COLLEGIATE FEMALE ASSISTANT COACHES: A QUALITATIVE
EXAMINATION OF THEIR EXPERIENCES AND INTENTIONS.
by
Crystal Howard
A thesis submitted to
Sonoma State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
Kinesiology
Dr. Elaine McHugh
Emiria Salzmann-Dunn
Copyright 2015
By Crystal L. Howard
ii
Authorization for Reproduction of Master's Thesis
I grant permission for the print or digital reproduction of this thesis in its entirety,
without further authorization from me, on the condition that the persons or
agencies requesting reproduction absorb the cost and provide proper
acknowledgement of authorship.
Date:
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City, State, Zip
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I' I
Collegiate Female Assistant Coaches: A Qualitative Examination of
Their Experiences and Intentions
Thesis by
Crystal L. Howard
ABSTRACT
Although there has been an increase in female participation in sport since
the enactment of Title IX in 1972, there has been a dramatic decrease in the
number of female head coaches. In 2014, Acosta and Carpenter reported the
highest number of female paid assistant coaches, yet the representation of
females as head coaches of women's teams remains low. The purpose of this
research study is to explore the experiences of collegiate female assistant
coaches along with their intentions to become a head coach.
Three research questions were formulated: 1) What are the perceived
opportunities for females to enter into coaching? 2) What are the perceived
reasons why female assistant coaches may or may not aspire to become a head
coach? 3) What are the perceptions of mentoring and the intent to pursue a head
coaching position? To address these research questions, a qualitative approach
was taken using in-person interviews. These interviews were used to gain an indepth explanation of why collegiate female assistant coaches may or may not
choose to become head coaches. Ten coaches were interviewed for the study (4
IV
soccer, 3 basketball, 2 waterpolo, 1 track & field). Coaches were limited to the
Northern California area from the NCAA Division II and Junior College schools.
The.interviews were analyzed based on grounded theory, which focuses
on the meanings and experiences of the participants during the coding process.
Four main themes emerged from the data analysis: entry into coaching;
intentions and perceptions of becoming a head coach; the influence of mentoring
on their coaching; summative thoughts on becoming a head coach. Athletic
departments and sport organizations could use this information to create a work
environment for female coaches that provides the resources necessary to keep
them in the coaching profession. Programs within athletic departments that
connect female coaches in mentoring relationships may give these coaches the
opportunity to learn from each other and discuss the barriers they have
encountered and strategies they use to be a successful female coach. Coaching
education about becoming a coach from the female perspective, same-sex
mentoring relationships, and more effective resources are needed not only to
retain female coaches in the profession but able to recruit n1=w coaches.
Chair:
Signature
MA: Kinesiology
Sonoma State University
Date:
v
9 h/&olS:
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to start off by thanking my grandparents, Norman and
Margaret Smith, and my mother, Carolyn Smith, for all their love and support
throughout my life. Without their unconditional support and guidance I never
would have made it this far. My husband, Kelcey Chaidez, has also helped me
achieve my goals in life. He has supported and encouraged me to work hard for
what I want to accomplish and has given me the strength and confidence to
achieve my goals. I am extremely thankful for them as they are a big part of
what has gotten me here today.
I would like to thank Dr. Ellen Carlton, my committee chair, advisor, and
someone I look to for advice; for all the time, effort and years she has put into
helping me finish this project. I learned so much from her as a student and her
support has made this process enjoyable and memorable. Her continued faith,
confidence, and guidance throughout my academic career is priceless. Words
can't express how thankful I am for her unconditional support. I would also like to
thank another member of my committee and best friend, Emiria Salzmann-Dunn.
She has been my mentor, friend, and confidant throughout my career and adult
life. I have learned from her what it takes to be a successful female collegiate
coach. I am grateful for her friendship and guidance and even more ecstatic that
I have the opportunity to work with her.
Lastly, I would like to thank my participants, the 10 female coaches who
took time out of their busy schedules to meet with me. I wish them all the best in
v,
their coaching careers, what they are doing is making a difference for women in
sport.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTERS
I.
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
II.
LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 6
Title IX ........................................................................................................ 6
Lack of Female Coaches ................................................................. 8
Barriers to Female Coaches ............................................................ 9
Factors Influencing Intent to Coach .............................................. 12
Assistant Coaching Experience .................................................... 12
Self Efficacy ..................................................................................... 15
Mentoring ......................................................................................... 16
Head Coach-Assistant Coach Dyad ....................................... 17
Cross Gender and Same Gender Dyads ............................... 18
Mentor and Career Development Programs .......................... 19
111.
METHODOLOGY
21
Participants ................................................................................................ 21
Data Collection ......................................................................................... 23
Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 24
IV.
RESULTS and DISCUSSION ............................................................ 26
Description of methods ............................................................................ 26
Findings ..................................................................................................... 27
Entry into Coaching ................................................................................. 27
It's a Natural Path ........................................................................... 28
Encouraging Feedback ................................................. 30
Perceptions of Coaching ............................................................... 32
Time Spent as an Assistant Coach ....................................................... 34
Sacrifices for Female Coaches ......... :.......................................... 35
Intentions and Perceptions of Becoming a Head Coach .................. 37
Perceived Costs & Benefits of Becoming a Head Coach ......... 37
Head Coaching Intentions ............................................................. 41
Importance of Females Mentoring Females ............................... 43
Summative Thoughts on Becoming a Head Coach ........................... 49
V.
CONCLUSION ...................................................................................... 53
Limitations/Delimitations ....................................................................... 56
.. '
Viti
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................. 57
VI.
APPENDICES .....................................................·................................. 59
A: Background Information ............................................................. 59
B: Informed Consent Sheet ............................................................ 60
C: Coach Interview Questionnaire ................................................. 65
D: Rights of Human Subjects ......................................................... 67
VII.
REFERENCES ................................................................................... 68
I~
Chapter One
INTRODUCTION
Although there has been an increase of female participation in sport since
the enactment of Title IX in 1972, there has been a dramatic decrease in the
number of female head coaches. In 2014, Acosta and Carpenter reported the
highest number of paid female assistant coaches (7503), yet the representation of
females as head coaches of women's teams remains low (43.4%). These statistics
may deter women who are interested in coaching that becoming a head coach
may not be an achievable goal. Many female athletes do not have female role
models and mentors to look up to in order to encourage them to enter and pursue
a career in coaching. Female coaches serve as role models and mentors to their
athletes along with giving them advice and hope that females can become a
successful collegiate coach. The lack of female coaches may also give the
message to athletes that men are better coaches than women, thus creating
barriers for women who want to pursue coaching.
There are identifiable barriers to women and remaining in coaching.
Sagas, Cunningham and Pastore (2006) looked at intent of assistant coaches of
female teams within the NCAA to pursue a head-coaching career. The results
indicated that female coaches had a lower intent than male coaches to pursue a
career in head coaching due to perceived barriers, the attitudes of coaches, and
perceived behavioral control. Family commitment, time commitment, salary, lack
of career opportunities, and burnout are common cited barriers to women's entry
and participation in coaching careers (Cunningham & Sagas, 2003; Bracken,
2
2009). Family, time commitment and life balance are correlated with the social
construction of women's and men's roles in society. Women are expected to "do
it all" when it comes to providing and caring for the household while maintaining
full time coaching positions. It often is a struggle to find a good balance.
Spending time as an assistant coach is a stepping stone in their
preparation to become a head coach. Their experience in that position may have
an impact on whether they pursue a head coaching position or whether they
even stay in the coaching world. It is in the role of assistant coach that they learn
what is required to succeed in coaching and how to cope with the barriers and
benefits within the field. Assistant coaches are considered to be one of the main
pools for hiring future head coaches; thus, an examination of assistant coaches
ideas and experiences allows for a unique perspective on reasons women
pursue head coaching positions (Cunningham & Sagas, 2003; Sagas et al.,
2006). Sagas et al. (2006) found that factors that influence a coach's intent to
continue to pursue or not pursue a career in coaching differ by gender and selfefficacy.
Self-efficacy has been found to increase a female athlete's and assistant
coach's intent to pursue and/or continue coaching. Cunningham et al. (2005) and
Lent et al. (1994) used social cognitive career theory in order to investigate
student intentions to enter the sport and leisure industry. Their results showed
that people are more likely to choose certain career paths if they believe they can
be successful in that role. Sagas et al. (2006) found that women who believed
they had sufficient coaching education, or had the intent to receive more
3
education in the next three years, had higher coaching self-efficacy and thus
were more likely to pursue a head coaching position. The authors also reported
that male assistant coaches had higher coaching-efficacy than female assistant
coaches. At the intercollegiate level, self-efficacy predicted intent to pursue a
head coaching position for both male and female coaches. Cunningham, Sagas,
and Ashley (2003) revealed that coaches who believed in their abilities as
competent coaches were more likely to actively pursue head coaching positions
than those coaches with lower levels of self-efficacy. Although female assistant
coaches have higher turnover intentions than male coaches, self-efficacy did not
predict turnover intentions.
Mentorship has been shown to be a source of encouragement and hope
for women to coach. The mentorship that female athletes receive from
experienced female coaches may encourage young women to enter the
coaching world. Cunningham, Sagas, and Ashley (2003) found that mentorship
helps show new coaches how to navigate the barriers in the field in order to
become successful coaches. Mentorship amongst female coaches can help
foster a more inclusive network in the coaching field that is seen as a men's
career. Bower (2011) examined the mentoring relationship between the head
coach and assistant coaches who aspire to become a head coach of Division I
women's basketball teams. The author focused on the mentoring characteristics
and the advanced techniques of mentoring. The results revealed that the
protege identified the important characteristics of the head coach as being a role
model, acting as a leader, having the ability to communicate and nurture the
protege (Bower, 2011 ).
4
Mentoring has been found to play a significant role in the overall job
satisfaction of assistant soccer coaches (Narcotta, 2006). The author concluded
that athletic departments, head coaches and assistant coaches should be
encouraged to create a more inclusive work place that develops the mentoring
relationship between a head coach and assistant coach. The research shows
that having this mentorship will only positively affect a female coach's job
satisfaction, job experience and intent to become a head coach. In addition,
research has shown that same-sex mentorships are more effective than crossgender dyads. Avery, Tonidandel, and Phillips (2008) examined the effects of
mentoring relationships among Division I collegiate women's basketball head
coaches. The results indicated that proteges with opposite sex mentors receive
significantly less psychosocial and career mentoring than those with same-sex
mentors.
However, it has been shown that the effects of sex dissimilarity on mentoring
became significantly weaker as the relationship duration increased (Avery et al.,
2008). Developing a same-sex mentorship can benefit a young female assistant
coach. Knowing that someone has had the same challenges in the coaching
world and that you can be both a successful coach and a mother is an added
benefit. Female athletes, assistant coaches, and even current female head
coaches benefit from same-sex mentor pairings, as they lead to higher levels of
career development than opposite-sex mentor pairings (Avery el al., 2008).
While there has been qualitative research done examining factors that
contribute to assistant coaches' intentions to enter and continue coaching, much
of the research has focused on Division I coaches. There is little data on why
5
Division II, Ill, and Junior College female coaches decide to pursue or terminate
a career in coaching. A qualitative study focusing on these four levels is
important to get a deeper understanding of the experiences and intentions of
female assistant coaches at all divisions and levels, especially those coaches
who have grown up in a society more accepting of women playing sports at all
competitive levels. This information can be used to give athletic departments
and sport organizations recommendations on how to provide female coaches
meaningful support, mentorship, and an environment that will help guide and
foster their careers in the coaching world. The findings could also be used to
give new female coaches strategies regarding how to successfully navigate a
career in collegiate coaching. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore
the experiences and intentions of collegiate female assistant coaches in their
current positions and with regard to future aspirations in coaching.
6
Chapter Two
Literature Review
Title IX
When Title IX of the Education Amendments Act was passed in 1972, the
number of females head coaching women's intercollegiate athletic teams has
declined from over 90% to 43.4%, while 56.6% of women's teams are coached
by males (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). This has been a slow and continual
decline since the enactment. Acosta and Carpenter (2014) recorded the highest
ever number of female professionals employed within intercollegiate athletics at
13, 792. This includes not only coaches and assistant coaches but also athletic
directors, athletic trainers and athletic administrators. Of that number 3,974
females are employed as coaches within intercollegiate athletics and further
7,503 females are employed as assistant coaches within women's athletics
(Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). Although there are more paid female assistant
coaches than ever before, still less than half of the head coaches of female
teams are female. Division 1 was recorded to have the most paid assistant
female coaches of women's teams (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014). The perception
that these top division assistants having a higher paying job than some lower
division head coaching positions may be correlated to the low percentage of
female head coaches.
It could be assumed that with the increase of female athlete intercollegiate
participation, along with a real level growth of female assistant coaches would
contribute to a large pool of potential female head coaches. It does not however
7
reflect the low percentage of female head coaches of women's teams than male
head coaches. The question then that should be asked is why aren't women
choosing to enter the coaching profession at a head coaching level at a rate that
is proportional to the number of girls and women involved in organized and
collegiate sport? Acosta and Carpenter (2014) suggested that after Title IX,
coaches of women's teams began to be paid for their efforts thus making the jobs
a bit more inviting. Male coaches then began to take an interest thus applying for
the same jobs that female assistant coaches would. Researchers suggest that
there are different reasons for the decline of female coaches including career
related burnout (Pastore, 1991 ), fewer females applying for head coaching
positions (Sagas, Cunningham, & Ashley, 2000), and discriminatory hiring (Lovett
& Lowrey, 1994). Does the gender of the athletics director make a difference in
the percentage of female coaches? Acosta and Carpenter (2014) reported that
in Division 1 when there is a female athletic director, the percentage of female
coaches is 46.8% compared to 43.0% when the AD is a male. The connection is
also prevalent in Division 2 as the average percentage of female coaches is
40.6% when the AD is female and 35.1 % when the AD is a male. In addition the
number of paid female assistant coaches within Division 2 programs is
considerably less than Division 1 or Division 3. Acosta and Carpenter (2014)
further report that Division 1 has the fewest female athletic directors while
Division 3 has the most. It can be assumed that Division 2 is in-between yet this
level has the least amount of paid female assistant coaches. Kilty (2006)
explains these issues by sharing, "with the highest recorded number of women
8
participation as athletes and the continued decrease in representation of women
in positions of leadership, it is important to advance the understanding of why
women are not attracted to the profession of coaching and why once involved,
they chose to leave" (p.223).
Lack of Female Coaches
There has been a tremendous increase in females playing sports since
the passage of Title IX in 1972. While the number of female sport participation
has continued to increase, the percentage of teams coached by women
plummeted and continues to remain lower than that of the male counterpart.
Acosta and Carpenter (2014) reveal that in 1972 90% of women's teams and
2-3% of men's teams at the collegiate level were coached by women. Currently,
there are only 434% of the 9000 intercollegiate women's teams that are coached
by women. Even with the increase in female participation in collegiate athletics,
there is still a lack of female coaches. This pool of female collegiate athletes are
the most important group of rising and potential female coaches, yet there is a
disconnect from transferring from athlete to coach. This lack of female coaches
has implications for athletes as well as women who are interested in coaching.
Acosta and Carpenter's initial research (1988) found that men in collegiate
athletics attributed the decline of female coaches to the individual. This being the
lack of qualified female coaches and time constraints placed on female due to
family duties. But the women attributed the decline to structural variables within
the athletic programs such as discrimination, lack of support system, and the old
9
boys club in which male athletic directors would hire their male friends for the
head coaching positions. This dramatic decrease in collegiate female head
coaches within the last 42 years is a concern that needs immediate attention.
Barriers to Female Coaches
The NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) conducted a study
examining the perceived barriers that women face in the coaching profession.
The collegiate governing body found that the most common barriers to entering
or remaining in coaching careers were family commitments, time commitments,
salary, job availability, and gender discrimination against female coaches
(Bracken, 2009). Many barriers that female coaches face are either institutional
or related to social norms. Institutional barriers are the old boys' club, lack of job
opportunities, and administrator's perception of a lack of qualified female
candidates (Weiss & Stevens, 1993; Lovett & Lowry, 1994; Everhart &
Chelladurai, 1998). These institutional barriers may be problematic for females
as they may prevent women from a career in head coaching because they make
it difficult to become successful within the organizational structure of a program
and athletic department. There has to be an organizational shift in thinking in
order to create a more accepting culture for female head coaches to succeed.
Women were found to struggle within these male dominated environments due to
the social and/or organizational constraints caused by the institutional culture
(Dixon & Bruening, 2007)
10
The vision and sex of an institution's athletic director is also a barrier that
female coaches have to face that their male counterparts do not. Studies have
shown that male athletic directors are more likely to hire male coaches, and less
likely to hire female coaches in order to keep themselves in power by hiring those
similar to themselves, also known as homologous reproduction (Stangl & Kane,
1991 ). Before the passing of Title IX, most universities had separate athletic
departments for male and female athletics. However, after Title IX, the
departments combined, thus retaining the male athletic director. Although the
atmosphere of the department is important in the hiring of female coaches, so
are the networks that female coaches form with each other and other
administrators in order to ensure equal opportunity at a head coaching position.
Some organizations and intercollegiate divisions are often seen as
unfriendly to women. The demands of in office face time that may be required
create a less friendly environment for women, especially those with children.
Many aspects of a coaching position can be done from home (e.g. phone calls
with recruits, emails, practice planning), allowing a coach to be more flexible with
family obligations. But, if a department requires a large amount of time spent inoffice and is not welcoming of children in the office, this can create an unfriendly
environment for coaching mothers thus affecting their longevity of the career
(Bracken, 2009; Dixon & Bruening, 2007).
Although there are high levels of female participation in sports today,
athletics are still viewed as a male domain. Males are seen as the dominate
athlete and have personality traits that are generally associated with coaching,
11
competitiveness, firm, and aggressive. All are considered to be masculine traits
thus giving the perception that coaching is a male domain and masculine
profession. If a female coach is competitive, firm, and aggressive it is perceived
as over the edge and harsh. Women are seen to be capable of coaching only
female athletes and teams, yet men are perceived more qualified to coach both
male and female athletes. LeDrew and Zimmerman (1994) examined high
school athletes' attitudes towards female coaches. They found that while 82% of
their participants thought women could be good coaches and the majority
thought men could coach women and women could coach men, 49% of females
and 66% of males said they always wanted a male coach and 28% of males said
they never wanted to be coached by a woman. Although these athletes
acknowledged that women were capable of coaching both men and women, they
still preferred a male coach.
Fasting and Pfister (2000) examined female soccer players experience
with a female coach. They found that players who had a positive experience with
a female coach were more likely to accept a female coach in the future than
those who had only had a male coach. However, the low rate of females
coaching women's teams makes it less likely that female athletes will be able to
have that positive experience with a female coach. These barriers not only affect
the small number of female coaches but can also influence an individual's
decision to enter or leave the coaching profession. It is also important to discuss
factors that can encourage women to enter and stay in the coaching profession.
12
Factors Influencing Intent to Coach
Although there are many barriers that women face entering the field of
coaching, there are also many factors that can help increase the interest and
intent of women to become head coaches. Using social exchange theory, Weiss
and Stevens (1993), analyzed the intent of female coaches to remain in or leave
the field of coaching using current and former coaches to conduct the study.
They were attempting to predict the behaviors of female coaches based on the
perceived costs and benefits of coaching along with their levels of satisfaction in
their jobs. The authors found that the female coaches felt the benefits of
coaching were enjoyment of working with the athletes, watching the athletes
achieve a goal and learn a new skill, encouraging teamwork, and personal
success. The perceived costs and barriers of holding a head coaching position
included family time conflict, workload, hours and lack of program support, all
barriers that have been discuss above. This cost-benefit analysis did not predict
coaching intentions among the female assistant coaches.
Assistant Coaching Experience. The time that a female coach spends as
an assistant coach is important to analyze, as assistant coaching is seen to be a
stepping-stone to becoming a head coach. Before one becomes an assistant
coach, the question must be asked how and why female athletes enter the
coaching world. Research has been conducted to examine athletes' intentions
and perceptions of the coaching profession (Kamphoff & Gill, 2008). Their
results revealed that women collegiate athletes, in their sample, were less
13
interested in entering all levels of the coaching profession except for youth/
recreational level and were strongest for Division I and professional. The women
in the sample were more likely to agree they want to enter the coaching
profession to enhance the character development of young people than for other
reasons.
Cunningham et al (2005) and Lent et al (1994) used social cognitive
career theory in order to investigate student intentions to enter the sport and
leisure industry. Their results showed that people are more likely to choose
certain career paths if they believe they can be successful in that role. This is
called self-efficacy, by which Bandura (1986) refers to people's judgments of
their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain
designated types of performances (Cunningham & Singer, 2010). It is important
to know what intrigues and motivates female athletes to enter the coaching
profession in order to increase the number of assistant coaches which in turn
increases the pool of potential head coaches.
Because female assistant coaches are the largest pool of potential head
coaches their experiences within their job are important as they can determine
whether their intent is to continue their career in coaching. Sagas, Cunnigham
and Pastore (2006) conducted a study that applied the Theory of Planned
Behavior to explain head coaching intentions among female assistant coaches.
Their aim was also to reveal the most important factors that predict the intention
to become a head coach. The findings revealed that a coach's attitude,
subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control predicted intentions to pursue
a head coaching position within three years. The data, however, showed that the
head coaching intentions of females were not strong as the mean score was only
14
4.32 on a 7-point scale. The participating female coaches shared that they were
motived to obtain a head coaching because holding such a position would (a)
bring the ability to develop their own skills in coaching, and (b) enable the use of
their own coaching philosophy (Sagas et al., 2006). A barrier revealed within the
research was noted to be the work-family conflict relationship which has been a
popular and very similar response in many other studies.
Bower (2010) conducted a study analyzing female assistant basketball
coaches. Four factors were revealed that increased the coach's intentions to
become a head coach: the job itself, the ability to mentor, the promotional
opportunities, and self-efficacy. Women are likely to stay in the field of coaching
longer and advance to a head coaching position if they are enjoying the job, have
the opportunity available to do so and believe in their abilities. They want to be
role models for their female athletes and give the current generation of girls the
opportunities that they had. The interactions with the athletes and giving back to
female athletics are important as their role of assistant coach or head coach. If
female coaches are making an impact on the lives of the girls they are coaching
and they are enjoying their time coaching, the women are more likely to pursue
higher positions in coaching (Bower, 2010; Pastore, 1991).
Assistant coaches are the connection between the student-athletes and
the head coach. Their experiences entail coaching, mentoring, administration,
and learning what the head coaching position looks like. Their time as assistant
coaches is important in order to build their self-efficacy and create professional
networks through which they can find opportunities to move up the ladder in the
15
coaching profession if they so choose to do. It is also of the utmost importance
to continue to increase the number of collegiate female assistant coaches as
they are the largest pool of potential head coaches.
Self-Efficacy. Social cognitive career theory suggests that people are more
likely to choose a certain career path if they believe they can be successful in
that role (Lent et al., 1994). Central to the theory is self-efficacy, which Bandura
(1986) has described as people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and
execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances.
Self- efficacy is at times looked at in relation to coach's perceived ability and
intent to coach. Coaching self-efficacy is a person's belief in their ability to enter
into coaching, become an assistant coach and in turn become a head coach.
Everhart and Chelladurai (1998) defined self-efficacy as one's confidence in his
or her capacity to perform the coaching tasks effectively. There have been
gender differences found when measuring self-efficacy (Cunningham el al.,
2003).
Sagas et al. (2006) found that women who believed they had sufficient
coaching education or had the intent to receive more education in the next three
years, had higher coaching self-efficacy and thus were more likely to pursue a
head coaching position. The authors also reported that male assistant coaches
had higher coaching-efficacy than female assistant coaches. Male assistant
coaches desired a head coaching position more than female assistant coaches.
At the intercollegiate level, self-efficacy predicted intent to pursue a head
coaching position for both male and female coaches. Cunningham, Sagas, and
16
Ashley (2003) revealed that coaches who believed in their abilities as competent
coaches were more likely to actively pursue head coaching positions than those
coaches with lower levels of self-efficacy. Although female assistant coaches
have higher occupational turnover intentions than male coaches, self-efficacy did
not predict turnover intentions.
Although higher levels of self-efficacy can make a coach more likely to
pursue a head coaching position, low levels of self-efficacy does not predict that
a coach may not pursue such position or possibly leave the field. The playing
experiences as an athlete are important and can influence the self-efficacy of a
coach (Lough, 2001). Most coaches were athletes first and developed into
coaches once their playing careers ended. Lough (2001) studied the coaching
efficacy of high school female athletes based on the gender of their coach.
Higher playing accomplishments led to higher levels of coaching self-efficacy in
the high-school basketball players (Lough, 2001 ). Being a competent and
successful athlete may contribute to a higher belief that they can be effective
coaches, thus be more likely to enter the coaching profession.
Mentoring. Mentoring is often believed to lead to high levels of success in
both personal and professional goals. Mentoring occurs when there is a trusting
relationship between the teacher/coach and the studenUathlete, when there is an
interest on the part of the coach in the personal development of the athlete,
when the coach purposefully allocates his/her time to fulfill the needs of the
athlete and when the imitation of the behavior takes place (Bloom et al., 1998).
Female coaches provide their athletes with support and mentorship. They want
the same support from their department in order to navigate barriers and find
17
success in the field of coaching. Mentoring can also help athletes become
coaches as it encourages and empowers them to progress from an athlete to a
coach (Lough, 2001 ). Female athletes with female coaches are more likely to
want to become a head coach than girls with a male coach. Female coaches can
serve as role models and mentors that the female athletes can relate to, showing
them that the field of coaching is accessible and achievable thus making them
more willing to pursue a coaching career. In turn, if a female assistant coach has
had a mentor and role model that they can learn from and relate to such as
gender, they may see the head coach position as a natural step to their career.
Head Coach-Assistant Coach Dyad. Not all coaches are fortunate to be in
a mentoring relationship. Often times it is about being in the right place at the
right time. With luck and persistence, coaches may be able to find a mentor with
whom they can connect with to share their passion for their sport and for
coaching. Bower (2011) examined the mentoring relationship between the head
coach and assistant coaches of Division I women's basketball teams who aspire
to become a head coach. The author focused on the mentoring characteristics
and the advanced techniques of mentoring. The results revealed that the
protege identified the important characteristics of the head coach as being a role
model, acting as a leader, having the ability to communicate, and to nurture the
protege (Bower, 2011). The assistant coaches identified five themes as
advancement techniques used by the mentor to prepare the protege to become
a head coach. These included attending professional conferences, providing
networking opportunities, stressing the importance of specific personality
18
indicators, opportunities to learn day-to-day operations, and provide "hands-on"
experience. These findings have the potential to provide female assistant
coaches of women basketball teams with the tools in the development of a
mentor that may provide advancement opportunities (Bower, 2011).
A thesis conducted by Eileen Narcotta (2006) aimed at determining if
mentoring functions provided within a head coach-assistant coach dyad
correlated to overall job satisfaction and occupational turnover intent of Division I
Assistant Women Soccer Coaches. The findings of the study showed that similar
perceived mentor functions were reported by both male and female participants.
Mentoring was found to play a significant role in the overall job satisfaction of
assistant soccer coaches. Psychosocial functions and gender were also
identified as significant predictors of occupational turnover intent. Athletic
departments, head coaches and assistant coaches should be encouraged to
create a more inclusive work place that develops the mentoring relationship
between a head coach and assistant coach. The research shows that having
this mentorship will only positively affect a female coach's job satisfaction, job
experience and intent to become a head coach.
Cross Gender and Same Gender Dyads. Avery, Tonidandel, and Phillips
(2008) examined the effects of similarity of sex in mentoring relationships among
Division I collegiate women's basketball head coaches. The authors
hypothesized that greater similarity between head (mentors) and assistant
coaches (proteges) would correspond in more mentoring. The results suggest
that proteges with opposite sex mentors receive significantly less psychosocial
19
and career mentoring than those with same-sex mentors. However, the effects
of sex dissimilarity on mentoring became significantly weaker as the relationship
duration increased (Avery et al., 2008). Sagas, Paetzold, and Ashley (2005)
found that a critical component of career success for assistant coaches was the
support from the head coach and that a lack of support could prove detrimental
to the success of the assistant coach. In addition, female coaches have strongly
identified the need for guidance in managing the challenges of work and life
transitions (e.g., children, athlete to coach) (Marshall 2001a). Having a mentor
that has experienced the same challenges of the coaching world would benefit
young female coaches, knowing that you can be a successful coach and mother.
Female athletes, assistant coaches, and even current female head coaches
benefit from same-sex mentor pairings as it leads to higher levels of career
development than opposite-sex mentor pairings (Avery el al., 2008).
Mentor and Career Development Programs. Mentorship may support new
coaches as they develop while receiving the knowledge and skills that will help
them reach their full coaching potential. Mentorship for female coaches is a
process to help improve intent to continue coaching through improving their
ability to coach and manage the profession. What a coach learns from her
mentor could improve her coaching self-efficacy, thus increasing intent to coach
and longevity of career. Formal mentoring programs have been suggested as a
solution to the decline of female head coaches (Kilty 2006; Lough, 2001;
Pastore, 2003, Sagas et al., 2006). Little research has been done to examine if
in fact mentoring would be a practical solution in which each athletic program
20
would be required to have its own formal mentoring program. It should be noted
that the NCAA, NACWAA and the USOC all host annual leadership seminars
and clinics for female coaches.
Kilty (2006) produced an article that reviewed the challenges that women
coaches must overcome along with discussing coach education strategies for
facilitating the development of women coaches. The author shares reoccurring
issues provoked by the female attendees at the United States Olympic
Committee (USOC)/National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) sponsored
Women in Coaching Conferences. The purpose of the conference is threefold:
(a) to promote qualified assistant and head elite level coach retention, (b) to
attract minority and young women into the field of coaching, and (c) to provide
educational information for coaching effectiveness (Kilty, 2006). This conference
gives female coaches a place to network with other female coaches, provide
female coaches the opportunity for reflection, and share ideas and common
experiences. If the opportunities for this type of interaction among female
coaches were more of a norm than an annual event, it may help in the growth
and retention of female assistant and head coaches. The need for institutional
changes in representation of women in positions of leadership within sport is at
an all-time high. Institutions can provide these social interactions between female
coaches in order to provide opportunities for female coaches to learn from one
another, help each other navigate career and life transitions, and hopefully create
mentor relationships.
21
Chapter Three
Methods
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of collegiate
female assistant coaches with regard to their intentions to become a head coach.
Three research questions were formulated: 1) What are the perceived
opportunities for females to enter into coaching? 2) What are the perceived
reasons why female assistant coaches may or may not become a head coach?
3) What are the perceptions of mentoring and the intent to pursue a head
coaching position? To address these research questions, a qualitative approach
was taken, using in-person interviews. These interviews were used to gain a
deeper and more complex expending of why collegiate female assistant coaches
may or may not choose to become head coaches.
Participants
To answer the research questions of this study I conducted an
investigation of female assistant coaches of women's teams at NCAA Division II
schools and Junior Colleges. The participants were from athletic conferences in
the Northern California area. These coaches were selected as they voluntarily
agreed to participate in the study. In order to be selected to participate in the
study the assistant coaches had to meet the following criteria for inclusion: being
an assistant coach, female, and coaching at either the Division II or Junior
college level. There was no specific requirement for number years in their
position. Approval to conduct the study was obtained from the Sonoma State
University Committee on the Rights of Human Subjects. Emails seeking
participation for study was sent to all Northern California Division II and Junior
22
College female assistant coaches. Because of a high percentage of turnover for
assistant coaches at these two levels, the contact information for assistant
coaches was not consistently available on the athletic program's websites. If
there was no contact information for the assistant coach, a separate email was
sent out to the head coach in hopes that they would pass along the invitation to
their female assistant. Ten female assistant coaches responded and agreed to
participate. Each coach was given the following: Background Information Sheet,
Two Informed Consent Sheets, and a copy of the Interview Questions (see
appendices A, B, & C).
Ten coaches were interviewed for the study. The names of the
participants in this study have been changed in order to protect their privacy.
They are identified for the purpose of this study as coaches #1-#10 and each
coach has been assigned a pseudonym:
• #1-Sarah: age 31, assistant women's soccer coach 22 years of
age when she began coaching
• #2-Jenna: age 38, assistant track & field coach, 22 years of age
when she began coaching
• #3-Angela: age 23, assistant women's soccer coach a, 18 years
of age when she began coaching
• #4-Kameron: age 30, assistant women's soccer coach, 14 years
of age when she began coaching
23
• #5-Kristy: age 23, assistant women's women's basketball coach,
18 years of age when she began coaching
• #6-Laurel: age 27, assistant women's waterpolo coach, 20 years
of age when she began coaching
• #7-Amanda: age 23, assistant women's basketball coach,
started coaching at camps at age 16 and coaching teams at age
22
• #8-Allison: age 30, assistant women's basketball coach, 20 years
old when she entered her first paid coaching position
• #9-Cathleen: age 27, assistant women's waterpolo coach, 22
years of age when she began coaching
• #10-Maddie: age 23, assistant women's soccer coach, 22 years
of age when she began coaching
Data Collection
Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Sonoma State
University Committee on the Rights of Human Subjects. A wide net of emails to
participate in this study was sent to all Northern California Division 11 and Junior
College female assistant coaches. Due to high percentage of turnover for
assistant coaches at these two levels, the contact information for assistant
coaches was not consistently available on the athletic programs's websites. If
there was no contact information for the assistant coaches, a separate email was
sent out to the head coach in hopes that they would pass along the invitation to
their female assistant. Once the effort was put forth in finding participates for the
24
study, 10 females assistant coaches responded and agreed to participate. Each
coach was given the following: Background Information Sheet, Two Informed
Consent Sheets, and a copy of the Interview Questions (see appendix A, B, &
C).
Interviews took place at a neutral site where the coach would feel
comfortable. Each interview began with a presentation of the research topic, a
guarantee of anonymity, and the coach's consent. The interview was a 20question semi-structured in-person interview. The length of the interview was
open-ended, typically ranging from 30-90 minutes. During the interviews the
coaches were guided through each question listed on the interview sheet and
had the opportunity to answer each question to their satisfaction. The interviewer
took notes by hand to record the coach's responses to each question. The
interviews were also audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. The full transcriptions
were then entered into a color coded table created for later data analysis after all
interviews were complete.
Data Analysis
Once transcriptions were complete, the interviews were line by line coded
and were grouped together under categories and themes. All coding was done by
the researcher. Coding procedures were adapted from Charmaz's (2006)
constructivist grounded theory, which focuses on identifying the meanings and
experiences of the participants.
Within grounded theory, "neither data nor theories are discovered. Rather,
we are part of the world we study and the data we collect. We construct our
grounded theories through our past and present involvements and interactions
25
with people, perspectives, and research practices" (Charmaz, 2006, p.10).
Focused coding was used to seek out and identify the most important codes.
These codes were then grouped into major categories. Within these codes and
categories were compared between the participants. The researcher scanned
for commonalties and differences. The findings of the study were revealed within
the categories.
26
Chapter Four
Results and Discussion
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of collegiate
female assistant coaches regarding their intentions to become a head coach.
Coaches interviewed were from either Division II schools or Junior Colleges. A
total of 10 female coaches participated in this study, from four sports: basketball
(3), water polo (2), soccer (4), and track & field (1). The coaches ranged in age
from 23-38 years old at the time of the interviews and had anywhere from less
than a year to 15 years of collegiate assistant coaching experience.
Once the interviews were completed and later transcribed, Charmaz's
(2006) grounded theory of qualitative analysis was used to organize, analyze,
and code the interview data. Line-by-line coding was utilized in order to identify
codes, which were then grouped into themes listed below:
1 . Entry into coaching.
2. Intentions and perceptions of becoming a head coach.
3. The influence of mentoring on their coaching.
4. Summative thoughts on becoming a head coach.
These themes stemmed from the original research questions regarding
the experiences and intentions of female assistant coaches. This study provides
insight into the perceived barriers, ideas and experiences and intentions of these
10 collegiate female assistant coaches. The information may help us understand
why women are not becoming head coaches at a rate that is at least proportional
to the number of girls and women involved in organized sports (Acosta &
Carpenter, 2014). The research questions formulated were the following: What
27
are the perceived opportunities for females to enter into coaching? What are the
perceived reasons why female assistant coaches may or may not become a
head coach? What are their perceptions of mentoring and their aspirations to
pursue a head coaching position?
Findings
When asked about their sport experiences prior to entering into
coaching, the coaches repeatedly shared their views on youth coaches and
parents' encouragement and/or influences about entering into coaching. The
researcher asked about their current assistant coaching position as well as their
perceptions and intentions on following a path to become a female head coach.
Mentoring emerged as a common theme from pre-coaching, current coaching,
and the coach's perception of mentoring. The final question of the interview was
asked to provide participants with the opportunity to raise issues not directly
asked in the interview. The chosen quotes and connections to literature are
representative of the collegiate female assistant coaches who participated in the
study.
Entry into Coaching
Since the passage of Title IX in 1972, girls and women have had more
participation opportunities in sport at all levels of competition. In 2014 the most
recent year the data were analyzed, the highest number of female professionals
employed within intercollegiate athletics was reported (Acosta & Carpenter,
28
2014). Acosta and Carpenter's 2014 report found that there were 7503 paid
female assistant coaches of women's teams, the highest number ever. The
qualitative interviews conducted within this study will help to clearly identify the
process by which a female athlete enters into coaching and her intentions to
become a collegiate head coach. To start from the beginning, why and how do
athletes enter into coaching careers?
Social cognitive career theory (Lent et al., 1994) has been utilized to
understand current student athletes' sport and leisure career choices. Social
cognitive career theory is represented by three person-cognitive variables (i.e.,
self-efficacy, outcome expectations, choice goals). Self-efficacy, positive
feedback, and the athlete's perception of coaching will be discussed in relation
to the assistant coaches' responses about how and why they became assistant
coaches.
It's a Natural Path. From Lent, Brown, & Hacketts (1994) development of social
cognitive career theory perspective. The authors concluded that people are more
likely to choose certain career paths if they believe they can be successful in that
arena. This is called self-efficacy, by which Bandura (1986) refers to people's
judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action
required to attain designated types of performances. The experiences that the
participating coaches encountered as athletes working in camps and receiving
positive feedback directly affected their belief that they could be a coach and that
it would be a good career path for them.
Sarah specifically speaks about a female coach, who saw something in
her,
29
"I did camps and my coach was like, well you are a pretty good
coach, you could have a career in this type of thing ... having a female
see something in me ... lt's a natural path to coach."
The same coach talked further about the feedback she received from the players
at the camps that gave her the confidence to pursue coaching,
"I kind of got that positive feedback from the players I was coaching
which gave me the confidence."
Kameron reminisces,
"growing up as a player, my coaches and different adults around me
also said, you'd be a great coach. It was those things that were
planted fairly early on ... so early on I remember hearing people saying
that would be a good path for me."
These two coaches were given the encouragement to pursue a coaching career
and thus were motivated to enter into coaching.
Cunningham et al. (2005) conducted a study using social cognitive career
theory to investigate student intentions to enter the sport and leisure industry.
They concluded that self-efficacy positively related to career choice along with
outcome expectations. Cunningham, Sagas, and Ashley (2003) found that
among assistant coaches of women's teams, head coaching self-efficacy was
positively associated with intention to pursue a head coaching position. Selfefficacy is related to entry into coaching as well as the intention for female
assistant coaches to become a head coach.
30
Encouraging Feedback. Positive feedback from peers, parents and/or coaches
was also a common theme among the coaches' responses as an influential
factor that made them think coaching would be a good path for them to take.
Sarah specifically speaks about a female coach, who saw something in her,
"I did camps and my coach was like, well you are pretty good
coach, you could have a career in this type of thing ... having a
female see something in me ... lt's a natural path to coach."
The same coach talked further about the feedback she received from the players
at the camps that gave her the confidence to pursue coaching. "I kind of got that
positive feedback from the players I was coaching which gave me the
confidence." Kameron recalled about
"growing up as a player, my coaches and different adults
around me also said, you'd be a great coach.
It was those
things that was planted fairly early on ... so early on I remember
hearing people saying that would be a good path for me."
Deci and Ryan (1985), developed self determination theory as a
means to understand motivation in sport and physical activity.
The
theory has looked further into understanding not only motivation but
also
personality, social development, and overall psychological functioning
(Horn 2008, p. 128).
Self-determination theory specifies that the needs for competence, autonomy
and relatedness are fundamental to humans (Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005).
Competence refers to perceiving our behavior as effective. Autonomy relates to
31
an individuals need to experience self-determination in choosing pursuits. Lastly,
relatedness is a sense of feeling connected with those around us. According to
self-determination theory, individuals' will choose activities and experiences to
fulfill these three fundamental needs (Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005). If these
three fundamental needs are fulfilled, a person is then determined to be
intrinsically motivated to participate. Holembeak and Amorose (2005) conducted
a study using self-determination theory as a framework to test whether perceived
competence, autonomy and relatedness mediated the
relationships between perceived coaching behaviors and athlete's intrinsic
motivation. Their results indicated that all of the coaching behaviors, except for
social support, significantly predicted perceived competence, autonomy and/or
relatedness, which then predicted intrinsic motivation.
Cognitive evaluation theory, a sub-theory within self-determination theory,
focuses on social factors affecting intrinsic motivation. Ryan and Deci (2002)
reported that the needs for competence and autonomy suggest that intrinsic
motivation for an activity is maximized when individuals feel competent and selfdetermining in that activity. This theory would also argue that the coach's actions
would affect the athlete's perceptions of competence or autonomy, thus
impacting the athlete's intrinsic motivation. This shows that coaching behavior
can lead to more positive perceptions of competence and higher intrinsic
motivation. The positive feedback that the coaches received from their youth
coach and from camp participants aided in their confidence, competence,
autonomy and intrinsic motivation to enter into coaching.
32
Perceptions of Coaching. The last theme that emerged regarding precoaching was the participants' views of coaching and if or when they had ever
thought about becoming a coach, i.e. their perceptions of the coaching
profession. One coach in particular, Amanda, shares how she always knew she
was going to be a coach,
"I always knew. Ever since I was 15. I started a notebook, I would
write down all the plays and favorite drills. / literally have a notebook,
I still have it since when I was 15."
The passion for her sport and the desire to pursue a high level of understanding
of the underlying techniques and strategies has driven Amanda in her coaching
career. Allison explains how coaching has "always been part of what I have
done. I didn't really think about it." Allison's motivation to enter coaching had
thus been fueled from a very young age as well. Young athletes may also be in a
situation that fosters this inter personal motivation along with having an excellent
leader who creates a positive environment.
On the other hand, many coaches spoke about never previously thinking
about coaching and almost just fell into the career. Jenna speaks to this exact
instance, "You know, I kind of literally just fell into it." Laurel and Maddie both
shared that their significant others who were coaches influenced them to think
about coaching even though they had never previously entertained the idea.
Laurel says,
"/ actually just ended up being an assistant coach because my
boyfriend was a coach at the high school / went to. They needed an
assistant coach and he asked me if I wanted to and I said sure why
not. I never thought about it before and that's how I got into it."
33
Maddie similarly repsonds,
"so my boyfriend, he coaches over at Sac State and he has always
been in coaching and played as well. What he does and that he was
happy was really important to me ... As a youth player I loved playing
but I didn't really think about coaching."
Even though some coaches felt coaching was always going to be their path or
that thought did not peak until later, they all have a common interest of coaching.
Kamphoff and Gill (2008) conducted a study that examined athlete
interest in and perceptions of the coaching profession. Their results indicated
that women collegiate athletes were less interested in entering all levels of the
coaching profession except for youth/recreational levels. There was least interest
in coaching Division I and professional. Women in this sample were more likely
to agree they want to enter the coaching profession to enhance the character
development of young people than for other reasons (Kamphoff & Gill, 2008).
Division II and junior college levels may also be perceived as a path to influence
character development. When the coaches in my study were asked what drew
them in to be an assistant coach their responses reflected this concept.
"It's definitely the teaching part of it because when you are an
assistant coach what I knew here it was about teaching, it was
about teaching the next generation basically. That is the thing that
has always interested me in coaching."
"Working with young women. That was such a pivotal moment in my
life and I want to make sure it's the best for them, as well and
leading them in the right direction and getting them excited about the
34
possibilities with soccer, the possibilities with life, everything."
"There are a lot of girls in Junior College who think they are ready to
transfer to a 4 year level but they don't have the things like respect
and responsibility and commitment and dedication and all that. I
want to be able to teach them that before they make the
mistake of transferring to
a 4 year when they aren't ready. The
teaching aspect draws me into it."
These coaches shared the commonality of wanting to coach in order to
enhance the character development of young female student-athletes. Character
development is a motivation to enter and remain in coaching for these coaches.
Time Spent as an Assistant Coach
When asked to define their current job as a female assistant at their
institution, the coaches shared common feelings of being underutilized and often
more of a secretary than a coach. They expressed that coaching was last on
their list and they held the role of mentor for the players more than a coach.
Because all but two of the assistant coaches were working with a male head
coach, a common role discussed was the need to be the female link between the
players. One would have to believe that when the head coach is a female the
assistant coach does not have that special duty. Two coaches spoke of the
relationship they held with the head coach and players was that of good cop/bad
cop. The male head coach was more of the authoritarian coach while the female
assistant was the mentor, the motivator and supporter and overall good cop.
"I act more as a mentor for the girls. I don't do a lot of coaching. I am
not given the reigns to run a session or anything like that."
35
"Sometimes coaching was last on the list at that level." "I am
more of a secretary than I am a coach."
"My job here with the dynamics of our coaching staff, I do a lot of
player support, student-athlete support. Whether it is academic, in the
subject of basketball or just in life. Kind of go between them and the
head coach."
"I am the good cop. I am details, I do all the paperwork."
"A big part of it, I am a big female connection with the girls. Jerry kind
of says it a lot too with him and the girls just being that female
connection which breaks it down."
Being an assistant coach is a stepping stone to a head coaching career yet these
female assistant coaches speak about very little coaching responsibilities.
Where do they get on the field coaching experiences to motivate them and give
the confidence to take the next step and pursue a head coaching position? This
could be the position and time in which these coaches need the hands on
experience and develop the self-efficacy/perceived competence to ensure they
have the tools to get them to the next level.
Sacrifices for Female Coaches
Women face barriers in the coaching profession every day. The second
study that the NCAA conducted examining the perceived barriers to gender
equity in college coaching found that the most common barriers to entering or
remaining in coaching careers were family commitments, time commitments,
36
salary, job availability and gender discrimination against female coaches
(Bracken, 2009). Kamphoff (2010) similarly cited barriers including family
commitment and time commitment. Lopiano (2001) also found that one of the
biggest discouragements for aspiring female coaches was the inadequate salary
they receive. A common theme among the coaches I interviewed when asked
about the drawbacks of being in an assistant coaching role was the lack of
compensation and large time demands.
Sarah shared her thoughts and experience with the struggles of earning a
quality living as an assistant coach.
"I think money is one struggle for assistant coaches. I think it
depends on the program. Some of the programs I have been at I
couldn't just be an assistant coach, I had to coach a club team or
have a side job. I would look at the head coach and somewhat
envious because you get paid money but that is definitely something
that holds assistant coaches back or why they might leave because
you are being pulled in so many different ways and your focus and
attention can't be just on one job."
Cathleen shared that compensation is a struggle for assistant coaches,
"There is no money to be made. That has to be the #1 when you are
talking to assistant coaches only because that's the reality. I don't do
this job because of the money but because of my passions. But that
has to be the biggest drawback is that you have to work 4 jobs. That
is the hardest part is finding balance in life in that."
Jenna answered passionately about both her compensation and sacrificing time
as drawback to her position.
"For me, at this point in my life, a huge #1 drawback is what I get
compensated. I got to the point where I got tired of looking at my W2s
compared to my husbands and granted I am only part time I
37
understand as an assistant, that's why I don't get the big bucks
because I don't have the headaches that the full time head coaches
do ... what I am putting in to what I am getting out and now that I have
my own child that's what I am sacrificing. If I am not getting paid what
I feel I am worth and I am sacrificing my time with my son and my
home life."
The lack of compensation and sacrificing time with family may be a barrier for
female athletes entering into the coaching profession, as well as a reason why
they may leave the profession and decide not to take the leap into becoming a
head coach. The theme of time also came up when the participants were asked
about their perceptions of becoming a head coach.
Intentions and Perceptions of Becoming a Head Coach
Even though there may be barriers to women entering the field of
coaching, there are also several other factors that may increase women's
intentions to become head coaches. Using social exchange theory, Weiss and
Stevens ( 1993) analyzed the intent of female coaches to remain in or leave the
field of coaching using current and former coaches to conduct the study. The
authors attempted to predict the behavior of female coaches based on the costs
and benefits of coaching and the levels of satisfaction in their jobs. The findings
were that the benefits of coaching were enjoyment of working with the athletes,
watching the athletes achieve a goal and learn a new skill, encouraging
teamwork, and personal success. The costs perceived to coaching included
family time conflict, workload, hours, and lack of program support. Weiss and
Stevens (1993) did not find full support for using cost-benefit analysis to predict
38
coaching intent.
Perceived Costs & Benefits of Becoming a Head Coach
Sagas, Cunningham, and Pastore (2006) conducted a study applying
the Theory of Planned Behavior to explain head coaching intentions among
female assistant coaches. The authors sought to find the most important factors
that predicted the intention to become a head coach. The data of this study
revealed that the head coaching intentions of females were not strong, as the
mean score was only 4.32 on a 7-point scale. The female assistant coaches
shared that they were motivated to obtain head coaching positions because such
positions would (a) bring the ability to develop their own skills in coaching, and
(b) enable the use of their own coaching philosophy (Sagas et al., 2006). A
negative belief that was noted in the study was the work-family conflict
relationship to intentions for the women. The female coaches perceived the
increased conflict that a head coaching position might bring as a barrier to pursuit
such a position.
When the female assistant coaches in my study were asked about
their perceptions of a head coaching position, they shared similar thoughts as
those found in Sagas, et al., 2006. The common themes that were revealed in
the interviews were commitment, compensation, power, and life balance. When
the collegiate female assistant coaches were asked what their perceptions of a
head coaching position were, many shared that the position required "a lot" of
time, dedication, heart, work, stress, and more responsibility and could put a
strain on personal/family relationships. Kristy felt that it is "a lot of responsibility
39
definitely." Lauren's perceptions of being a head coach are "that it is a lot of
work; it's hard, especially as a female." Allison speaks about the stress and
pressure of such a position "I think that it brings way more stress than the public
really knows." Maddie revealed that her perceptions of the head coaching
position were that it is "a lot of responsibility. Your team is doing well, you are the
hero; your team is not doing well you are on the bottom. You are just being
pointed finger at. It's your fault or it's your glory."
The interview also addressed what the female assistants felt were the
draw-ins and drawbacks of a head coaching position based on their perceptions
of the position. The interviews revealed similar themes to Sagas et al. (2006)
and Weiss and Stevens (1993). The perceived benefits of being a head coach
that the female assistant coaches shared were being their own boss, running
their own program, working with older players at a higher level, running their own
system and having a coaching philosophy and instilling it. Kameron shared that
"working with older players at a higher level would draw me in. I really like the
college campus environment and being around people who hunger to learn more
and are real motivated." Cathleen spoke about having her own system and
instilling her own coaching philosophy. "The draw in was definitely being able to
run your own system, having a coaching philosophy and instilling it in having
these kids look to you." These findings are supported by Sagas et al. (2006), as
their findings showed that female assistant coaches were motivated to obtain
head coaching positions because it would enable them to use their own coaching
philosophy.
The costs perceived to holding a head coaching position were also
40
supported by Sagas, et al. (2006) and Weiss and Stevens (1993). The common
themes from my interviews regarding costs were life balance, family time
sacrifice, time commitment, and politics. Sagas, et al. (2006) found that a
negative belief in head coaching was the work-family conflict for the women
coaches that participated in the study. Weiss and Stevens (1993) reported that
the costs perceived to coaching included family time conflict, workload, hours,
and lack of program support. Kristy touched on the family time conflict,
"I think the time away from family is huge. Just seeing my parents when
they were both coaches and the time they spent dedicated to their sports.
I see the time my coach dedicates to his program. It's a lot of time away
from family. That would be a drawback."
Laurel described the politics that come with collegiate coaching,
"The politics all together. We are going through so much right now
and he's on edge because of all the budget cuts ... The cuts, the
politics, the working with other people, those are the things that you
do because you love the job but you wish you didn't have to deal with
the other stuff."
Maddie shared her feelings about time management,
"Time. A lot of time. Time management. Balancing that between your
relationships. To be with someone who doesn't understand that on
Saturday I have to be out at a tournament all day recruiting. Being
with someone who understands that is really important. It's definitely
time taxing and something you definitely have to prepare for."
For female assistant coaches, weighing the risks and rewards of becoming a
head coach is a decision that may be difficult for some. Thus, the study of the
41
factors that shape a coach's attitudes toward head coaching positions is
necessary to understanding why female assistant coaches, in particular, are
pursuing head coaching positions at a lesser rate than are their male
counterparts (Sagas, et al., 2006).
Head Coaching Intentions
During the interview process the assistant coaches were asked where
they see themselves in five years and if becoming a head coach is part of their
career path? Of the 10 female assistant coaches that participated, 6 replied yes,
becoming a head coach is part of their long term career path. Three assistant
coaches where unsure if becoming a head coach was something they wanted to
achieve. Lastly, only one coach shared that that was not going to be part of her
coaching career, "no, if it was then I would have already done it." Sarah
explained that she "looked at the head coach and said I would love to have her
job. I don't want to be an assistant forever." Angela responded, "my ultimate goal
is to be a head coach at a junior college and be a full time P.E. teacher. That is
my ultimate goal. If it happens, it happens, if not I am happy being an assistant
coach." Even with a long term goal, Angela would be content being assistant
coach if it did not work out to find and secure a head coaching position. Kristy
shared a similar goal with Angela, in that "coaching and teaching at a junior
college would be my big ending goal." Due to her passion and goals as a coach,
Laurel has made some big changes to pursue a career in coaching.
"Yes, now that I have actually been in college level it has changed.
When I first started in high school and I went into college, I actually
changed my major because of coaching. I have enjoyed coaching so
42
much that I have changed my major and I decided to go to
Kinesiology so I could use it to coach with. I wanted to do coaching
and end up getting my masters degree and actually go into NCAA
coaching. I wanted to do DI/ or Diii, but that's what I ultimately want
to do."
Kameron, Amanda, and Allison were the coaches whose reply was indecisive
about taking the leap to become a head coach.
"/ always thought that it would be but I don't know now."
"/ can't decide if I want to do that to do that or go be an assistant at a
high level. So I am so torn between the two. I love being an assistant
but part of me also wants to be a head coach. I think so eventually
head coach but I think I am a really good assistant coach ... "
"/ don't know. I know I would totally do it at the high school level and
be a head coach at that level. I guess I don't have the interest of
being a DI coach so if it was a smaller scale there is definitely
potential for me wanting to do that."
In order to explore the coach's intentions, they were asked where they
see themselves within five years of the interview. Seven out the 10 coaches said
they would be coaching, one said that she would not be coaching, and two
shared that they were unsure of where they would be. Of the seven coaches who
felt they were still going to be coaching, three coaches expressed how they see
themselves in the same position as an assistant coach of the same program or
an assistant at a higher level. Three of the seven coaches mentioned they hope
to be a head coach at the current program or moving toward the goal of
becoming a head coach. Of the ten coaches in this study, 5 intend to stay as an
43
assistant coach and 5 intend to be head coaches of a program within five years.
The perceived costs and benefits of a head coaching position shared by the
coaches explain their intentions.
Importance of Females Mentoring Females
Mentoring has been considered an increasingly important element of
coaching development programs (Bloom, et al., 1998). Bloom, et al. (1998)
explain that mentoring occurs when a teacher or coach willingly invests time in
the personal development of a student or athlete, when a trusting relationship
evolves, needs and interests are fulfilled, and imitation of behavior takes place.
Many of the mentoring relationships built in the sporting domain are informal, i.e.
when a novice coach seeks the counsel of a head coach or respected elder.
Mentoring relationships are a way for novice coaches to learn how to navigate
the profession and gain knowledge about coaching. Bloom, el al. (1998)
conducted a study with 21 expert Canadian coaches to determine if any of the
coaches were mentored through their development as athletes and subsequently
as coaches, and if in turn they mentored other athletes and coaches during their
careers. Results revealed that most of the coaches were mentored by more
experienced coaches during both their athletic and early coaching careers. From
this mentoring relationship the coaches were able to gain valuable knowledge
and insights that helped shape their coaching philosophies and enhance their
performance and success as coaches.
The findings of this study concur with the Canadian research, as many of
the coaches described family or coaches who encouraged and influenced them
to enter into coaching. Kristy expressed that, "Both my parents are
44
coaches ... They were definitely role models ... " Allison shares that, "My 7th/8th
grade basketball coach, Bob Wallace. He has been with my dad; the two of
them are the most influential people as far as my basketball, as a player and a
coach." Cathleen touched on how, "Jack Grand, who was the men's head coach
here at the same time also did some personal coaching with me. Just always
asked the right provocative questions as far as: Do you see yourself doing this?
Why do you do it? Does it make you happy? He really got the fire started then I
discovered I wanted to coach." However, a few of the coaches mentioned they
did not have anyone encouraging them as an athlete to pursue coaching and yet
they still entered the field. It is an interesting finding that in the cases of those
coaches who mentioned they had a coach or parent encourage or influence
them to enter coaching, the mentors were mostly male. This may be attributed to
the fact that 57 .1 % of women's teams are coached by males even though 100
more female head coaches of women's teams are employed than in 2010
(Acosta & Carpenter, 2012).
Sagas, Paetzold, & Ashley (2005) found that a critical component of
career advancement for assistant coaches was the support from the head coach
and that a lack of support could prove detrimental to the advancement of the
assistant coach. Furthermore, female coaches have strongly identified the need
for guidance in managing the challenges of work and life transitions (e.g.,
children, athlete to coach; Marshall, 2001 a). Bloom, et al. (1998) reported that in
addition to being mentored as athletes, expert coaches also reported being
mentored throughout their coaching careers, particularly during the early to
middle stages.
45
When the coaches were asked if they have a mentor to help guide them
through their coaching career, all but one said they do. When asked what that
mentor does to help them, the common answers were give advice and emotional
support, push to take jobs, gives confidence, and be an example. Angela speaks
about how her mentor, Josh, helps guide her,
"How he helps me is when I get a job offer he helps me make the
right choice for me. Any time I have an issue with a club parent or
when a high school girl, I hold off on talking to them before I talk to
him. He is kind of like a mentor type person ... He tries to keep my
feelings in mind. He would tell me what he would do if he were in my
position ... He is the one who pushes me in the right direction. He's the
one who's passionate about everything I am passionate about.
Everything I said about being a mentor is us, that's our relationship."
Kameron shares how Andrew is available and gives her advice after her
coaching events, "He has been such a positive influence and really available to
talk to if I am having any concerns ... He's been at games while I am coaching
and talked to me after the game about things that I need to remember to do. It's
been really instrumental." Laurel also touched on how her mentor, Scott, gives
her feedback, "He gives me indirect feedback, which I kind of like, even
sometimes I wish he would give me more feedback than he does but he is very
indirect about it that's for sure." Allison mentions that she has 3-4 mentors that
depending on what the subject matter is, she decides who she will call for
advice, "It's nice to have a couple of choices." It should be noted that all her
mentors were male.
Cathleen spoke about her two mentors, James and Jill,
"James is the primary one ... He is where I get the developed side. I
46
want to continue to develop and the aspiration to go higher. And
then Jill is another one, she is the grounding. He's the push and
she's the ground. She's the one who said I need to finish my
education. She was the one who helped me get my resume
together so I could get my teaching job here. She is really the
grounding and he is the push. It is a neat little family dynamic."
While the coaches had both male and female mentors that helped guide
them where they were at the time of the interview, one coach in particular
focused on female mentors that she had and how these mentors not only helped
her in the knowledge of the sport, but also in how to be a successful female in
the profession and showed her that it is possible to "do it all": be a successful
coach and a parent. Sarah looked up to her female mentors to learn about
coaching and to learn about life as a women in a male-dominated field. She said,
"I ask her for advice and she still mentors me in that sense. I ask her
questions. I talk to her about jobs that are opening and what she
thinks about certain positions. I think more than anything just having
their confidence in me helps. It is such an overwhelming thing... I
think for me is letting the players see that it can be done. Being a
player, going to be a coach, getting a good education. I think being
positive but working hard. You are there for people but you push
them. It is different when a man pushes you or mentors you because
at times when it is tough you need that advice but when a women is
there you can tell them that you have been in their shoes. My two
biggest influences have been the women head coaches. I have
worked and played for. Having somebody that has done it, that you
can relate to ... It is so nice to have somebody who has done it and
continues to do it and be able to have that example."
47
Kilty (2006) reported that female coaches who attended the USOC Department
of Coaching and Sport Sciences annual conference for women in coaching
discussed a lack of female mentors as a barrier for other women to get into the
profession of coaching. They reported that female mentors provided guidance
and facilitated networking and contacts. It was interesting that almost all the
female coaches I interviewed mentioned a male mentor and that those who
mentioned a parent as their mentor spoke of their father, not their mother. This
again supports the fact that there are more male head coaches than female, thus
the access to female coaching role models for these aspiring female assistant
coaches is limited.
The participating female assistant coaches were asked if they would like
more mentoring to continue to guide them through their coaching careers. Many
coaches responded that they would like more mentoring, while some felt they
didn't need more mentoring. Those that shared they wanted more mentoring felt
that any type of coaching education programs and any type of opportunity where
they can learn from someone else's perspective and experiences would be
beneficial. The coaches shared,
"Any type of coaching education programs, well the one's I have
been a part of, have invigorated and excited me ... Any type of
opportunity where I can learn from someone. There are a lot of
people out there that know a lot more than I do and any opportunity I
can learn more I would be happy to do so."
"I feel like in my position I would like more mentoring, within the
program and within the athletic department. Each program is different
and this is kind of a learn as you go program. It's nice because you
have some freedom on how we interact with the girls and that sort of
48
thing but there are times I wish I had more mentorship."
"... But a mentor is always nice. I would want to get their experience.
Get their history and how they got to where they are now."
Bloom, et al. (1998) suggest from their findings that many individuals believe in
the benefits and success of formalized mentoring programs. Bower (2011)
examined the mentoring relationship between the head women's basketball
coach and female assistant coach who aspires to become a head coach.
Findings revealed that career and psychosocial functions were important to the
development of the mentoring relationship. Bower (2011) suggests that the sport
organizations may benefit from implementing formal mentoring programs that
encompass career and psychosocial functions fostering career development for
the female coach aspiring to become a head coach.
Kilty (2006) recommended strategies for coaching education in three main
areas: first, the continuation of women and sport programs that provide
opportunities for female coaches to learn from one another while developing
skills to better manage the current social context; second, consciously
restructuring the work environment to create the conditions in which contributions
such as cooperation, collaboration, trust, and mutual learning are validated and
rewarded; and third, helping female coaches navigate inherent career and life
transitions through relational mentoring models and learning how to realize their
collective power through teaching female coaches how to advocate for change.
With the findings of this study and the findings of my research, it can be
concluded that formalized mentorship programs and mentor relationships are of
49
the utmost importance for aspiring female assistant coaches who want to
become a head coach but further, even for female coaches at any level and in
any position. In fact female athletes, assistant coaches, and even current female
head coaches benefit from same-sex mentor pairings as they lead to higher
levels of career development than opposite-sex mentor pairings (Avery, et al.,
2008).
Summative Thoughts on Becoming a Head Coach
To conclude each interview in the study the coaches were asked if there
was anything they would like to share in order to better understand the
experiences and intentions of collegiate female assistant coaches. This gave
them the opportunity to speak about topics that were not mentioned during the
interview itself. The responses to the questions were honest and rich. Coach
Amanda's summative thoughts were actually very close to what this study was
about. She shared, "I think one thing that would be interesting to see what
percentage wants to be a head coach and who just wants to stay as an assistant.
Because I know when I was at Sacramento State, one of my coaches she didn't
want to be in coaching that long. She wanted to move on to something else."
Many coaches spoke about the relationship of the head coach and
assistant coach. They felt that head coaches need to take more of an active role
in helping their assistant coaches. Sarah expressed, "I think head coaches taking
a more active role in helping their assistant coaches out. I think it would make a
big difference." Kameron said,
I really think it's how the head coach uses the assistant coach. I think
it can be a huge benefit to the team and the coach, otherwise why
50
have them there? I think the assistant coach will give you more if you
are willing to give more. I think the more the head coach invests in
that coach the better off it is to the soccer world in general but also I
think you will get more from them depending on what they bring to
the table.
This is another example of why mentoring relationships between the head
coach and assistant coach are important. The experience and knowledge the
assistant coach gains under a head coach and program are important pieces in
the decision to become or not become a head coach. Bower (2010) examined
the relationship between the head coach and female assistant coach of women's
basketball teams who aspire to become a head coach. She focused on the
mentoring characteristics and advancement techniques. There were four
mentoring characteristics of the head coach that were deemed important to the
female assistant coaches: being a role model, acting as a leader, having the
ability to communicate, and nurturing the protege. The study found five
identifi~ble advancement techniques used by the mentor to prepare the protege
to become a head coach. These included attending professional conferences,
providing networking opportunities, stressing the importance of specific
personality indicators, offering opportunities to learn day-to-day operations, and
providing "hands-on" experience (Bower, 2010). These needs of the female
assistant coaches need to be looked at in detail by head coaches in order for
them to properly prepare and guide their assistant coaches who aspire or are
unsure if they want to become a head coach. This would also be based on if the
head coach feels that it is part of their responsibility to be that mentor to their
assistant coach. Many head coaches don't offer their time to personally
51
development and mentor their assistant coach. That is why it is important for
female assistant coaches to find the right program and fit for them to receive the
proper guidance and mentoring from the head coach of the program.
Life balance was commonly talked about among the coaches as well.
This was also a common theme when the coaches shared their perceptions of a
becoming a head coach. Sarah spoke about having the flexibility within a
coaching position to have a family but she also raised the questions of whether
that was something she wanted to do while coaching. She said, "Finally it goes
back to family, you have the flexibility of being able to have a family. The hours
are quite different than all other careers. With us having a family, do I want to
become a head coach, do I want to do that, or do I want to have the 9-5 job?"
Allison expressed similar concerns about having a family in the coaching world
and how you balance work-life pull. Allison shared,
"One thing that came up a lot last year because the other assistant
coach really what she was going through and she and I were friends
so we talked a lot about it, is being a female in the coaching world to
do that and to have a family and how do you do that and what are the
priorities and what is the timing of that? What position do you take, if
you want a family to allow yourself to have that opportunity? I would
so kind of keeping that balance of we feel like we can do everything.
At what point are we not successful doing everything? When I do
something I really get involved and I don't think I see myself having a
very balanced life because it would really be all about the coaching
and I don't think I would be the best mom and someday I would like
to have kids."
This shows that family is a prominent concern for female coaches. Women are
52
highly concerned about maintaining work-life balance. Female coaches can be
confident in their coaching ability and strategies to learn the necessary
information about running a program, yet they are unsure of how to deal with
their personal lives. At what cost is becoming a head coach important to
achieve? Female coaches should be given more resources to learn how to
balance their work and family lives to help them become successful. If given
these resources and placed in same-sex mentoring relationships it may help
prevent women from leaving coaching and quite possibly increase the
motivation and desire for female assistant coaches to become a head coach.
53
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of collegiate
female assistant coaches along with their intentions to become a head coach.
The female coaches interviewed in this study were currently holding assistant
coaching positions at either the Junior College or Division II level. The length of
time held in that current position ranged from one year to 14 years. The
collegiate sports represented in this study included soccer, track and field,
basketball, and waterpolo. Three research questions were formulated in order to
further the exploration into the intentions of the collegiate female assistant
coaches. These questions included: 1) What are the perceived opportunities for
females to enter into coaching? 2) What are the perceived reasons why female
assistant coaches may or may not become a head coach? and 3) What are the
perceptions of mentoring and the intent to pursue a head coaching position?
Through the interviews with the assistant coaches rich conversations were
held which revealed their experiences and intentions to become a female
collegiate head coach. One could suggest that the process of learning how to
coach begins by observing coaches while in the role of the athlete and then
continues by entering in the role of assistant coach. When the coaches spoke
about their entry into coaching themes of self-efficacy, encouraging feedback,
perception of coaching and barriers to female coaches emerged. The coaches
felt that the experiences they encountered as athletes while working in camps
and receiving positive and encouraging feedback aided in their belief that
becoming a coach would be a good career path.
54
Many coaches when participating in sport as an athlete had positive role
models to learn from along with pure passion for their sport which continued to
drive the desire to stay connected. Before entering a new sport, career or
profession one has a perception of what that role and job might look like, or what
they will be participating in. The coaches' perceptions of coaching varied.
Amanda knew ever since she was 15 that coaching was her chosen career path.
Like Amanda, some young athletes have self-motivation to enter coaching, while
others may simple fall into that profession. It wasn't something they planned for
as an athlete but yet were in a situation that had excellent leadership and
guidance to create a positive environment in which to explore the coaching
profession.
Although some female athletes may have the desire, passion and intrapersonal motivation to enter into coaching and pursue that as a career path,
women face barriers every day within the coaching profession. The NCAA
conducted an examination of the perceived barriers to gender equity in college
coaching. The findings showed that the most common barriers to enter or remain
in coaching careers were family commitments, time commitments, salary, job
availability and gender discrimination against female coaches (Bracken, 2009).
These barriers were present in this study in the responses the coaches gave
about their experiences as an assistant coach. These female assistants shared
the drawbacks and barriers of not receiving compensation comparable to what
they felt they were worth to the program. Having to sacrifice time away from
family (with lack of compensation) was also often discussed.
These themes carried over into the intentions and perceptions of
55
becoming a head coach. The perceived costs sometimes outweighed the
benefits of pursing a head coaching position. The coaches' perceptions of that
head coaching role were that it involved a large amount of time, dedication,
heart, work, stress, and more responsibility. On the other hand, the perceived
benefits of holding such position would mean that they would their own boss, run
their own program, work with older players at a higher level, have the power to
run their own system and instill their own coaching philosophy. These benefits
and costs were reflected in one common theme: work-life balance. This is a
struggle female coaches have to deal with more so than their male counterparts,
thus pursuing head coaching positions at a slower rate (Sagas, et al., 2006).
Mentoring has been considered an increasingly important element of
coaching development programs (Bloom, et al., 1998). The coaches in this study
expressed that family and/or friends encouraged them and guided them through
their coaching careers thus far. Sagas, Paetzold, & Ashley (2005) found that a
critical component of career success for assistant coaches was the support from
the head coach and that a lack of support could prove detrimental to the success
of the assistant coach. All but one coach shared that they did indeed have a
mentor or multiple mentors who give them advice and confidence, push them to
take jobs, and provide an example. Most of the mentors guiding these coaches
were male. It is of the utmost importance for aspiring female assistant coaches
who want to become a head coach, and even for female coaches at any level
and in any position, to be a part of a mentoring relationship.
56
Limitations/Delimitations
One limitation to this study could be the sports that were represented.
There were only participants from four sports: basketball, track and field, soccer,
and waterpolo. Female assistant coaches from other sports, particularly more
individual sports, may have different experiences and intentions within their
coaching career. Another limitation is the two collegiate levels that are
represented in the study. Both junior college and Division II were examined. To
note, there were more junior college female assistant participants than Division II.
This was based on the responses received from the emails and phone calls sent
out in search of study participants. Even having two levels of potential
participants for the study, only 10 female assistant coaches agreed to participate,
making it a small sample size thus it cannot be assumed that this is how all
female assistant coaches feel at the junior college and Division II levels.
Beyond the limitations of the represented sports and collegiate levels,
since this is a qualitative study there may be issues related to researcher bias.
As the researcher, I am part of the data collection and analysis process. Due to
this, my bias must be addressed as it could influence the research. Although I do
believe that there should be more women in coaching and an increase in
mentoring for female coaches, this bias was addressed. When asking the
interview questions I did not give examples unless directly asked to so as to
avoid leading or biasing participants to give particular answers. Finally, the
coaches were asked at the end of the interview to speak freely about their
experiences, thoughts and concerns that were not previously asked in the
interview process.
57
Recommendations for Future Research
Much of the qualitative research done with female assistant coaches have
involved Division I coaches. Minimal qualitative research has been done
examining junior college and Division II female assistant coaches. Furthermore,
Division Ill and NAIA collegiate levels are nearly non-existent in research today.
These four levels, through my experience, have the highest turnover rate of
female assistant coaches. The lack of compensation, high demands and worklife balance can deter female coaches from staying in the position long term and
possibly result in leaving the coaching profession all together (Kamphoff, 2010).
Future research needs to be done on these four levels to help facilitate ways to
keep female assistant coaches in the coaching profession as either an assistant
coach or head coach. Future studies should look at female coaches who are
"doing it all": being a head coach and raising a family, in order to see what their
experiences are in the coaching profession. It would be useful to find out what
they believed helped them achieve the balance between their career aspirations
and family desires, as it could give recommendations to aspiring female coaches.
Athletic departments and sport organizations could use this information to
create a work environment for female coaches that provides the resources
necessary to keep them in the coaching profession. Mentoring is important for
female coaches both aspiring and current (Kilty, 2006). Programs within athletic
departments that connect female coaches in mentoring relationships may give
these coaches the opportunity to learn from each other and discuss the barriers
they have encountered and strategies they use to be a successful female coach.
Coaching education about becoming a coach from the female perspective, same-
58
sex mentoring relationships, and adequate resources are needed not only to
retain female coaches in the profession as well as to recruit new coaches.
59
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
BACKGROUND INFORMATION SHEET
Collegiate Female Assistant Coaches: A Qualitative Examination of Their
Experiences and Intentions:
Collegiate Female Assistant Coach Background Information
Name:
School Currently Coaching At:
Email
Address: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Phone
Number: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1. What is your current age?
2. How old were you when you started playing sports?
3. Please describe your sport experiences before you entered into coaching.
(i.e., playing experience, camps, volunteering, etc.)
4. How old were you when you entered into coaching?
5. What/Where was your first coaching job?
6. How long have you been involved in coaching? (i.e., head coach, assistant
coach of teams in an organization/school.)
7. Have you been a head coach before?
(Where?, How Long?)
8. If YES to a previous head coach, why did you leave and would you go
back to being a head coach?
9. Please describe your current coaching position? (i.e., years in organization,
key responsibilities, title, years in position.)
60
APPENDIX B
INFORMED CONSENT SHEET
Collegiate Female Assistant Coach
Study Informed Consent Sheet #1
You are invited to participate in a study of Collegiate Female Assistant
Coaches being conducted by Crystal Howard of Sonoma State University in
order to obtain a Masters Degree in Kinesiology. I hope to explore and better
understand more about Collegiate Female Assistant Coaches' experiences and
intentions, along with investigating whether mentoring is a factor of their
intentions. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you
are a Collegiate Female Assistant Coach at either the Division II or Junior
College level.
If you decide to participate, I will contact you to set up a time and date for a
45-90+ minute one time, one-on-one interview at a convenient location for both
the interviewer and the interviewee. The coach may expect discomfort of sitting
for the duration of the interview. At the time of the interview you will be handed
informational papers about the research study. These papers will include a
copy
of the informed consent sheet, a coach information sheet and a copy of the
interview questions.
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can
be identified with you will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with
61
your permission or as required by law. Your decision whether or not to
participate will not prejudice your future relations with Sonoma State
University. If you decide to participate, you are free to withdraw your consent
and to discontinue participation at any time without prejudice.
If you have any questions, please ask my faculty advisor or me. My name is
Crystal Howard and I can be reached at 707-953-1172; [email protected]. My
faculty advisor is Ellen Carlton (PhD., Sonoma State University, Department of
Kinesiology) and can be reached at [email protected].
You will be given a copy of this form to keep at the time of the interview. YOU
ARE MAKING A DECISION WHETHER OR NOT TO PARTICIPATE. YOUR
SIGNATURE INDICATES THAT YOU HAVE DECIDED TO PARTICIPATE
HAVING READ THE INFORMATION PROVIDED ABOVE.
Participant's Name (Please Type)
Participant's Signature
Date (MM/DD/YYYY)
62
Collegiate Female Assistant Coach
Study Informed Consent Sheet #2
The participant has been informed that they are involved in research study on
Collegiate Female Assistant Coaches. The participant understands that this
research is being done as part of a Master's Degree study at Sonoma State
University.
_ _ _ _participant initial here
The participant understands the purpose of this research study is to
Increase knowledge and understanding of collegiate female assistant coaches'
experiences as a Division II or Junior College level coach.
Understand their intentions to become a female head coach.
Explore whether mentoring is a factor of their intentions.
_ _ _ _ _participant initial here
The participant acknowledges that they have been informed of the procedures to
be followed in this research project that include the following
Participants will be identified and contacted for an interview appointment of
45-90+ minutes in length.
Once an interview time and date has been determined and scheduled
informational papers will be provided to each coach before or at their interview.
63
Papers will include an informed consent sheet, a copy of the interview questions,
and a coach information sheet.
A tape recorder may also be used.
_ _ _ _ _ participant initial here
The participant understands the duration of their participation and the time
commitment expected of them is for a one-time interview. The coach
should anticipate the interview process to take 45-90+ minutes in length.
_ _ _ _ _,participant initial here
The participant acknowledges that any foreseeable risks and/or discomforts may
include sitting for 45-90+ minutes in the setting agreed upon.
_ _ _ _ _participant initial here
The participant understands that the purpose and benefits of this study are to
increase knowledge and understanding of collegiate female assistant coaches
who may or may not want to pursue a career as a female head coach. The
participants of this study are being interviewed with the purpose of investigating
and exploring the experiences and intentions of Division II and Junior College
level female assistant coaches and whether mentoring is a factor of their
intentions.
64
_ _ _ _ _participant initial here
The participant understands that respect of privacy and complete confidentiality
will be protected at all times and that all interviews and participant identities will
be private and confidential unless expressly requested by the participant
themselves in writing.
_ _ _ _ _ participant initial here
The participant understands that participation in this study is voluntary and that
there is no penalty for refusal to participate, and that the subject may withdraw at
any time without penalty.
_ _ _ _ _participant initial here
The participant understands that they can contact the researcher:
Crystal Howard at (707) 953-1172 I [email protected]
at the above telephone number for answers to any questions about this study.
The professor and faculty advisor of this study is:
Ellen Carlton, PhD., Sonoma State University, Department of Kinesiology
[email protected]
65
APPENDIX C
COACH INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE
Collegiate Female Assistant Coaches: A Qualitative Examination of Their
Experiences and Intentions
Subject: Sport Psychology
Proposal Presented: Tuesday, May 29, 2009
Interviewer/Student: Crystal Howard
Department of Kinesiology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California
Coach Information
Name _ _ _ _ _ _~ - Phone _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Sport~~~~~~~~
School
~~~~~~~~~
Interview Date- - - - - - Time. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
1.
Can you remember deciding that you'd like to become a coach? Can you
tell me about it?
2.
Who, if anyone, encouraged you to pursue coaching?
3.
From your sport experiences you wrote down, can you remember a
specific event or person that influenced you to enter into coaching?
4.
How did you become an assistant coach at this organization/school?
5.
How do you define your job?
66
6.
What about being an assistant coach draws you in?
7.
What are some things that are drawbacks to you?
8.
What are your perceptions about being a head coach?
9.
Do you think becoming a head coach is part of your career path? Why or
why not?
10.
What about becoming a head coach draws you in?
11.
What are some things that are drawbacks to you?
12.
Where do you see yourself in 5 years?
13.
Will you be coaching?
14.
Do you have someone to help guide you through your coaching career?
15.
How does this person help you?
16.
How would you define mentoring?
17.
Do you have a mentor?
18.
Can you describe this mentor and what they do for you?
19.
Would you like more mentoring? What would you like to get from it?
20.
Is there anything else you think I should know in order to better understand
the experiences and intentions of collegiate female assistant coaches?
67
APPENDIX D
RIGHTS OF HUMAN SUBJECTS
SONOMA
Sonoma State University
Institutional Review Board
May 18, 2009
Dear Ms. Howard:
Subject: IRB Application# 1982, COLLEGIATE FEMALE ASSISTANT COACHES
I am pleased to inform you that your application to the Sonoma State Institutional Review
Board has been reviewed and approved as Exempt A-2. Please contact Carol Hall or me
immediately should you encounter any unforeseen difficulties, or make any significant
changes to your planned procedures.
Thank you for your cooperation with our processes. We wish you the best of fortune as
you complete your research project.
Sincerely,
Duane Dove, Ph.D.
Chair, SSU IRB
68
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