Biology Exam Review
Name____________________________
EXAM STUDY GUIDE
Date_______________ Period________
A. Macromolecules (PowerPoints A5 and A6)
Cells and their organelles are made up of smaller building blocks called __________________.
The 4 basic types of these are: ______________, _______________, _____________________,
__________________________.
Macromolecules are actually made up of even smaller subunits. Each subunit of a macromolecule is called a
_________________.
The macromolecules themselves are called ________________, because they are made up of many of these
subunits.
Lipids are made up of…
Monomer (basic unit): _____________________________.
Polymer (chain of units): lipids
Specific examples: ______________, _____________________, and ____________________.
Properties of Lipids caused by:
_________________ (solid at room temp) vs. __________________ (liquid at room temp)
___________ head and __________ tail regions
_______________________ (likes water) and _________________________ (doesn’t like or “fears” water)
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3 Functions of Lipids are:
1. Make up the _______ _____________________, providing cell _______________
2. Provide _______________________ (fat keeps body warm)
3. Long-term _______________ _________________________.
Lipids are found in foods like: _________________________, ___________, ______________,
__________ & ___________.
The indicator test for lipids (to prove that a certain food has fats in it) __________ __________ test.
Proteins are made up of (subunits) ______________ ______________. _______ different kinds!!
Polymer (chain of units): Protein……..More specifically, a protein is called a _________________________.
Functions of proteins are to ___________________ and __________________ muscle and tissue
_______________________ are proteins that speed up chemical reactions! Their _____________ determines
their _________________________ !!!
Other examples of proteins are _________________ (treats diabetics) and ______________________ (attaches
O2 to red blood cells.)
Proteins are found in these foods: _____________, ____________, ___________________, _________,
_______, ____________, ____________, and _________ _________________.
The indicator test for proteins is _________________: turns from ___________ to ____________ if protein is
present.
Carbohydrates are made up of…Monomer (basic unit): ____________ ____________ (or
_________________________________________( literally means 1 sugar)
Ex.: glucose
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Polymer (chain of units): complex __________________________ (or ____________________________-literally means many sugars)
Ex.: starch, cellulose, chitin, glycogen
****remember….some words that end with ___________ means they are also sugars!
_______________ carbs (simple sugars) are found in ___________ and __________, __________,
______________, and ______________.
They are _______________ digested and give a __________ ___________ of ______________.
__________________ carbs (like _________________) are found in ____________, __________,
_______________, ______________, & _______________.
They take __________________ to digest, and provide _______________ _________________.
The indicator test for Carbohydrates are actually 2 different tests:
1. Simple Sugars:
2. Complex Carbohydrates:
_________ solution
Blue solution turns ________________
_______________ solution (aka:_______________)
Turns from orange-red-brown to ___________-purple
Nucleic Acids are made up of…Monomers (basic unit): _________________________
Polymers (chain of units): _________ (double strand) or ___________ (single strand).
Its shape is called a ____________-_____________.
_________________ &_______________ are credited with its discovery in the 1950’s.
Function is to ________________ and ________________ your ___________________ information.
B. Enzymes (PowerPoints A7 and A8)
Enzymes are ______________ that ____________________________ chemical reactions.
They cause change, so they are also called __________________________.
Reactions can occur without enzymes, but they may take a really long time. Enzymes _________ the amount of
energy needed for the reaction to take place.
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Some enzymes can _____________ _______________ substances into smaller parts:
Other enzymes can ___________________ substances that cells need:
Each enzyme is _______________ for one substrate (the substance it binds to).
The enzyme and substrate fit together like a _______________ and ______________.
When the substrate and enzyme ____________, the enzyme actually __________ its _________ a little.
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Once an enzyme has finished with one reaction, it’s ready for another. Enzymes are ___________________.
Do enzymes ALWAYS work? __________ - There are two factors that can __________________ enzymes, or
alter the enzyme’s shape and stop it from doing its job. They are: __________________ & ________.
Their _____________ determines their _________________________ !!!
Has the enzyme been destroyed? _____________!
Denatured” does not mean the enzyme has been __________________. It has simply lost its ____________.
Enzymes can be “re-natured.” If they are returned to normal ______________or (condition), they will regain
_______________.
Enzymes work ________ at an optimal _______________ and _________ level specific for that enzyme.
**Not all enzymes function at the same ____________ or __________!!**
_______________- enzyme in mouth
Which ones work at the same pH?
_______________- enzyme in stomach
_____________________ &
_______________- enzyme in intestines
_________________________
Most enzyme names end with the letters -_______, that’s how you know it’s an ____________or ___________.
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C. Cell Organelles (PowerPoint A9)
1. The _________________ is the region between nucleus and cell membrane containing _________________,
a _______-________ fluid that surrounds all cell parts and keeps them ________________ inside the cell.
2. ____________________ are threadlike structures that allow a cell to ____________ by rotating and propelling
the cell forward.
3. The ________________________ supplies the cell with most of its __________ in the form of _________
(adenosine triphosphate). This is why it is commonly called the “_____________________” of the cell.
What is the purpose of folding the inner membrane of this structure? To ____________________ surface area
for ________________ production during _______________________ cellular respiration.
4. ________________________ are the ________________ organelles in a cell, and they are not surrounded by a
membrane. They are responsible for making ___________________, aka: _____________ _______________.
5. Commonly called the “_________________” or “______________” center of the cell, this structure contains
the cell’s instructions, or ____________ (genetic material).
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6. The cell ____________________ encloses the cell and _____________________ the cell interior. It also plays
a role in the __________________ of particles into and out of the cell, and cell to cell ___________________.
7. The cell __________ is a thick layer that surrounds the cell membrane for extra _________________ and
_____________________ support. It is typically made of _________________________.
8. ______________________ are green colored organelles that use ______________ energy to make carbon
compounds that can provide the ________________with energy in a process called _____________________.
The pigment that makes these organelles appear green is called ________________________.
9. This is a large, internal compartment of the cell that stores ________________, ions, ___________________,
and _____________________. It also helps the plant cell keep its __________________ by filling up much of
the empty space in the cytoplasm.
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***Label the following Animal, Plant, and Bacterial cell diagrams***
Summarize how the cell’s organelles interact to carry out the following functions: (Google it!!)
1. Energy production and use: _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. Transport of molecules: _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. Disposal of wastes: _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Synthesis of new molecules: _________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
D. Prokaryotes / Eukaryotes / Microscopy (PowerPoints A10 and A11)
There are two basic cell types:
__________________________(simple cells) & __________________________(complex cells)
No nucleus
Has a nucleus
No organelles
Has organelles
Cells are very, very small- about .1 – 1 µm
Cells are much larger
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Example: E. coli (a type of bacteria)
Very small in size
Example: Animal, Plant, Fungi, Protist
very large in size compared to
the size of the bacterium
These structures are found in both types of cells: _________________________ (protein synthesis),
____________ & ____________ (genetic information)
The shape of DNA in Prokaryotes is _________________________(called a _________________), compared
to the ________________ _____________________ found in Eukaryotes!
Microscopy
Microscope Usage
•
Always carry the microscope with one hand on the _________ and one hand on the _________.
•
Always look to the _________when ____________________the objectives.
•
Always begin viewing specimen on the ________________ power, then work up.
•
The coarse adjustment must only be used on the _________________power. Use ____________
adjustment on higher powers.
•
To calculate total magnification of microscope:
_______________________ X ________________________
(Eyepiece always ________x.)
Example: If objective lens is set on 15x, what is the total magnification of the microscope? ____________
What is the purpose of using the more powerful scanning and electron microscopes to look at the different
cell types? _____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
E. Homeostasis & Cell Transport (PowerPoints A4 and A13)
•
Homeo – means “_________________”
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•
-stasis – means “______________________”
•
Therefore, homeostasis is an organism’s ability to _______________ its _____________________
________________________ the _________________ in order to survive.
Internal conditions must be kept at a constant state so that your _____________, ___________ __________,
___________________, and __________________ can properly function.
1. Temperature: Maintained on cellular level by _________________ in cells (water _________________
__________ in temperature) Maintained at the body level by _________________ and __________________
2. pH
•
Body has chemicals called _______________________ that _____________ pH ________________.
•
Some body fluids need to be:
–
Acidic – _____________________ (gastric juice), ____________________
–
Basic – ______________________, and _________________
3. Blood Glucose Levels
•
Body maintains the correct amount of _______________ (glucose) in the blood by ____________ and
____________________ food, then using and ______________________ the products
•
_____________________ is a disease associated with the ____________________ to control blood
_____________________ levels.
•
_____________________________ is when your blood sugar level is too high.
•
_____________________________ is when your blood sugar level is too low.
•
Blood sugar levels are controlled by _______________________-
___________________: decreases blood glucose levels
________________: increases blood glucose levels
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4. Water Balance
•
Organisms are ______% - ______% water
•
Water is needed for maintaining correct ________________ and transporting __________________
throughout the body
•
However, too much water can be ________________
•
The ________________ maintains its correct water balance through the __________
___________________, called (_______________________).
•
Body maintains water balance primarily through ___________________________________ (by
producing ___________________)

Water Loss: There are several ways in which your body can lose water:
___________________ air, ______________________ through moist surfaces like the cornea (eye),
____________________, ________________, _____________________, _______________,
_____________________, and _____________________.

Water gain: There are three ways in which your body gets water: __________________,
_____________ content of _________________, Tissue _______________________________.
Water is important for homeostasis because:
a. Makes a good __________________ .
b. ____________________ temperature change, because it has a high specific heat capacity!
c. Universal ___________________ many substances __________________ in it.
d. _____________________ helps to dissipate heat.
Cell Transport
•
It consists of 2 layers of __________________ with their tails pointed inward. These lipids are called
_______________________________. Their heads are _____________________ (attracted to water)
and tails are _____________________________ (repel water).
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It also contains several different types of ________________________, ______________________ markers,
and ___________________________.
Types of Cell Transport
• Passive Transport- this type of transport requires ___________ energy because particles
travel from where they are _____________ concentrated to a __________concentrated
area. They travel ________________the concentration gradient.
There are 2 types of Passive Transport (diffusion)
____________________________ and
_____________________________
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Types of cell membrane PROTEINS
•
Channel proteins are _____________________ in the cell membrane & have a _______________for
materials to use to cross through the membrane.
•
Carrier proteins can change ______________ to move material from one side of the membrane to the
other
• Active Transport- this type of transport _________________ energy. Particles travel
from __________ concentration to ___________ concentration. In other words, they
move _____________________ or _________ the concentration gradient.
__________________ Transport
_________________ Transport
______________________ is when molecules move from high concentration to an area of low concentration.
______________________ is when water moves from high concentration to an area of low concentration.
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Changes in Osmotic Pressures
10% NaCL
90% H2O
________________
_____________
No Net Movement
Cytolysis
_________________
Plasmolysis
ENVIRONMENT
CELL
10% NaCL
90% H2O
________________________________________________
10% NaCL
90% H2O
CELL
20% NaCL
80% H2O
_______________________________________________
15% NaCL
85% H2O
ENVIRONMENT
CELL
5% NaCL
95% H2O
_______________________________________________
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F. Energy, Cell Respiration, and Photosynthesis (PowerPoints A15 and A16)
The synthesizing of energy molecules is vital for maintaining _________________________ in an organism.
__________________________ in cells make the energy molecule __________. This release of this molecule
allows for the ____________ to function normally, thus allowing the _____________________ such as muscle,
bone, & skin, to perform properly. This action allows _____________________ of the organism, find
_______________and _______________(H2O), avoid __________________, make molecules such as
__________________ for repairing or building muscles or _____________________ to strengthen our bones,
or even to attract a _________________.
Cellular Respiration
Cell Respiration – _________________________ break down food to make ____________ (energy)
____________________________________________ are types of organisms which utilize cellular respiration.
Formula: C6H12O6 + 6O2
_______________
6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (heat and ATP)
______________________
What environmental factors might alter the rate of this reaction? ___________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
How is energy stored in this system? __________________________________________________________
How is energy released in the system? _________________________________________________________
How is energy transferred within this system? ___________________________________________________
2 Types of Fermentation are ___________ _____________ and ________________________
_________________________________– builds up in __________________ when they do no get enough
_________________  muscle fatigue
____________________________ – yeast cells produce ______ and ethyl alcohol (a.k.a._________________).
Aerobic
AEROBIC CONDITIONS:
(oxygen present)
Cell Respiration
_________ ATP
vs.
Anaerobic
ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS:
(no oxygen)
Fermentation
______ ATP
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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis – process _______________________ use to trap _______________ energy and build
__________________________ (glucose) that store energy. Takes place in the ________________________.
The green pigment is called _____________________________.
Formula: 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
______________________
C6H12O6 + 6O2
______________________
What environmental factors might alter the rate of this reaction? ___________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
How is energy stored in this process? __________________________________________________________
How is energy released in the process? _________________________________________________________
How is energy transferred within this system? ___________________________________________________
**How is energy transferred between Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis? ________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Compare the different types of Anaerobic and Aerobic organisms that use these systems._____
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
G. CHROMOSOMES: (Powerpoint
)
pieces of _______________ that carry _________________ (instructions for life)





Normal human body cells have ____________ chromosomes (1 set of 23 from mom, 1 set of 23 from dad)
These cells are called ____________________ because they have two sets of chromosomes.
Chromosomes come in __________________ (ex. two #1s, two #2’s, two #3s)
Chromosome pairs #1-22 are called _______________________________________.
Chromosome pair #23 are the sex chromosomes
Females = ___________
Males = ____________
A ______________________________ is a chart of a baby’s chromosomes. It can be used to determine the
gender of the baby and to detect chromosome abnormalities.
Example:
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This baby is a ________________________ and has
_________________ Syndrome (3 copies of chromosome #21).
Other common abnormalities:
____________________________________________ = woman with only one X
______________________________________________ = man with XXY
H. CELL CYCLE: how a cell grows and divides
Interphase --------------------------------------------> Mitosis -----------------------------------------------> Cytokinesis
Interphase:



G1 (Growth 1) – cell ________________________
S (Synthesis) – chromosomes (DNA) ___________________________ so that each new cell can have a
copy
G2 (Growth 2) – cell prepares for _____________________________
Mitosis:

Prophase – nucleus ____________________________, chromosomes ______________, spindle
___________________
 Metaphase – chromosomes line up in the _______________________, attached to spindle fibers
 Anaphase – chromosomes _____________________; each half is pulled to opposite ends of cell
 Telophase – nuclei ____________________, chromosomes ____________________, cell membrane starts
to pinch
Cytokinesis: ______________________ divides, cell splits into 2 cells
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OVERALL PURPOSE OF MITOSIS: _______________________ cell becomes
______________________________ cells. The daughter cells are _______________________ to each other
and to the parent cell (chromosomes and chromosome number is unchanged). Mitosis is a type of
_____________________ reproduction (offspring cells are identical to parent cell). Mitosis is used by some
unicellular organisms to ____________________________ and by multicellular organisms to
_________________ and to replace ___________________ cells.
I. GAMETES: cells that unite during sexual reproduction; sperm and egg




Have to have _______________ the number of chromosomes as a body cell (humans = ___________), so
when they unite they can make a baby with the correct number
Only a single set of chromosomes (one of each instead of a pair), so it is called a _____________________
cell
Need to have ________________________ so that no two children are the same except for identical twins
Process that makes gametes = __________________________________
Meiosis is the reason why sexually reproducing organisms have such genetic ______________________!
Meiosis creates sperm and eggs with ___________________________________________ (different
combinations of DNA):
1. During Step 1 above, pairs of chromosomes come together and ________________________ segments
of DNA. This is called ________________________________________ and it creates new
combinations of genes.
2. During Step 2 above, chromosomes line up in pairs. Each time this happens, they line up in different
patterns. This is called _____________________ or ______________________________ assortment.
3. When a unique sperm meets a unique egg (___________________________________), the
combination is even more unique.
More sources of variation:
4. DNA can _________________________ before gametes are formed.
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5. During Step 7 above, sometimes chromosomes do not separate like they should. This occurrence is
called _________________________________________, and it leads to sperm and eggs having the
wrong number of chromosomes.
* If either of these events occur in the sperm or egg involved in fertilization, the baby may be affected.
OVERALL PURPOSE OF MEIOSIS: _______________________ cell becomes
______________________________ cells. The resulting cells are _______________________ from each other
and from the parent cell (different chromosome combinations and chromosome number is halved). Meiosis is a
type of _____________________ reproduction (offspring cells are different from parent cell). Meiosis is used
to make ___________________________.
COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS:
Type of
Cell
Division
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
Purpose
# of cell
divisions
# of cells
made
# chromosomes
per cell
Type of
Reproduction
DNA: a macromolecule made up of subunits called ___________________________________. A nucleotide
has 3 parts: a __________________ (deoxyribose), a ________________________________, and a
______________________________ (adenine - A, thymine - T, cytosine - C, guanine - G). The nucleotides
form ________ strands that are connected by _____________________________ bonds and
_________________________ (“double helix”).
J. DNA Model
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If thought of as a ladder, the sides are the alternating _____________________________________________
backbone, and the “steps” are complementary __________________________________.


Base pairing rules: A pairs with _________, C pairs with __________
Give the complementary DNA strand to the DNA strand, C A G G T A.
ANSWER: _________________
DNA REPLICATION: process that produces an _______________________________ of a DNA molecule


Happens during the __________ part of interphase; must occur before cell _______________________ so
that each daughter cell can have a copy of the parent cell’s DNA
Steps:
1.
weak _________________________________________are broken, separating DNA into two
strands
2.
new ____________________________ pair with the exposed bases and form new hydrogen bonds
3.
new _______________________________ is joined together
MUTATIONS: a _______________________ in the DNA code




Often occurs when a mistake is made during DNA _____________________________
Includes ____________________________ changes (addition, deletion, or substitution) or chromosome
defects
Can be spontaneous (random) or caused by mutagens such as
_____________________________________________
Only mutations in ________________________ (sperm, egg) will be inherited by children
GENE EXPRESSION: the information in DNA (sequence of bases) is used to build a
_______________________
K. TRANSCRIPTION: DNA is used to make a copy of _______________
What is RNA? A nucleic acid that differs from DNA in 3 ways:
1.
2.
3.
___________________ (U) instead of thymine (T)
___________________ sugar instead of deoxyribose
__________________-stranded instead of double-stranded
Transcribe this DNA strand: T A C C C G A G T G T G
ANSWER:
_________________________________
3 major types of RNA:

_____________________________ RNA (mRNA) – takes DNA code (“the message”) from nucleus to
ribosome
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

ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – makes up part of ribosome
_____________________________ RNA (tRNA) – transports ______________________________ to
ribosome
L. TRANSLATION: Messenger RNA is “read” 3 bases at a time to make a protein

_____________________ = 3 bases that determines which amino acid will added to the protein
mRNA
=
AUGGGCUCACAC
(transcribed from DNA)
Protein/Polypeptide =
This protein synthesis process is similar for ALL organisms:




All organisms use ________________________________
Transcription and translation are similar for all organisms
All organisms use the same ________________________________________
Suggests that all organisms have a common _____________________________
Why are proteins important? Proteins can:



Be __________________________ – forming cell parts, tissue (ex. collagen – skin), hair (keratin)
Be __________________________ – hormones (ex. insulin), enzymes (ex. lactase), etc.
Determine ______________________________________ (phenotypes) such as hair color
In summary:
___________________________
DNA code -------------------------------------->
(sequence of A, T, C, G)
_________________________
mRNA code ---------------------------> PROTEIN
(sequence of A, U, C, G)
(sequence of amino acids)
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What if the DNA code is changed (mutated)? The instructions for making the protein are
__________________________. A single base change in DNA could change an
__________________________________, which could ___________________________ the function of the
protein or change the phenotype.
Example:
DNA code
Original: CAG
Mutated: CGG
RNA code
Amino acid
DIFFERENTIAL GENE EXPRESSION: Proteins can be made in different ________________________,
different ___________________, and in different cells.



Overproduction of protein – injury repair, cancer
Underproduction of protein – ex. diabetes
Protein production in response to _______________________________ - tanning (melanin)
M. CELL DIFFERENTIATION: process in which cells become different to make up different tissues, organs,
etc. in multicellular organisms




Nearly all cells in a multicellular organism have the same _______________ (coded instructions)
Cells become different because only ______________________________ of the DNA is used (“active”) in
each type of cell
The parts of DNA that are activated determine the
_______________________________________________ of the cell
Process cannot be _______________________ (a differentiated cell cannot go back to being
undifferentiated)
Process of cell differentiation/specialization:
FERTILIZATION: sperm and egg unite
__________________________ is formed
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Lots of _________________________
Ball of
__________________________________
(undifferentiated cells that have the potential
to become any type of cell)
___________________________________
= different genes become active in different
cells, causing cells to vary in shape and
function
Basic genetic terminology and concepts:









A ___________________ is a piece of DNA that codes for a protein/trait (ex. plant height)
An organism receives ____________ copies of that gene (one from mom, one from dad)
An ______________________ is a version of that gene (ex. tall and short)
Often, one allele is _____________________ over the other (the dominant allele masks the RECESSIVE
allele)
Alleles are written using letters. The ____________ letter of the dominant trait is used for both alleles; the
dominant allele letter is _______________________ and the recessive allele letter is
___________________________.
o Example:
If tall is dominant to short, tall is __________ and short is __________.
A _______________________ is two letters representing which alleles an organism inherited from its
parents
If the two letters are the same, the genotype is considered _______________________________________.
If the two letters are different, the genotype is considered ______________________________________.
A ______________________________ is the outward showing of a trait (a written description).
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Using phenotype to determine genotype and vice versa:
Ex.
Round peas are dominant to wrinkled peas. Ex.
Purple flowers are dominant to white.
Round peas ___________________
Heterozygous purple ________________
Wrinkled peas _________________
White _____________
Homozygous purple _______________
Ex.
Yellow peas are dominant to green peas.
YY
________________
yy
________________
Yy
________________
Punnett squares = way to solve genetic crosses between two parents to predict offspring
N. Types of Inheritance/Genetics Problems:
1.
Complete dominance (simple dominant/recessive)
a.
Rr x Rr
(round is dominant to wrinkled)
_____% round
_____% wrinkled
b.
What is the result of a heterozygous round crossed with a homozygous round?
________ x ________
_____% round
_____% wrinkled
c.
Which of the parents below produce offspring that were 50% round and 50% wrinkled?
RR x Rr
RR x rr
Rr x rr
rr x rr
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d.
_________________________ disease – dominant; breakdown of brain tissue ~ 30-50 years old
HH ______________
Hh ______________
A man heterozygous for Huntington’s has a child with a
hh _______________
normal woman. What’s the chance the child will have it?
_____% chance
e.
systems
______________________ - recessive; accumulation of mucus in respiratory and digestive
NN _______________
Nn _______________
nn ________________
Two carriers of CF have a child. What is the chance that
the child will have CF?
_____% chance
NOTE: Only ____________________________ diseases can have carriers!
Both Huntington’s disease and cystic fibrosis are called
___________________________________ because they affect men and women the same.
2.
Incomplete dominance – results in the ________________ of traits (“____________________”)
* example: black fur mice x white fur mice = _________ fur mice
BB = ________________
What would the offspring of 2 gray mice be like?
B’B’ = _______________
BB’ = ________________
_____% black, _____% gray, _____% white
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* example in humans: ________________________________________ - fatigue, joint aches, shortness
of breath
AA – _____________ (no sickling)
SS – _____________ (sickling)
normal.
Mom has SCA, dad is
AS – _____________ (some sickling)

3.
______ x ______
being a carrier makes you more resistant to _____________________, which explains why SCA
is more common among African Americans
Co-dominance – results in expression of ________________ traits (ex. dominecker chickens)
Multiple Alleles – there are __________________________ different forms (alleles) for the gene


example in humans: ___________________________________ (alleles: IA, IB, i)
IA and IB are co-dominant to one another, “i" is recessive
Type A: __________________
Mom is AB, dad is O.
Type B: __________________
________ x _________
Type AB: ____________
Type O: ____________
Children: _________________
Can a man with type A blood and a woman with type B blood have a baby with O blood?
4.
Sex Determination
* the chance of a man and woman having a son (or daughter) is ALWAYS _________%!!!
5.
Sex-Linked Traits – traits controlled by genes on the _______________ chromosomes
 Affects men and women differently!!!
* If trait is on:
- X and is dominant – more _________________ have it (ex. scoliosis)
- X and is recessive – more _______________ have it (ex. baldness, hemophilia, colorblindness)
- Y – only _____________ have it
Ex. Hemophilia is a recessive disease carried on the X chromosome.
N = ____________________________
n = __________________________________
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XNXN _____________________
XNY
_____________________
XNXn _____________________
XnY
_____________________
XnXn _____________________
A woman who is a carrier and a normal man have a child. What is the chance the child will have
hemophilia?
_________ x _________
Why is it that hemophilia is much more common in men??
7.
Polygenic Trait – trait controlled by _____________ genes; shows wide ________________ of
phenotypes


ex. hair color, eye color, skin color, height (humans)
hard to predict!
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------_________________________ - family tree showing a trait or disease
Common symbols:
Determining inheritance patterns from pedigrees:
1. If trait or disease shows up in every generation, it is probably ____________________________.
2. If trait or disease skips generation one or more generations, or if a child has it and both parents do not, or
if it shows carriers, it is definitely ______________________________.
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3. If one gender has it a lot more than the other (ex. men have it and women are carriers), it is probably a
_________________________________ trait.
Determining genotypes from pedigrees:
ex. Huntington’s disease
ex. cystic fibrosis
How environment can affect the expression of certain genetic diseases:




Lung/mouth cancer – can be influenced by both “cancer” genes and ______________________ use
Skin cancer – influenced by genetics of ________________ skin, sun exposure, and Vitamin D/folic acid
(anti-cancer agents)
Diabetes and heart disease – influenced by genes and _________________________________
PKU – genetic disease causes brain damage only if baby drinks _______________ products
O. GENETIC TECHNOLOGY
1. __________________________________________________ - 1990 – 2003, many countries involved
- purposes: ___________ and ________________________ all genes on the human genome
- uses: ____________________ of genetic diseases, identifying ______________________ of genetic
diseases, developing ___________________________ of genetic diseases (gene therapy)
2. ____________________________ – inserting a normal gene into the cell’s of someone with a defective
gene
 used to treat cystic fibrosis and other genetic diseases
 gene is “inserted” using a __________________ shell
3. ______________________________ - technique used to separate DNA fragments based on size
 DNA is sample is cut into pieces with ______________________________________________
 DNA is “loaded” into a gel and the gel is subjected to __________________________ charge
 DNA is negative and it travels toward the positive end
 Cut DNA fragments separate; ____________________ pieces travel farther through the gel
 The resulting banding pattern is called a DNA ________________________________, and because
it is unique to the person, it can be used in _________________ and _________________ cases. It
has also been used to identify missing persons and endangered species.
4. ______________________________________________________ = organisms that contain foreign
DNA
 Agricultural applications
o Plants and animals that contain DNA that is not their own are called
________________________________________________________
o Plants engineered to produce pesticides, frost-resistant crops
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
o Controversial because of unknown effects to humans and environment
Medical applications
o Bacteria engineered to produce human ________________________
o Process is called ___________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________




Stem cells = cells that can become any type of cell (ex. heart, lung, skin)
Two types: embryonic stem cells (from embryo) and adult stem cells (from bone marrow)
Under correct conditions, stem cells may be able to differentiate into different kinds of
__________________________________________, which may be used to treat certain human
disorders
Controversial
P. THEORIES about early Earth and the evolution of life:
1. _________________________________________________
(1923)
 early Earth was very ____________; atmosphere contained
inorganic molecules such as ammonia, hydrogen, water vapor,
methane (very little ____________________________)
 high temperatures, UV light, and lightning converted inorganic
molecules to simple molecules, then to more complex organic
molecules such as __________________________________
 when atmosphere cooled, organic molecules were washed into
the oceans where life began
 supported by a 1953 experiment (see right)
1. first organisms must have been simple
(______________________________) and did not require oxygen
(____________________________)
 evolution of organisms most likely followed this pattern:
prokaryotic
__________________________
_____________________
(oxygen)
aerobic
eukaryotic
& anaerobic

eukaryotic cells are thought to have evolved from symbiotic relationships between bacteria =
__________________________________________ theory
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Primate
% similarities between
primate DNA and human
DNA
A
95.3%
B
97.5%
Q. EVOLUTION: change in a population over time

Evidence for evolution:
1. _____________________ - trace of a long-dead organism
o can tell us what kind of organisms existed at various times in
Earth’s history, where they lived, their behavior, and
extinctions
Which fossil is oldest? ________
youngest? __________
Which fossil is about the same age as #1? ___________
2. ______________________ - body parts
o Some organisms have very similar bone structure.
= suggests
___________________________________________!
o Some organisms have structures with no present-day function (_________________________)
(ex. ostrich wings, human tail bones)
3. _____________________________________ similarities
o comparison of DNA, RNA, proteins
Which primate is most closely
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related to humans? _______________
C
94.8%

Mechanisms for evolution (how it happens)
1. _______________________________________ (#1 cause) – survival of the fittest
 The theory of natural selection (proposed by Charles Darwin) states:
o There must be ___________________________ in the traits of a population.
o There must be environmental __________________________ that favors one variation of the
trait over the other. (limited __________________________, predators, pollution, etc.)
My pond:
Organisms with the “better” traits will ____________________ better
and longer, live to _______________________, and pass those good
traits on to their offspring. The result will be an accumulation of
“good” traits and a population better suited for the environment.
My field:
2.
__________________________________________
________ - if the organisms in a population become
separated by physical barriers, they will no longer reproduce
and may become two separate species
(________________________________)

Current concerns with evolution
o ___________________________-resistant insects
o ___________________________-resistant bacteria
o as our immune systems evolve to be stronger and we
develop medicines, pathogens will evolve to overcome our
defenses = ____________________________________
R. Classification, Phylogeny, and Dichotomous Keys
(PowerPoint A31)
_____________________ is the grouping of objects or information based on similarities. (aka taxonomy)
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_____________________ is a branch of biology that ______________________________________ organisms
based on their characteristics
Taxonomists are scientists that _________________ & ________________ organisms
•
_______________________ & ________________________ names organisms
•
Prevents ____________________________ such as starfish & jellyfish that aren't really fish
•
Uses same __________________________ (Latin or some Greek) for all names
•
The way we classify organisms ___________________ as we gather ______________________ about:
•
___________/__________________ analysis
•
______________________________- study of an organism’s early stage of life
•
_____________________ (body parts)/____________________________ (form)
•
________________________- evolutionary ______________________ of an organism
•
____________________________________ is known as the “father” of modern taxonomy.
•
Developed the modern system of naming known as _____________________ ___________________
•
Two-word name (_________________ & ____________________)
Classification of a human:
D____________________
(3) – group of similar kingdoms (Eukarya)
K____________________
(7) – group of similar phyla (Animalia)
P____________________
- group of similar classes (Chordata)
C____________________
- group of similar orders (Mammalia)
O____________________
- group of similar families (Primates)
F____________________
- group of similar genera (Hominidae)
G____________________
- group of similar species (Homo)
S____________________
- a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring in nature (H. sapiens)
The following are examples of a Cladogram and a Phylogenetic tree.
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A
B
C
D
E
F
Cladogram
Phylogenetic Tree
Which appeared first in history?
Which 2 are more closely related?
A. Salamander
B. Lamprey
A&D
C. Wolf
D. Vertebral Column
B&F
E&F
D&E
Which two are more related?


Crocodile/bird or crocodile/whale
Human/dimetrodon or human/whale
Which is the most primitive organism on this chart?
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Identify Bird Z using the Dichotomous Key provided:
Write your answer here: ______________________________________
S. Unicellular Organism Adaptations (PowerPoints A32 and A33)
Explain how the following structures help unicellular organisms survive:
•
Important structures and their functions:
Structure
Contractile Vacuole
Cilia and pseudopods
Function
Regulate ________________
content
Movement and feeding
________________________
Movement
Eyespot
Detecting ________________
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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How do these adaptive behaviors help single-celled (unicellular) organisms survive in different habitats?
•
Chemotaxis - ____________________________________________________________________
•
Phototaxis - _____________________________________________________________________
T. Plant and Animal Adaptations (PowerPoints A32, A34, A35, A36, A37, and A38)
Plant Adaptations
Non-Vascular
(mosses, lichens, liverworts)
Transport -Water through ____________________
- Nutrients through _________________
VS
Vascular
(Ferns, Grass, Herbs, Shrubs, Trees)
________________________(tissue)
___________________(food/glucose)
Excretion and Respiration –
Non-vascular plants excrete excess gases produced by cellular respiration and photosynthesis through
____________________, the movement of molecules from a high concentrated area to an area of low
concentration. Mosses and algae excrete and take in oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment through
this process. Vascular plants excrete oxygen and waste through their _________________, but non-vascular
plants lack vascular tissues, so they can't retain and deliver water to their other parts. They thrive in
___________________places and also _________________ water from an outside source. Like vascular plants,
they release extra water to the atmosphere and its environment through ____________________. Non-vascular
plants found in the _______________________, such as algae and seaweeds, excrete about _______-_______%
of the oxygen in the atmosphere.
The purpose for excreting these waste products is to help maintain __________________________ within
the organism’s cells and tissues. All organisms must be able regulate _________, _______________(NaCl),
and __________________(H2O).
Vascular plants; however, have special microscopic openings on the surface of the leaves through where the
diffusion takes place. These openings are called ____________________ and are formed by two adjacent
______________________ cells. Plants can also store waste in the ________________________ or in organs
which are destined to fall off or die (ex. _____________________). Some plants excrete waste products into the
soil, occasionally using the wastes as ______________________ weapons against other competing plants.
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Nutrition – Plants absorb nutrients they need through their_______________ systems. However, in certain
conditions or environments that have ______________________-______________ soils, some plants, called
____________________________ plants, get their nutrients from other organisms like insects, small reptiles,
and rodents! A good example of this is the ___________________________________.
•
For life on land:
–
Vascular tissue- tube-like cells that transport water and nutrients from roots to leaves
•
Called xylem (for water) and phloem (for food)
36
–
Roots- help anchor the plant to the ground and absorb water and nutrients from soil
•
–
–
Desert plants have shallow roots- quickly absorb rain
Stems- support plant
•
hold up leaves for photosynthesis
•
hold up flowers to pollinators
•
transport water and food
•
can protect against predators
Leaves- used for photosynthesis, control gas exchange and water loss
•
Rainforest floor- broad leaves
•
Desert- cactus have spines to prevent water loss
•
Cold climates- needles on evergreen trees
37
•
For Reproduction:
–
Attracting pollinators- brightly colored or fragrant flowers
–
Seeds- protective coat outside, nourishment inside to protect plant embryo and allow it to lie
dormant for awhile
Kingdom: Archaea
•
Cell Structure: _________________________ (no nucleus)
•
Unicellular
•
They can make their own food by a process called ________________________________, or they can
consume food. (autotroph/heterotroph)
•
Reproduction: asexual by _____________________ _____________________
•
FYI: - Typically found in ______________________ environments
–
Thought to be the most _________________________ organisms on Earth
Kingdom: Bacteria
•
Cell Structure: __________________________ (no nucleus)
•
Unicellular
•
________________ (chemosynthesis & photosynthesis) or ________________ (recall fermentation)
•
Reproduction: mostly asexual by ______________ _________________, though some can reproduce
sexually by ____________.
•
FYI: - Not all bacteria are harmful to humans
–
They come in many shapes
–
Used for _____________________________
Kingdom: Protists
•
Cell Structure: _______________________ (has nucleus)
•
Unicellular
38
•
Autotrophic (_________________________) or heterotrophic
•
Reproduction: mostly asexual (________________ _____________________), but some sexual
(_____________________________)
•
FYI: - Mostly found in ______________________ environments
Kingdom: Fungi
•
Cell Structure: ______________________________ (has nucleus)- some have more than one!
•
Multicellular
•
Heterotrophic- they’re _______________________________
•
Reproduction: asexual or sexual
•
FYI: - Some fungi can be harmful (Athlete’s foot, ringworm)
–
Others are useful: yeast, edible mushrooms
Kingdom: Plants
•
Cell Structure: ______________________ (has nucleus)
•
Multicellular
39
•
Autotrophic (______________________________)
•
Reproduction: mostly sexual
•
FYI: - Carnivorous plants are NOT heterotrophs, they can also do photosynthesis.
–
Self-pollination is NOT asexual reproduction
Kingdom: Animals
•
Cell Structure: __________________________ (has nucleus)
•
Multicellular
•
Heterotrophic
•
Reproduction: mostly sexual
•
FYI:- Some animals can reproduce _____________________________ (regeneration, budding,
fragmentation)- ex.: starfish
Plants and animals have many structural adaptations- this is the reason we see so many different kinds of them.
Recall an adaptation is any inherited _________________ that increases an organisms chance of survival.
Annelid Worms (____________________ worms)

3 Classes:

Oligochaetes- live in soil or freshwater Ex.: __________________________

Leeches- suck _____________________ and body fluids from host

Polychaetes- live in ______________________ Ex.: sandworms, bloodworms

Feeding methods: _________________ feeding, capture and eat, _____________________
o Earthworm digestion: __________________, __________________________,
________________ (stores food), _________________________ (grinds food),
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______________________ – food absorbed, _____________________ expelled
through anus (________________________)

Most reproduce ____________________; earthworms are _____________________ and can
fertilize each other

Earthworms are beneficial to _____________________ because they dig tunnels through the
ground to allow beneficial ___________________ and ___________________ to penetrate.
Insects - ________________________ (segmented body, _____________________, and jointed appendages)
______________________ (no vertebrae).
•
3 body segments
–
____________________ – with a pair of antennae and two eyes (usually __________________effective at detecting movement)
–
_______________________ – with ________ legs and usually _______ pairs of wings
–
____________________________ – contains most of the insects organs
•
Contains small tubes that allow air to enter the body; oxygen then travels directly to the
cells.
•
______________________ – outer covering (made of ________________ and ______________) that
supports and protects the body
•
Nutrition – various diets for different insects in different environments.
•
Plants/plant products
•
___________________ (ex. fleas and mosquitoes)
•
____________________ animal bodies (ex. ______________________ beetles) or animal waste
(ex. _____________beetle)
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Insect Life Cycles – 2 Types

Incomplete (ex. ______________________)
Egg  _________________  adult

Complete (ex. _______________________) Egg  __________________(caterpillar) 
_____________________ (cocoon)  ____________________ (butterfly)
Amphibians

____________________________ (with a backbone)

_________________________ (cold-blooded)

Must absorb heat from _________________________ sources

When environment becomes too hot or too cold, many amphibians become
________________________ (inactive or at rest) by burrowing in the ________________.

All amphibians begin life in __________________

Most amphibian eggs are fertilized ______________________

Eggs do not have ____________________ (moist; must lay in water)
42

Fertilized eggs hatched into _____________________ (larval stage)

Tadpoles have fins, ______________, and a ________-chambered heart

Tadpoles develop into _______________. Develop legs, _______________, and a
___________-chambered heart

Tadpoles obtain oxygen from ________________ that passes over gills

Adults have ____________________ so that they can exchange ________________ with the air

Adults also exchange gases through their thin, moist __________________.
Mammals - ________________________ (backbone), have ________________, develop specialized
______________.
•
Have various glands, including ______________________________ glands that produce __________
•
_________________________ (warm-blooded)
•
Can keep a ____________________ temperature by using energy from __________________.
•
____________/____________ and fat also provide _____________________ from the environment.
•
Use _____________ to breathe
•
__________________________ (at bottom of ____________) forces air into and out of lungs
•
In lungs, ________________ enters blood and ____________________exits blood
•
___-chambered heart and ___ loops of vessels – keeps oxygen-_____________ blood completely
separate from oxygen-________________ blood
•
Blood also removes _________________ from cells and helps regulate body ____________________.
•
Movement- varies with organisms
•
______________ on 2 or 4 limbs, ___________, ____________ on vines, use ______________
•
Receives and interprets information from the _______________________________.
•
_______ senses: _____________, ______________, ____________, ____________, and ___________.
•
____________________ and ___________________ signals travel to the ___________, and the brain
directs the ______________ of the body
•
Reproduce ____________________ through internal _____________________
•
Mammals are divided into _______-subclasses based on reproductive methods:
•
___________________ mammals (90%) – give birth to young that have developed inside the
mother’s _____________ until the body systems are fully developed. The _______________ is
an organ that passes _______________________ and ____________________ to baby and
removes ___________________ from baby through ____________________ _____________.
•
____________________ – short period of development inside the mother’s body, then finishes
development in a _________________. Ex.: ________________, kangaroo, koala
43
•
________________ – lay ____________. Only 3 (2 spiny anteaters and 1 duck-billed platypus)
U. Animal Behavior (PowerPoint A39)
Animal _______________ – an action or a group of actions performed by an animal in ______________ to
some __________________.
There are 3 types of animal behavior:
1. _____________ behavior – ___________________ determined behavior (animal is _________ with the
ability to know how to do it)
a. _______________ – simple, automatic response that involves no conscious control
b. __________________ – complex innate behavior; ex.: __________________, nest building, web
spinning
c. _________________ – response made by the ____________ organism to an environmental stimulus
- insects moving away from or toward light = ______________________
- moving toward chemical substance = ___________________
d. _____________________ – seasonal movement of animals, usually to a _________________ area
e. _____________________ – a state of reduced ________________________ that occurs in animals
living in conditions of intense ______________.
f. _____________________ – a deep sleep in which body _______________, _______________
consumption, and ___________________ rate decrease (conserves ________________).
2. ___________________ behavior – obtained through practice or experience
a. _______________________- occurs when an animal is repeatedly given a stimulus that is not
associated with any ______________________ or ____________________
-
horse not moving when cars go by on a road
-
Child keeps misbehaving when there is no punishment
-
Deer at Stone Mountain State Park (not camera-shy)
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b. ________________________ – an animal forms a social attachment to an object during its “critical
time” if you pick up a baby bird, it might think you are its mama
c. _________________________________ (stimulus association)- animal learns to
________________ one event with another event EX: _____________________ dog experiments
with ___________and _____________.
d. ________________ and ______________ – keeps trying until the correct response is made; there
must be a __________________. Mouse in a maze (gets faster each time); basketball
3. __________________ Behavior
a. Communication within social structure using __________________________ (ex. Bees and ants)
–
Pheromone = a _____________________ released by an animal that ________________ the
_____________________ or ___________________________ of other members of the same
species through the sense of smell or taste
–
Ants leaving a trail to food, bees identifying and defending hive, attracting mates
b. ______________________ __________________ – movements to attract _________________
Ex: Spiders, birds, humans 
c.
_____________________________________ (ex. Fighting fish) – animal defends its
__________________ space against other members of its species. Prevents _________________
and ____________________ survival.
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