Hukou Identity, Education
and Migration:
The Case of Guangdong
Jianfa SHEN
Department of Geography and Resource Management
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
Contents
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Introduction
Data and methodology
Effect of hukou status on occupation
Effect of hukou identity on migration
Conclusion
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Introduction
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Hukou (household registration) system
 During 1950s to early 1980s, Chinese society was
divided into urban and rural areas separately
Individuals are registered in a particular place
 under hukou categories of agricultural population
and non-agricultural population
Urban residents with hukou category of non-agricultural
population
 were eligible for much economic and welfare
benefit such as education, housing and employment
The concept of hukou identity in this paper is defined
based on such hukou category
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Introduction
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Since the early 1980s, Chinese people have been
allowed to move to other places without change
their place of hukou registration
 Hukou status: with or without local hukou
Temporary population
 people without local hukou
Hukou population
 people with local hukou
Temporary (non-hukou) migrants
 without local hukou
Permanent (hukou) migrants
 with local hukou
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Hukou system and migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Introduction
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Previous studies focused on the impact of hukou
status on migration
 The temporary migrants were treated as a
homogenous group
Different hukou identities of agricultural and nonagricultural populations will also affect migration
outcome
 Agricultural population is more likely to
engage in temporary migration
 Difference in permanent and temporary
migration is also related to the difference in
education level
 Effect of spatial scale on migration
• hukou constrains on temporary migrants
are only effective for temporary migrants
from outside a city
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Introduction
 Research question
 Is the observed effect of hukou
status on migration affected by
• Education level
• Hukou category
• Spatial scale of migration?
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Data and methodology
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Guangdong for a case study
 Rapid industrialization and urbanization since the 1980s
• Driven by foreign investment
• Migrant workers are the main production force
 Largest destination of temporary migration
• A temporary population of 25.30 million
• 15.06 million from other provinces in 2000
One per thousand sampling data
 In 2000, 9.44% of the population was asked to
complete a long census form in Guangdong
 The data set used is a 1% sample of people completing
the long census form
Sample population of 78684
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non-migrants
new migrants who migrated in the five-year period 1995-2000
old migrants who had ever migrated before 1 November 1995
This paper will focus on the non-migrants and new migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Data and methodology
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The occupation data will be used to represent the migration
outcome
The difference between permanent and temporary migration
would be identified
 education level will be controlled
Temporary migrants would also be differentiated according to
their original place of hukou
 within same county-level unit, within same province or
other provinces
 to examine the impact of spatial scale on migration
The impact of hukou category of agricultural population and
non-agricultural population on migration will be examined
 controlling the education level and the hukou status
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou status on
occupation
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Majority of non-migrants had low occupational status
 64.27% of male non-migrants were peasants
 17.49% of male non-migrants were employed as
plant and machine operators
Male permanent migrants were distributed more
evenly among low and high occupations
 10.68% were managers and administrators
 25.05% were professionals
 27.57% plant and machine operators
Male temporary migrants were in the types of
 plant and machine operators (57.20%)
 sales and services workers (21.49%)
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou status on
occupation
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The spatial scale has clear impact on the
migration outcome
 temporary migrants from the same countylevel unit had an occupational profile close to
that of permanent migrants, much better than
that of non-migrants.
 the temporary migrants from other provinces
had the lowest socio-economic status
Lots of female permanent migrants were peasants
due to many rural to rural permanent migration for
marriage
There was little gender difference among
temporary migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou status on
occupation
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When education level was controlled
The temporary migrants from the same county-level unit had
an occupational profile
 close to or better than that of permanent migrants
Temporary migrants from outside the province had lower
occupation status than both permanent migrants and nonmigrants
 indicating their disadvantageous position
The social-economic status declines from
 permanent migrants
 temporary migrants from the same county-level unit
 non-migrants
 temporary migrants from outside the county-level unit
of the same province
 temporary migrants from outside the province
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
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The hukou identity has major implications to people’s social and
welfare in China
Most permanent migrants have hukou category of non-agricultural
population
Most temporary migrants have hukou category of agricultural
population and most of them come from other provinces
The observed difference in permanent and temporary migrants
 could result from the difference in the hukou status or the
difference in hukou identity or both
Agricultural population had lower education level than nonagricultural population
For non-agricultural population
 Both permanent and temporary migrants had better education
level than non-migrants
 The permanent migrants had better education than temporary
migrants
For agricultural population
 temporary migrants had better education than permanent
migrants which had better education than non-migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
Table 6 Comparing education levels of permanent and temporary migrants with
hukou category of non-agricultural population aged 15-64
Education level
NonPermanent Temporary Hukou in Hukou in Hukou Total
migrants migrants
migrants
same
same
outside migrants
county- province province
level unit
Male
Illiterate/semi illiterate
15.73
0.00
0.33
0.57
0.28
0.16
0.22
Primary
0.12
4.42
3.78
4.53
4.96
2.50
3.99
Lower Secondary
41.09
17.94
28.90
22.08
31.96
32.81 25.31
Higher
Secondary/Technical
34.21
37.22
41.81
42.26
47.11
38.44 40.31
University and above
8.85
40.43
25.18
30.57
15.70
26.09 30.18
Subtotal
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Female
Illiterate/semi illiterate
4.16
0.63
0.92
0.92
1.11
0.81
0.82
Primary
22.49
5.75
6.31
7.02
8.03
4.68
6.12
Lower Secondary
36.70
22.50
30.90
20.15
37.40
36.51 28.01
Higher
Secondary/Technical
28.88
40.25
44.18
46.03
43.21
43.13 42.83
University and above
7.78
30.88
17.69
25.88
10.25
14.86 22.23
Subtotal
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
Table 7 Comparing education levels of permanent and temporary migrants with
hukou category of agricultural population aged 15-64
Education level
NonPermanent Temporary Hukou in Hukou in Hukou Total
migrants migrants
migrants
same
same
outside migrants
county- province province
level unit
Male
Illiterate/semi illiterate
1.39
0.00
0.43
0.84
0.54
0.38
0.43
Primary
32.05
20.34
13.69
17.72
14.15
13.36 13.75
Lower Secondary
54.58
61.02
65.56
44.30
65.01
66.76 65.52
Higher
Secondary/Technical
11.72
16.95
19.13
36.71
19.21
18.24 19.11
University and above
0.26
1.69
1.19
0.42
1.09
1.26
1.20
Subtotal
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Female
Illiterate/semi illiterate
7.78
1.52
1.32
5.03
2.37
0.86
1.33
Primary
45.03
32.83
18.53
28.30
23.54
16.81 19.29
Lower Secondary
40.69
58.84
69.32
44.03
62.72
72.31 68.77
Higher
Secondary/Technical
6.20
6.82
10.41
22.33
10.90
9.61 10.22
University and above
0.31
0.00
0.42
0.31
0.47
0.42
0.40
Subtotal
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
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The temporary migrants had no disadvantage in education
comparing with permanent migrants of the agricultural
population
They had disadvantages in education only when compared
with non-agricultural population
Simple comparisons of permanent and temporary migrants
ignored the significant impact of hukou identity and
education level on migration outcome
The poor education provision for agricultural population may
be a fundamental factor in the poor economic performance
of current temporary migrants
The hukou identity is yet another important factor in addition
to the hukou status
The impact of hukou status can only be shown precisely by
controlling hukou identity and education level
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
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Considering the people with only primary education, hukou
category had clear impact on the occupation status
 Over 40% permanent migrants were peasants for
agricultural population
 Less than 8% permanent migrants were peasants for
non-agricultural population
Temporary migrants were less likely to be peasants for both
agricultural and non-agricultural population
There was no negative effect of hukou status on temporary
migrants from the same county-level units
Permanent migrants only had advantage over temporary
migrants from outside the county-level units
Non-migrants with local hukou, especially male nonmigrants of non-agricultural population, also had no clear
advantage over temporary migrants
Low occupation status of temporary migrants is largely due
to their primary education which is lower than that of most
permanent migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
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Considering the people with only lower secondary education
Hukou category had some impacts on the occupation status
 Among temporary migrants, non-agricultural population was
more likely to be managers and administrators, professionals,
clerks, and sales and services workers than agricultural
population
For male agricultural population
 The permanent migrants had the best occupation status,
followed by temporary migrants from the county-level units,
temporary migrants from outside the county-level units and
non-migrants
For female agricultural population
 The temporary migrants from the county-level units had the
best occupation profile, followed by temporary migrants from
outside the county-level units, non-migrants and permanent
migrants
Temporary hukou status has negative effect on male agricultural
population but not on female agricultural population
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
Table 8 Comparing occupation profiles of non-migrants, permanent and temporary
migrants for working population aged 15-64 with lower secondary education
Occupation
NonPermanent Hukou in
migrants migrants
same
countylevel unit
Agricultural Population, Male
Managers and administrators
Professionals
Clerks
Sales and services workers
Peasants
Plant and machine operators
Other
Subtotal
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
1.31
0.69
1.43
7.52
71.33
17.69
0.02
100.00
7.69
3.85
3.85
23.08
34.62
26.92
0.00
100.00
3.66
2.44
2.44
40.24
3.66
47.56
0.00
100.00
Hukou in
same
province
1.63
0.75
5.51
31.70
5.64
54.76
0.00
100.00
Hukou
outside
province
0.48
0.74
3.49
11.43
1.22
82.58
0.06
100.00
Migrants
0.82
0.79
3.87
16.11
2.36
76.00
0.05
100.00
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
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For male non-agricultural population with lower secondary
education
 The temporary migrants from the county-level units
had the best occupation status, followed by permanent
migrants, non-migrants and temporary migrants from
outside the county-level units
For female non-agricultural population with lower secondary
education
 The temporary migrants from the county-level units
had the best occupation status, followed by nonmigrants, temporary migrants from outside the countylevel units of the same province, permanent migrants,
and temporary migrants from other provinces
Once again, permanent migrants had no universal
advantage over temporary migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
Table 8 Comparing occupation profiles of non-migrants, permanent and temporary
migrants for working population aged 15-64 with lower secondary education
Occupation
Agricultural
Population,
Male
Non-Agricultural
Population,
Male
and administrators
ManagersManagers
and administrators
Professionals
Professionals
Clerks
Clerks
Sales and services workers
Sales and services workers
Peasants
Peasants
Plant and machine operators
Plant andOther
machine operators
Other Subtotal
Subtotal
NonPermanent Hukou in
migrants migrants
same
countylevel unit
Hukou in
same
province
Hukou
outside
province
Migrants
1.31
4.53
0.69
3.36
1.43
6.86
7.52
34.31
71.33
13.28
17.69
37.66
0.02
100.00
7.69
3.75
3.85
6.25
3.85
6.25
23.08
27.50
34.62
1.25
26.92
55.00
0.00
100.00
3.66
7.89
2.44
1.32
2.44
6.58
40.24
38.16
3.66
3.95
47.56
42.11
0.00
1.63
3.88
0.75
0.00
5.51
4.85
31.70
46.60
5.64
2.91
54.76
41.75
0.00
0.48
2.45
0.74
1.96
3.49
9.80
11.43
19.61
1.22
1.47
82.58
64.71
0.06
0.82
3.89
0.79
2.16
3.87
7.56
16.11
30.02
2.36
2.16
76.00
54.21
0.05
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
100.00
100.00
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Effect of hukou identity on
migration
 There was no negative effect of
hukou status on temporary migrants
from the same county-level units
 Permanent migrants only had
advantage over temporary migrants
from outside the county-level units or
other provinces
 Non-migrants with local hukou also
had no clear advantage over
temporary
migrants
especially
agricultural population
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Conclusions
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As a society with a dual structure of urban and rural sectors, an
important research question is
 whether an individual’s mobility and migration outcome are
constrained and affected by their hukou identity and hukou status
in China
This paper argues that the migration outcome of temporary migrants
depends on
 not only their temporary hukou status
 but also their hukou identity largely as agricultural population and
low level of education
As revealed in this paper, temporary migrants with hukou identity of
non-agricultural population, high level of education or from the same
county-level cities
 do have higher socio-economic status than non-migrants and even
permanent migrants
The observed low status of temporary migrants
 being mostly with low level of education, a hukou category of
agricultural population and from outside the province
 is a result of their education level, hukou identity, temporary
hukou status and the spatial scale of inter-provincial migration
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Conclusions
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Although inter-provincial temporary migrants from outside
Guangdong do suffer from their temporary hukou status
The fundamental cause of their low socio-economic status after
migration
 lies in the unfavourable socio-economic environment and
educational opportunity at their rural origin with a hukou
identity of agricultural population
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Conclusions
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The story goes on as follows
 The rural population is assigned a hukou identity of
agricultural population
 Such population has less chance to receive secondary or
higher education either because of lack of the provision of
education in rural areas
 The local urban population is assigned a hukou identity of
non-agricultural population, is better educated and is given
more opportunities for permanent migration
 Thus permanent migrants are mainly better educated with
hukou identity of non-agricultural population while
temporary migrants are mainly poor educated with hukou
identity of agricultural population
 Such temporary migrants especially those from other
provinces further surfer from institutional and job market
discrimination even with the same level of education in
comparison with permanent migrants or non-migrants
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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Thank You!
Prof. SHEN Jianfa, CUHK Geography
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