 170-178.
12
See results of David E. Conroy, et al., ‘Personal and participatory socializers of
the perceived legitimacy of aggressive behavior in sport’, Aggressive Behavior 27
(2001): 405-418.
13
Quoted in David L. Shields and Brenda J. Bredemeier, Character development
and physical activity (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers), 178.
14
George Sage, ‘Does sport affect character development in athletes?’, Journal of
Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 69, no. 1 (1998): 15-18.
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15
Martin Camiré and Pierre Trudel, ‘High school athletes' perspectives on
character development through sport participation’, Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy 15, no. 2 (2010): 193-207.
16
Angela Lumpkin, ‘Building character through sports’, Strategies: A Journal for
Physical and Sport Educators 24, no. 6 (2011): 13-15.
17
Stacey A. Gaines, ‘Theory into practice: Developing individual and team
character in sport’, Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators 25, no.
8 (2012): 30-33.
18
See results of Daniel Gould, Ryan Flett and Larry Lauer, ‘The relationship
between psychosocial developmental and the sports climate experienced by
underserved youth’, Psychology of Sport and Exercise 13, no. 1 (2012): 80-87.
19
Maureen Weiss, ‘2007 C. H. McCloy lecture’, Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport 79, no. 4 (2008): 434-449.
20
See results of Sandra Gibbons, Vicki Ebbeck and Maureen Weiss, ‘Fair play for
kids: Effects on the moral development of children in physical education’,
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 66 (1995): 247-255.
21
Philip M. Podsakoff, et al., ‘Common method biases in behavioral research: A
critical review of the literature and recommended remedies’, Journal of Applied
Psychology 88 (2009): 879-903.
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Game For Life Framework
__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
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