KANT
Kant was looking for some sort of
objective basis for morality – a
way of knowing our duty.
He came up with two kinds of imperatives
or rules that we should follow:
Hypothetical imperatives
Categorical imperatives
THE HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE
Hypothetical imperatives are not moral
commands, because they do not apply to
everyone.
You only need obey them if you want to
achieve a certain ‘goal’ – a hypothetical
imperative always starts with ‘if’.
 For example:
If I want to lose weight I ought to go on a
diet and exercise more.
• A hypothetical imperative:
a.depends on the results and
b.aims at personal well-being.
THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
Categorical imperatives, on the other
hand, are moral commands and do not
begin with an if.
They tell everyone what to do and do not
depend on anything, especially desires or
goals.
They apply to everyone because they are
based on an objective absolute law of
reason.
HOW CAN WE TELL WHICH IMPERATIVE ARE
CATEGORICAL?

Kant suggested 3 basic tests:
1.
CAN IT REASONABLY BECOME A UNIVERSAL
LAW?
Kant calls this the Formula of the Law of Nature.
I.e. before you act, ask yourself whether you would like
everyone in the same situation to act in the same way.
If not, then you are involved in a contradiction and
what you are thinking of doing is wrong because it is
against reason.
 Kant uses promise-keeping as an example:
Promise-breaking for my own interest cannot
logically be a universal law. If everyone broke
promises, then there would be no point in
making promises – this is inconsistent and so
cannot be a moral imperative.
 However Kant’s followers disagree about how to
apply this universal law test.
Richard Hare suggests that you should:
a. try to understand the consequences of
following a moral principle on the people
affected.
b. try to imagine yourself in the place of
these individuals.
c. Ask yourself whether you want the
principle to be followed regardless of
where you imagine yourself in the
situation.
2. NEVER TREAT PEOPLE AS A MEANS
TO AN END.
Kant calls this the Formula of End in Itself.
He means that we should not exploit
others.
We should not consider ourselves superior
or different to others. To be consistent we
need to value everyone equally.
EXAMPLE:
Imagine you propose a hydro-electric
power scheme on the Turkish banks of the
River Tigris. Lower down the river Turkish
and Iraqi communities would suffer as a
consequence of the reduction in the water
supply. The benefits of the dam for some
areas would be good, but by harming
some people in order to achieve the
general good you would be treating those
people as a means to an end. Therefore
the dam would be morally wrong.
Kant noted the illogical nature of projects
that use people in pursuit of the general
good.
It is self-contradictory for you to act in a
way that devalues the worth of the human
being, whilst seeking to do something for
the good of humankind.
Kant’s principle of humanity as an end
also refers to the moral agent.
It would be wrong for you to starve in order
to give to the poor, since all people are of
equal value.
Shakespeare’s ‘Timon of Athens’
illustrates this: his generosity to others in
good times leads to him becoming
destitute himself. His kindness results in
his own destruction.
Kant would say this is morally wrong.
3. ACT AS IF YOU ARE A MEMBER OF
THE UNIVERSAL KINGDOM OF ENDS.
Kant calls this the Formula of a Kingdom
of Ends.
He is describing a state of affairs in which
all members of a society desire the same
good; a society that the moral laws are
designed to achieve. These goods are the
common ends of humanity. Kant wants to
achieve a state of affairs where conflict is
removed and all people realise their
common aims.
 The intuitive idea behind this formulation
is that our fundamental moral obligation is
to act only on principles which could earn
acceptance by a community of fully
rational agents each of whom have an
equal share in legislating these principles
for their community.
How is this achieved?
Consider: You meet with a group of people
from your area because things are chaotic
in your town or village. You need to sit
down with them and draw up moral
principles (maxims) that will establish a
good, moral society. When you discuss
your ideas with the other people in the
room, you suddenly realise that they share
your ideas. You meet them and, slowly but
surely, you draw up laws for your society.
Kant believed that most humans are
rational. They prefer the moral life to the
immoral.
Kant knew that it is not possible to realise
this in life; but the process must be
attempted.
The universal kingdom of ends must be
pursued.
QUESTIONS
Kant suggests that where there is a clash of duties, we
know what takes precedence by following the
categorical imperative. Does this work? Discuss the
following:
1. It is your turn to make a presentation in class and you
are running late. On the way you witness a car crash
and are asked to wait to make a statement to the
police.
2. If only actual persons are ends in themselves, how
would a Kantian approach a student who accidentally
becomes pregnant and decides to have an abortion so
as to continue her studies?
3. “If I had to choose between betraying my country and
betraying my friend I hope I should have the guts to
betray my country.” E.M.Forster. Do you agree?