ITHALA GAME RESERVE AS A TOURIST DESTINATION:
COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS AND PARTICIPATION
BY
ZANELE SONTO MAYISE
A dissertation of limited scope submitted to the Faculty of Arts in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course-work
Degree of Master of Arts in the Centre for Recreation
and Tourism at the University of Zululanrl
KwaDlangezwa
February 200S
APPROVAL
SUPERVISOR:
Centre for Recreation and Tourism
University of Zululand
CO - SUPERVISOR:
. . Nzama
Centre for Recreation and Tourism
University of Zululand
EXTERNAL EXAMINER:
.
Dr. Diana Scott
School of Life & Environmental Sciences
University of KwaZulu-Natal
II
DECLARATION
I declare that this research study: Ithala Game Reserve as a Tourist Destination:
Community Perceptions and Participation, except where specifically indicated
to the contrary in the text, is my own work both in conception and execution.
All the sources that have been used or quoted in this study have been duly
acknowledged by means of complete references.
By
Zanele Sonto Mayise
III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My indebtedness and gratitude is wholeheartedly extended to the following
people for their contributions in making this study a success. Consequently, I
humbly and gratefully feel very much indebted to most of these people. To
.mention only a few:
(a)
The Vice-Rector of the University of Zululand, also the co-ordinator of
the MRT and PDRT programmes of the Centre for Recreation and
Tourism at the University of Zululand, Professor L.M Magi, for
encouraging and also believing in me that I am capable of doing this
programme (M:asters in Recreation and Tourism). In addition he also
availed himself as the supervisor to this research study.
I therefore,
acknowledge his unfailing and dedication in reading all my drafts and
fmal work pertaining to this research document.
(b)
Dr. A. T Nzama, the Head of the Centre for Recreation and Tourism who
through her advice provided invaluable assistance in the shaping of this
study. Also I'm so thankful to her for her kindness to me and all words of
encouragement she gave to me, I really appreciate the gesture.
(c)
The research and scholarship funders who have supported my scholarship
at the University of Zululand. More specifically the National Research
Foundation (NRF), Department of Labour Scarce Skills Scholarship for
funding me in order to finish my research project.
IV
(d)
My mother, who has gIven me moral support and whole-heartedly
assisted me during the times I felt like giving up. My dear mother this
one goes out to you.
(e)
Mr. A. T Mthembu, a lecturer in the Department of Geography at the
University of Zululand, for playing a pivotal role in equipping me with
the methods of analysing the data of this research project.
(f)
My most sincere appreciation to all my friends and sisters Buyi, Ntombi
and Lungi whose encouragement and patience enabled me to proceed
with my project.
(g)
Lastly but not least, my fellow students within the MRT and PDRT
programmes, thank you for everything that we have shared.
There is no doubt that without the contribution of the people mentioned above,
and many others, this research document would not have been fully completed.
May the love of God be with you all. Thank you very much.
Zanele Santa Mayise
University of Zululand
28 February 2005
v
DEDICATION
It is with the greatest affection that I wish to dedicate this piece of work in its
entirety to my beloved mother, kaMathenjwa, as well as my sisters, Buyi,
Ntombi and Lungi. The above relations have been my backbone in encouraging
me to work far more harder than I have worked before. This research study is
also dedicated to my dearest friends Thobi, Pamela, Neli, Prof., Coos and Musa
who used to encourage me to study further should the opportunity avail itself.
VI
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted against the background that Ithala Game Reserve has a
lot of tourism benefits. These benefits must be shared among the various sectors
of the community such as the people who were evicted from Ithala and KZN
Nature Conservation Services. The study was aimed at fmding out whether
these tourism benefits compensate for loss of land. This aim was narrowed
down to the following objectives:
•
To investigate the level of understanding that Ithala people have
towards the meaning of tourism.
•
To identify the criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine
the beneficiaries of tourism resources at Ithala Game Reserve.
•
To determine the level of participation of local people in decisionmaking concerning tourism related matters.
•
To examine the level of accessibility to tourism resources of the
Ithala area.
•
To assess the extent to which tourism benefits enhance the livelihood
ofthe people around Ithala Game Reserve.
The study hypothesised that:
•
That the Ithala people have a poor understanding of the meaning of
tourism.
VII
•
That there is no clearly defined criteria and strategy used by
authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism benefits.
•
That the Ithala people do not participate actively in decision-making
concerning tourism benefits.
•
That the level of accessibility to tourism resources
IS
relatively
restricted among the Ithala community members.
•
That tourism benefits do enhance the livelihood of the Ithala
community in a sustainable manner.
Data was collected through the use of sets of questionnaires, which had both
open-ended and closed sections. After this data was collected, it was analysed
through the use of computer programme, Statistical Package for Social Sciences.
This programme was used to formulate frequency tables and to relate variables.
There were vanous findings that were deduced from the responses of all
interviewees.
It was discovered that the Ithala community has limited
knowledge about tourism and its benefits in their area. Such limitation resulted
from the fact that for a long time, the Ithala community has been excluded from
tourism development initiatives. This community was scattered over a large
area after eviction, so they know very little about what is happening in the area.
Another stumbling block to access tourism benefits is that the recent
arrangements to involve the community in the tourism management are still
neatly typed in the Memorandum of Understanding (the legal document that was
signed by the Claimants, The Board, NCS), which is not easily accessible to
Vlll
people. People can begin to accept the prevailing situation provided they have
sufficient knowledge about tourism.
To address the concerns of the community, various recommendations were
suggested.
These included tourism awareness strategies, consultation and
involvement of local people in tourism development initiatives, translation of
tourism brochures into Zulu and construction of a cultural village. Once local
people begin to grasp the concept of tourism, they will begin to accrue more
benefits from this lucrative venture.
IX
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER
APPROVAL
(ii)
DECLARATION
(iii)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(iv)
DEDICATION
(vi)
ABSlRACT
(vii)
ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY
CHAPTER!
1
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Background tothe problem
I
1.3
Statement ofthe problem
3
1.4
Presentation of the problem
4
1.5
Objectives of the study
5
1.6
Statement of Hypotheses
6
1.7
Definition of terms
7
1.7.1
Tourism
7
1.7.2
Protected area
1.7.3
Tourist Destination
10
1.7.4
Community
10
1.7.5
Previously neglected communities
11
1.7.6
Perceptions
11
1.7.7
Participation
12
(Reserve)
x
9
1.7.8
Blacks
12
1.7.9
Eviction
12
1.7.10 Ecotourism
13
1.7.11 Tourism Development
13
1.7.12 Sustainable Development
14
1.8
Significance ofthe study
14
1.9
Delimitation of the study
15
1.10 Methodology
17
1.10.1 Sample
18
1.10.2 Instrumentation
18
1.10.3 Method of data analysis
19
1.11 Organisation of the study
19
1.12 Conclusion
21
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
22
2.1
Introduction
22
2.2
Tourism Development and Evictions / Relocations
23
2.2.1 Categories ofprotected areas
25
Protected areas and promotion of ecotourism
27
2.3.1 Characteristics and principles of tourism
28
Key players in community tourism
30
2.4.1 The government
32
2.4.2 The Non-Govermnental Organizations (NGOs)
34
2.4.3 The private sector
35
2.4.4 The local community
36
Benefits oftourism to the local community
39
2.3
2.4
2.5
Xl
2.6
Partnership between tourism and conservation
40
2.7
The socio-economic impacts of tourism
42
2.8
Situations that provoke tourist resentment
44
2.8.1 The physical presence oftourists
44
2.8.2 Foreign ownership and employment
45
Property as power
47
2.9
2.10 Tourist-host interrelationships
49
2.11 Bureaucratic impasse
51
2.12 Factors limiting the delivery of tourism
54
2.13 Conclusion
57
CHAPTER 3
THE PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE STUDY
59
3.1
Introduction
59
3.2
The location of the study area
59
3.3
Diversity of habitat
63
3.4
History ofIthala
63
3.5
Fauna and Flora
64
3.6
Facilities in Ithala Game Reserve
65
3.6.1 Conference Centre
65
3.6.2 Self guided walking trails
67
3.6.3 Day and night drives
68
3.6.4 Self-guided auto trails
68
3.6.5 Picnic sites
69
3.6.6 Camping
69
Accommodation facilities
69
3.7.1 Ntshondwe Camp
70
3.7
Xll
3.8
3.7.2 Mhlangeni Bush Camp
72
3.7.3 Mbizo Bush Camp
72
3.7.4 Thalu Bush Camp
73
Conclusion
73
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
75
4.1
Introduction
75
4.2
Restatement of objectives and hypotheses
75
4.3
Demographic characteristics of data
77
4.4
Perceptions and expectations ofIthala community from tourism
90
4.4.1 Community perceptions ofthe availability of tourism benefits 92
4.4.2 Community involvement in tourism related matters
93
4.4.3 Community level of knowledge about tourism
94
4.4.4 Community awareness about the Trust Fund
94
4.4.5 Community perceptions ofjob opportunities in tourism
95
4.4.6 Community perceptions of the provision ofinfrastructural
97
facilities.
4.4.7 Community access to Trust Fund
98
4.4.8 The community perceptions ofthe results of eviction
99
4.5
Utilisation oftourism facilities by Ithala community members
100
4.6
Determination of beneficiaries of the Trust
103
4.7
Relationship between variables
105
4.8
Conclusion
112
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
114
5.1
114
Introduction
Xlll
5.2
Summary
114
5.3
General conclusions
118
5.3.1 Achievement of objectives through hypothesis evaluation
118
5.3.2 Community awareness about the Trust Fund
120
5.3.3 Community access to tourism facilities
120
Recommendations
121
5.4.1 Community involvement in decision-making
122
5.4.2 Tourism awareness
122
5.4.3 Provision of infrastructure
124
5.4.4 Knowledge dissemination
125
5.4.5 Remuneration of Trustees
125
5.4.6 Youth development programmes
126
5.4.7 Marketing and promotion of Ithala Game Reserve
128
5.4.8 Creation of cultural village
129
Conclusion
130
5.4
5.5
Bibliography
132
Appendices
139
Appendix - A: Questionnaire -1
139
Appendix - B: Questionnaire - 2
145
Appendix - C: Transmittal Letter
149
.
XlV
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE . DESCRIPTION
PAGE
1.1
Relative location map ofthe study area
06
2.1
The Ashley Community-Based Tourism Model
31
3.1
The relative location map ofthe study area
60
3.2
Absolute location map of the study area
61
3.3
Map ofthe study area
62
3.4
Conference Centre at Ithala Game Reserve
66
3.5
Air-conditioned main auditorium
66
3.6
Day and night drives - vehicle
68
3.7
Ntshondwe Camp
70
3.8
Reception at Ntshondwe Camp
71
3.9
Mhlangeni Bush Camp
71
3.10
Mbizo Bush Camp
72
3.11
Thalu Bush Camp
73
4.1
Age ofrespondents of community members
80
4.2
Age ofIthala Community Trust members
81
4.3
Marital status of community members
83
4.4
Employment status of community members
85
4.5
Employment status of trust members
86
46
Monthly income of community members
87
4.7
Knowledge of tourism benefits by gender
106
4.8
Knowledge of the Trust by age ofrespondents
107
4.9
Level ofknowledge of the Trust by employment
109
4.10
Involvement in decision-making by level of education
llO
4.11
Access to the Trust Fund by monthly income
111
,
.....•.......•.....•.•...............•.......•.•.....•.......•.......•.......•.
xv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
DESCRIPTION
4.1
Gender of respondents who are community members
77
42
Level of education of community members
84
4.3
Perceptions of the community about tourism
91
4.4
Utilisation oftourism facilities by Ithala community members
102
1·····································~11··············
PAGE
.
CHAPTERl
ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY
1.1
INTRODUCTION
South Africa has recently begun a number of conservation initiatives, which link
conservation with the development of people. These conservation initiatives
follow a worldwide trend, which acknowledges that conservation cannot be
undertaken without the participation of local communities. In most cases these
local communities are affected by the establishments of protected areas. The
Ithala Game Reserve in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa is such an initiative by the
national government.
The idea of conservation is entrenched by White Paper on Tourism (DEAT,
1996), which was issued after the 1994 democratic elections. In this Tourism
White Paper it is stressed that national and provincial agencies should play an
important role in developing and managing state conservation land for tourism
pmposes.
1.2
BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM
Historically, forced removals associated with the Ithala community have led to
deep-rooted conflicts between communities and conservation bodies within the
Ithala Game Reserve environment.
When these communities were evicted,
1
there was no proper arrangement for relocation.
People were haphazardly
settled in areas that were considered convenient by those who were in power.
The scattered communities are characterised by poverty, underdevelopment,
lack of infrastructure, wide spread health problems and unemployment. In order
to alleviate the inequalities mentioned situation, some members of the
community have resorted to small-scale commercial agriculture, which occurs
sporadically within the study area. Street vending, mainly run by women is also
evident in the Ithala Game Reserve environment.
Finally these communities have been invited to participate in the affairs of their
land. The arrangement is such that the benefits that are accrued through tourism
should be shared between the Ithala community and nature conservation
authorities. Monetary benefits are entrusted to the Ithala Community Trust,
which has to ensure that Ithala tourism benefits are fairly distributed.
The other noticeable setback facing the Ithala community is that of lack of
tourism awareness. The information concerning tourism benefits is not easily
accessible to individual community members. This inaccessibility is largely
because the legal documents that contain necessary procedures to access land is
written in a language which is foreign to the local communities. The education
level of the Ithala community is also not very high; therefore it is even harder to
interpret legal documents. Appropriate management of natural resources and
economic development opportunities in this region could provide an important
economic base for the benefit of coastal communities The Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 1998 (here after known as DEAT).
2
The historical changes that have occurred with the Ithala Reserve environment
ranging from inequalities, inaccessibilities and lost opportunities to modem
envisaged benefits espoused by the Tourism White Paper (DEAT, 1996), have
set the scene for a more detailed presentation of the statement of the problem
within the study area.
1.3
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
One of the main focuses ofthis study is to establish whether the tourism benefits
associated with the Ithala Game Reserve sufficiently address the eviction
setbacks that were experienced by Ithala people when they were evicted from
their ancestral land about 30 years ago.
The study also focuses on the question that arises as to whether there is a
possible strategy that can be employed to distribute tourism benefits equitably?
After eviction the Ithala community was scattered over a large area, therefore it
is less likely that people of these areas can have similar chances to access the
tourism facilities that are available in Ithala Game Reserve.
Previously, neglected groups such as Blacks did not enjoy the fruits of tourism
and did not participate in tourism, especially in rural areas.· People perceived
tourism as a phenomenon that caused suffering because they were removed from
their areas for the establishment of Game Reserves. Furthermore tourism has
been perceived as a "white man's thing" not for Blacks. Tourism is perceived as
catering for the predominantly white upper and middle classes (DEAT, 1996).
The Black people, who constitute the majority of the South African population,
are neglected. As a result, most Black people do not really know what the
3
concept of tourism embodies; they do not have well understood perceptions and
participation modes of behaviour.
Since the advent of the democratic change in South Africa, the present South
African government encourages all South Africans especially Blacks to
participate in tourism activities. What is, however, important is to introduce the
concept of tourism such that it makes Blacks understand what tourism is, how it
works and what benefits it holds for the individuals as well as the local
community and how everyone can participate in tourism (Bennet, 1995).
It is through the above background and statement ofthe problem that the interest
of the researcher in Ithala Game Reserve as an area of study focus has been
awakened and developed. In order to be able to understand and address the
evolution and fruition of Ithala Game Reserve as a tourist destination, Khan
(1990) has argued that people's perception and attitudes of natural recreation
resources are significantly influenced by their historical and political
backgrounds. On the other hand, Mkhize (1999) maintains that in the apartheid
era local people did not support tourism and conservation due to the land
reallocation and forceful or forced removal by the government of the day.
1.4
PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM
/
Based on literature and preliminary observation, it is unfortunate that Ithala
Game Reserve is not being utilised to its fullest potential by local South
Africans in general as well as those from disadvantaged communities that are
found in and around Louwsburg.
Tourism plays an important role in the
economic development of the Province of KwaZulu Natal and the country as a
4
whole. This therefore implies that tourism fruits are only reaped by a small
percentage of people in small communities such as those in Ithala Game
Reserve.
The problem as stated earlier is now presented in terms of research study
objectives and hypotheses. These objectives and hypotheses are presented in a
systematic and synchronized manner in the next two following subheadings.
1.5
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study aim at focusing on the distribution of tourism benefits to Ithala
people and communities and their knowledge pertaining tourism. The study
actually looks at whether the tourism benefits do reach their rightful owners.
The
study
also
identifies
areas
with
shortcomings
and
suggests
recommendations thereafter. To achieve its targets, the study, therefore has
been narrowed down into the following objectives:
•
To investigate the level of understanding that Ithala people have
towards the meaning of tourism.
•
To identify the criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine
the beneficiaries oftourism resources at Ithala Game Reserve.
•
To determine the level of participation of local people in decisionmaking concerning tourism related matters.
•
To examine the level of accessibility to tourism resources of the
Ithala area.
•
To assess the extent to which tourism benefits enhance the
livelihood ofthe people around Ithala Game Reserve.
5
It is upon the basis of the above-mentioned objectives that the study assumed its
particular theoretical direction. In other words the objectives have served as the
guidelines toward the analysis, synthesis and completion of the study. Each
objective was formulated so as to yield information that would validate the
postulated hypotheses.
1.6
STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES
By definition, the statements of hypotheses are calculated guesses that are quite
useful in shaping the direction of the study. They facilitate the analysis and
interpretation of the subject matter under discussion. The questionnaires were
formulated in such a way that they address the concerns that are encompassed in
the statements of hypotheses. In this study the following hypotheses relative to
the objectives of the study, are postulated:
•
That the Ithala people have a poor understanding of the meaning of
tourism.
•
That there is no clearly defined criteria and' strategy used by
authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism benefits.
•
That the Ithala people do not participate actively in decisionmaking concerning tourism benefits.
•
That the level of accessibility to tourism resources is relatively
restricted among the Ithala community members.
•
That tourism benefits do enhance the livelihood of the Ithala
community in a sustainable manner.
6
The above-stated hypotheses were calculated guesses of a researcher; they were
subject to acceptance or rejection pending on the outcome of data analysis.
These hypotheses would also facilitate the process of arriving at interpretive
findings and conclusions.
1.7
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Researchers in general have always stressed the need to understand the
terminology and usage of concepts in a research inquiry (Magi, 1998). For
purposes of better and contextualised understanding of concepts, these have to
be spelt out in an ambiguous manner as to offer the working meaning for the
research document.
In this section of the research inquiry the researcher therefore aims at giving
clear meaning of the operational terms that are going to be used throughout the
study to eliminate diverse meanings, which can cause ambiguity and likelihood
to perplexity. A variety of definitions exists and have been used in a number of
ways. In the next section several concepts that are used in this study have been
defined.
1.7.1 Tourism
According to Middleton as cited by Mwandla (1998:8) tourism refers to
travelling for leisure or pleasure, travelling for business, social, religious,
educational, sport and many other purposes. According to Smith (1995:22)
tourism is defined as "a set of activities of a person travelling to a place outside
hislher usual environment for less than a year and whose main purpose of travel
7
is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place
visited". On the other hand the White Paper (DEAT, 1996) on the other hand,
regards tourism as all travel, for whatever purpose that results in one or more
nights spent away from home.
The most intuitively logical defInition for the purpose of this study is the one
cited by Mathieson and Wall 1992 (Cooper, 1996: 16) and which seems to be
the most appropriate, states that tourism activity relate to the temporary
movement to destinations outside the normal home and work place, the
activities undertaken during the stay and the facilities created to cater for the
needs ofthe tourists.
The cited defInitions of tourism appropriate for the purpose of this study ought
to convey the essential elements of tourist activity. These elements are:
•
tourism arises out of a movement of people to, and their stay in
various destinations,
•
there are two elements in tourism- the journey to the destination and
the stay at the destination (including activities undertaken there),
•
the journey and the stay take place outside the normal place of
residence and work, so that tourism gives rise to activities which
are distinct from the resident and working populations of the places
through and in which they travel and stay.
•
the movement to destinations is temporary and short term in
character - the intention is to return home within a few days, weeks
or month,
•
destinations are visited for the purposes other than taking up
permanent residence or employment (Cooper, 1996: 16-17)
8
In the context of this study tourism is used to mean recreation related support
activities provided by Ithala Game Reserve for the benefit and enjoyment of
visitors, locals and outside people.
1.7.2 Protected Area (Reserve)
The definition of a protected area adopted by International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) is:
An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the
protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of
natural and associated cultural resources, and managed
through legal or other effective means.
Although all
protected areas meet the general purposes contained in this
definition, in practice the precise purposes for which
protected areas are managed differ greatly. (IUCN, 2000; 22).
The IUCN also defines the protected area as a natural area of land and/or sea,
designated to (a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for
present and future generations, (b) exclude exploitation or occupation inimical
to the purposes of designation of the area, and (c) provide a foundation for
spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of
which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.
In the context of this study protected area (Reserve) is used to mean Ithala Game
Reserve as a natural area ofland designated to protect the ecological integrity of
ecosystems for the benefit and enjoyment of visitors, locals and outside people.
9
1.7.3 Tourist Destination
Tourist destination according to Cook, et al. (1999) can be classified on the
basis of important features, their degree of seasonality and level of commercial
development. The ruling perspective is that many tourists tend to favour visiting
most destinations that are less commercialised. According to Lubbe (2003), a
destination is defined as the geographical area where the attraction is located
and to which the tourist! visitor is heading. In the context of this study this
concept is used to mean tourists visiting Ithala Game Reserve, which is a tourist
destination with a view to understanding the indigenous culture, history and
environment and how local people live and work.
1.7.4 Community
Community refers to a group of people who share similar beliefs and customs
and who may live in the same area. Emotional bonds link members of a
community. They share a sense of belonging and feel an obligation toward
other members of the group. (World Book Encyclopedia, 1996).
On the other hand Murray, et al (1994), community refers to the idea that there
is something common to a group or section of population. Communities may be
based on geographical areas or localities ranging in size from a single street'
through estates, neighbourhoods, and wards, other smaller administrative areas
such as school, catchment areas and parishes, villages, towns, districts, counties
to nations and even groups of nations. In this study community refers to the
local people who come into contact with tourists, as workers and as attractive
10
curiosities for tourists. Hence Ithala community which refers to those people
who were evicted from Ithala Game Reserve.
1.7.5 Previously neglected communities
The concept "previously neglected communities" refers to population groups
that were largely excluded from mainstream tourism activities during predemocratic period in South Africa (DEAT, 1996). For purpose of this study the
previously neglected communities refer to the Ithala previously disadvantage
community. This community was evicted from its land, and for a long time they
have not been involved in decisiOIi-making concerning the tourism benefits
accrued on their land.
1.7.6 Perceptions
The term "perception" according to Jordan and Jordan (1992) refers to human
ability to process, interpret and attribute meaning to the information received via
the sensory systems. The term perceptions in this context therefore taken to
mean how nature is viewed by the individuals using their senses.
Saarinen (1969) argues that research on perceptions on tourism is still in an
infancy stage and that no real body of theory has been developed. Saarinen
(1969) further adds that its study is new and thus lacks a well-developed
methodology. In this context perceptions means how local people perceive
Ithala Game Reserve as a tourist destination.
11
1.7.7 Participation
Participation can be defined as those activities by which members of the society
share in the selection of rulers and directly or indirectly in the formation of
public policy (Sills, 1968). In this context the concept is used to determine the
level of community participation and the way in which they share certain
activities offered by the Reserve as a tourist destination.
1.7.8 Blacks
According to Mwandla (1998) the term refers to the indigenous dark-skinned
inhabitants of South Africa.
The term is distingnishable from the Whites,
Indians and Coloureds. It is used synonymously with the term Africans and also
relates to aBantu abansundu (People of dark colour), a term used in African
communities.
1.7.9 Eviction
This term refers to removal of people from a house or land, especially with the
support of law (Oxford Dictionary: 1995). In this study it refers to an incident
which took place in the early 1970's where people of Ithala were forced to
vacate their ancestral land. The reason behind this forceful removal was to
enable the establishment of a pine tree plantation.
Most people who were
evicted were relocated into places around Louwsburg, Corronation, Hlobane and
Vryheid.
12
1.7.10
Ecotourism
Ecotourism has been widely and diversely defined by social science scholars
and researchers, this approach has resulted in a numerous definitions. The
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, (DEAT, 1999) defines
ecotourism as the:
environmentally and socially responsible travel to natural or
near natural areas that promote conservation.
Has low
visitor impact and provides for beneficially active socioeconomic involvement oflocal people (DEAT, 1999: 4).
Ecotourism is also defined by Dicey (2002) as purposeful travel to natural areas
to understand the cultural and natural history of the environment, taking care not
to alter the integrity of the ecosystem, whilst producing economic opportunities
that make conservation of natural resources fmancially beneficial to local
citizens.
It is important to note that one of the important constituents of
ecotourism is local community. In other words ecotourism will be incomplete if
it excludes the local community. Such was the case in Ithala area, which is
mainly an ecotourism destination, where local communities were excluded from
tourism issues for a long time. Hence people began to dissociate themselves
from tourism.
1.7.11 Tourism Development
On the one hand the White Paper on Environmental Management (DEAT, 1997)
describes development as a process of improving human well-being through the
reallocation and re-utilisation ofresources, which would lead to the modification
13
and beneficiation of the environment. It addresses basic needs, equity and the
redistribution of wealth to communities.
On the other hand, the concept tourism development refers to the process of
improving human and community well-being through the utilisation,
reallocation and maximisation of tourism. facilities and activities which would
lead to the enhancement and benefit of all tourism stakeholders. In this study
the term tourism development also implies the establishment and marketing of
new tourism products, and creating a safe and user-friendly atmosphere for
tourists.
1.9.12
Sustainable Development
The concept sustainable development, devised by the World Commission on
Environment and Development is defmed as meeting the needs of the present
communities "without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs". (WCED, 1987:8). Sustainable development usually operates
on the environment and therefore suggests the natural setting upon which people
or humans participate in activities, one of which is tourism development.
Hence, the sustainable development reflects a counter belief or ameliorates the
notion that the natural environment is a place with finite resources so that
continued population growth, production and consumption ultimately put severe
stress on natural resources (SARDC, 1994). The introduction of best-practices
is important for sustainable tourism development to take place.
The concept sustainable tourism, as is the case with sustainable development,
relates to the way tourists and hosts use nature-based facilities or the pursuit of
14
leisure activities in such a manner that the balance between humans and the
resources are kept in an ecologically sustainable manner and not compromised
by overuse and environmental degradation (SARDC, 1994; Cooper, et aI, 1996).
1.8
SIGNIFICANCE OF mE STUDY
It is expected that this study will make significant contribution to the
development of tourism around the Ithala Game Reserve environment. This
study also forms the basis for further research about tourism development in
Ithala Game Reserve and related tourism facilities. The study further provides
scientific facts pertaining to determining the attitudes of tourists towards
choosing Ithala Game Reserve
as a tourist destination and
make
recommendations towards promotion of tourism in the study area. Lastly, it is
hoped that the findings of this study will contribute to the marketing and
promotion oftourism in the study area.
1.9
DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The study is geographically delimited to the area of Ithala Game Reserve in
Louwsburg. Ithala Game Reserve is found on the northern part of KwaZuluNatal about 400 km from Durban or 500 km from Johannesburg. The study also
hints at some selected residential areas such as Louwsburg, Corronation,
Hlobane and Vryheid where most of the evicted Ithala people are now situated
[See Figure 1.1]
The area of Ithala Game Reserve is sited next to the
Ntshondwe Mountains on the northern western side, forming massive outcrops
overlooking the Game Reserve. The north-eastern side of the Game Reserve is
bordered by the Phongola Rive with a number of tributaries [see Figure 3.2].
15
, KwaZulu·Natal
STUDY AREA
Cou!~1
.
o
For••! St"~y Aro~
----~
ll-.e-.o._
--'::
B
D~
.
"'"
DaI
""
::
~,
"'"
-
D~
LOCALITY SKETCH
•
Provinces of RSA
s
A
iCo\Lf.~I:l
:0
0
000 OOG
~
10
.. " " - '
---- __ _.....-~
l:w_
....
....
..- _ _
.....
_
-_.... _'"
_~,_.--'"'
..
..
..
~
~--_
_ . . ~a;_~_ _
FIGURE 1.1: RELATIVE LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA
_~---~_
Some of these tributaries are the Thalu, Ncome, Sunjwana, Dakaneni and
Ngotshe, all cutting across the major land-area of the Ithala Game Reserve.
Conceptually, this study scrutinises certain concepts such as eviction/relocation,
missed opportunities, and various other concepts that are related to striking a
balance between sustainable and community-based tourism development. These
concepts are expected to provide an ideological framework upon which tourism
benefits distribution can best be understood.
1.10 METHODOLOGY
Without doubt the methods and procedures of inquiry are fundamentally
important for achieving valid and reliable mechanisms of data collection,
analysis and interpretation. These procedures are important for validating the
process and actual empirical analysis.
This study therefore investigates the on-gomg trends with regard to data
collection associated with equitable distribution of tourism benefits in Ithala.
The research methodology also relates and looks at tourism returns impacting on
social standards of people. It also assesses the attitudes of people in relation to
tourism benefits. Existing literacy sources were used as complementary sources
to strengthen the authenticity of the study. The methodology of this study deals
with the selection of the sample, instruments for data collection and method of
data collection and process of data interpretation.
17
1.10.1
The sample
The type of data sample, which was used in collecting data, consisted of three
distinct groups. The first group were the general community members who were
forcefully removed from Ithala area.
The second group was the Ithala
Community Trust Fund (ICTF) management group. The third group was the
Kwazulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service (KZN NCS) responsible for
management ofIthala Game Reserve.
The sample technique that was used in selecting respondents for the three
groups was the stratified random sample and was constituted as follows: the
general community sample was 80 members of the community, for the ICTF
group sample was 9 members of the Trust, and the sample for KZN NCS was 3
officials. There were approximately 500 households that were evicted from
Ithala, so 80 respondents from the community sufficiently represented the
research population and perceptions of the people within the study area. The
stratified random sample was drawn from a predominantly rural setting. The
respondents differ widely with regards to personal attributes such as age, sex,
educational background, and socio-economic status.
1.10.2
Instrumentation
The study was conducted usmg questionnaires as the mam tool of data
collection.
Each questionnaire consisted of open ended and closed ended
questions. Open-ended questions were mainly used to acquire the perceptions
and expectations of respondents. On the other hand closed ended questions
were used to focus on the specific responses.
18
For pUIposes of collecting data the interview and other related techniques were
used. Two sets of interview schedules were used: the semi-structured interview
schedule and the structured interview schedule.
The first schedule was
administered to the officials responsible for management of Ithala Game
Reserve. This interview schedule focused on the tourism benefits generated by
the attractions within the vicinity of Ithala Game Reserve. The second schedule
was administered to the community members of the Ithala Game Reserve. It
investigated the views of these people with regards to tourism benefits; the
Ithala Community Trust effectiveness also came under scrutiny.
1.10.3
Method of data analvsis
After data was collected, it was analysed through the use of computer techniques
and programmes readily available at the University of Zululand. The computer
programme known as Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version
11.5 was used mainly for processing data using frequency tables and crosstabulations. Other statistical techniques used were correlation coefficients and
the chi-square tests. The former was used in determining the relationship that
existed between variables.
1.11 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY
Like most scientific studies, this study consists of five chapters, the introduction
chapter, literature review chapter, physical setting chapter, data analysis and
interpretation chapter, and the summary and conclusion chapter.
Chapter 1
serves as a prelude to other chapters. In this chapter a tentative orientation of
the study is revealed. Terminology which is prevalent in this study is explained
19
and contextualised.
Chapter I also tables the educational trends, social
concerns, unresolved issues and current debates. The conceptual and spatial
narrowing of the scope otherwise known as delimitation of the study is
presented in this chapter. Chapter I contains the aims of this study, which has
been narrowed down to objectives of the study. One of the most important
components of this chapter is the statement of hypotheses, which is a projection
ofthe possible outcomes of the research.
Chapter 2 contains the theoretical background, which plays a significant role in
this study.
It provides a conceptual framework for purposes of generating
hypotheses as well as the analysis for the study. It achieves this by actually
looking at the existing literary works and then investigates how previous
scholars have addressed the related concepts that play a prominent role in this
study. It is upon the basis of these literary sources that authentic and possible
generalisations can be made.
Chapter 3 provides the actual physical study and the location map of the study
area, which is named as Ithala Game Reserve. Geographical features in Ithala
Game Reserve such as geomorphological landscape, climate conditions,
vegetation and animals are also highlighted and discussed.
Infrastructural
features in and around Ithala Game Reserve are also studied in some detail.
These features include roads, educational facilities, recreation and tourism
facilities. After the data had been collected through appropriate methods, the
data was analysed and interpreted in chapter 4 using statistical analysis or
quantitative techniques.
hypothesis testing.
Computer analysis is important for engaging
III
It was therefore from the processing of data that
recommendations were made.
20
Chapter 5 closes the study by reflecting on the recommendations, which provide
the precautionary measures and generalisations of the study. The conclusion
chapter gives an overview of the whole study, highlighting only the important
elements ofthe study.
1.12 CONCLUSION
This chapter has tried to reflect on the major concepts and principles pertaining
to the investigation about tourism in Ithala Game Reserve.
Some of these
concepts and principles include: relocation, tourism sustainability of resources
and equitable distribution of tourism benefits. The general formula / procedure
which was followed when the study was carried through is also given Some
attention.
Furthermore the chapter also provides the definitions of some
fundamental terms prevalent in the study. Essentially this chapter has put into
focus the background and statement ofthe problem.
To ensure that the study is well focused on the specific subject of discussion, the
scope of the study was delimited in this chapter. The study itself had some
objectives that it attempted to achieve; these objectives are also stated in this
research enquiry. The study further postulates statements of the hypothesis,
outlines the methodologies of collecting, and then conclude by analysing and
interpreting data.
We can conclude that the overall study is aimed at
contributing to the betterment of lives of Ithala people and community. Such
improvement can be achieved through participation of Ithala people in decisionmaking processes in matters concerning tourism in their area.
21
CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1
INTRODUCTION
It is common course that recent writings (Bennett, 1999; Cooper, et al. 1999) have
argued that tourism has proven to be a lucrative enterprise. Several governments
and non-governmental organisations have taken particular interests in this
venture. Researchers (Mwandla, 1998; Mkhize, 1999; Magi, 2000) have also
followed the trend and have redirected their interest in investigating and
synthesising theories concerning tourism development, sustainability and impacts.
Literary sources (DEAT, 1996; KZNTA, 2001; Magi, 2002) have highlighted the
importance of developing tourism through community awareness, product
development and marketing.
These exercises are pursued for the purpose of
creating community well-being, community benefits and self-preservation.
Literature further argues that tourism products have to be developed for the
benefit of society or communities rather than individual business people, groups
or government interest groups. Tourism benefits for any community have to be
achieved in a sustainable manner, such that the benefits would pass on from one
generation to another.
It is worth mentioning that the previous South African government (the Apartheid
Government) tended to emphasize segregation, land seizures, evictions and
22
relocations, in its pursuit of tourism development.
The new democratic
government of South Africa focuses on democracy, accountability, community
involvement:, sustainability, land restitution and responsible tourism in its effort to
engage in tourism development.
It is therefore important to note that this study covers some tourism aspects that
are normally considered to be of historical and literary discourse. Such concepts
and principles include eviction, relocation, tourism sustainability of resources and
land restitution to mention but a few. As indicated in Chapter One, the study
looks at Ithala area, which is mainly an outdoor recreation attraction area, and also
attempts to answer questions relating to the relocation of people from their
ancestral land, now replaced by Ithala Game Reserve. There are several reasons
that can be given as to why particular communities are evicted from their area,
some ofwhich are given below.
2.2
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND EVICTIONS I RELOCATIONS
During the pre-democracy years (before 1994), evictions and relocations were
common in South Africa. Communities were relocated for various socio-political
and economic reasons and agendas. People were evicted for a number of reasons
such as construction of industries, establishment of game reserves, road
construction, etcetera. Conservationists have always been considered to be the
cnstodians of the natural environment. They have always rallied behind measures
associated with the protection of nature.
On countless OCCasIOns m South Africa there has been a clash between
conservationists, developers and local people. The conflict usually arises when
23
developers want to utilise the environment for profit-making reasons. On the
other hand conservationists are usually adamant with regards to development that
might rearrange the form of the natural environment. Local people are the ones
who are usually faced with a situation whereby they have to forfeit their land
often at the hands of developers.
Conservationists and developers usually have knowledge about land policy or at
least they can influence the policy formation process, they are likely to get the
upper hand in land issues. A similar situation took place in the Ithala area around
the 1980s and 1990s. Local people were forced to forfeit their land, which was
then used for a pine plantation and nature conservation. Large hectares of land
were reserved for fauna and flora at the expense of local people who had no
information about land ownership, land development or tourism development.
The cited situation above is an example of how special preservations policies are
created and implemented.
According to Fennell (1999) special preservation
specifies areas as features or the best examples of natural features. Access to
these areas is usually strictly controlled or may be prohibited altogether. No
motorised access or human made facilities are permitted.
People can be evicted from areas, which have been pronounced as qualifying for
special preservation such as wilderness areas. Fennell (1999) describes these
areas as extensive areas which are good representations of each of the natural
history theme parks and which are usually maintained in a wilderness state. Only
certain activities requiring limited primitive visitor facilities appropriate to a
wilderness experience are allowed.
24
Limits· are placed on numbers of users.
No motorised access ensures that
visitors are dispersed. Some such similar conditions do exist in the Ithala area.
Motorised access to the Reserve is prohibited. This is done so as to protect the
wilderness quality of the area.
Prohibition is also enforced to prevent
environmental degradation. Only certain visitor activities such as hiking and
game viewing are allowed and the number of participants in these activities is
limited.
2.2.1 Categories of protected areas
Fennell (1999) states that a number of international agencies have become
involved in the process of aiding individual countries in the process of
identifying candidate natural areas.
As the need for more protected areas
continues to gain momentum globally, such agencies have found it necessary to
categorise areas related to the types of land use and practices of conservation
found in different countries. Ferrario (1981) further clarifies his point by giving
categories for conservation management. These categories include: scientific
reserve/strict nature reserve, national parks, protected landscape or seascape,
nature
conservation
reserve/managed
nature
reserve/wildlife
sanctuary,
biosphere reserve, world heritage site and wetlands of international importance.
T4e first category is the Scientific Reserves, which are areas with the same
outstanding ecosystem features and species of flora and fauna of national
scientific importance, representative of particular natural areas, fragile life forms
or ecosystems, important biological or geological diversity, or areas of particular
importance to the conservation of genetic resource processes and strict control of
human interference (FennellI999).
25
The second category is the National Park, which is a relatively large area where
one or several ecosystems are not materially altered by human use, the highest
competent government authority has taken steps to prevent or control such
alteration, and visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions for
inspirational, educative, cultural and recreation uses (Fennell1999). AB was the
case with the first category, the second category is also applicable to the Ithala
area.
In this study area human impacts on the environment are kept to a
minimum.
To achieve this goal access to the area is achieved under strict
supervision of KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Services (KZN NCS),
(http://www.kznwildlife.com. 2004).
The third category is the Protected Landscape or Seascape.
This is a broad
category embracing a wide variety of semi-natural and cultural landscapes within
various nations.
In general, there are two types of areas.
These include
landscapes, which possess special aesthetic qualities resulting from human-land
interaction, and those that are primarily natural areas managed intensely for
recreational and tourist uses (Donaldson, 1995).
The fifth category is the Biosphere Reserve. This reserve is intended to conserve
representative natural areas throughout the world through creation of global and
national networks of reserves. It can include representative natural biomes, or
communities, species of unique interest, examples of harmonious landscape
resulting from traditional uses, and modified or degraded landscapes capable of
restoration to more natural conditions. Biosphere reserves provide benchmarks
for monitoring environmental change and areas for science, education, and
training (Fennell, 1999).
26
The sixth category is the World Heritage Site. These are aimed at protecting
natural and also cultural features considered to be of world heritage quality,
examples include outstanding illustrations of the major stages of earth's
evolutionary history, habitats where population of rare or endangered species of
plants and animals still survive, and also outstanding archaeological or
architectural sites. Stress on maintenance of heritage values for worldwide pUblic
enlightenment, and to provide for research and environmental monitoring (Fennell
1999).
The seventh category stated by Fennell (1999) is the Wetland of International
Importance. This includes marshes, swamps and other wetlands of value for flood
control, nutrient production, wildlife habitat, and related purposes. Management
procedures designed to prevent destruction and deterioration through national
agreement to an international convention was initially agreed to by a number of
founding countries. This category does not directly have any significance for this
.research.
2.3
PROTECTED AREAS AND PROMOTION OF ECOTOURISM
The growth of tourism during the 1970s and its impacts on the natural
enVironment leads to a renewed concern for the environmental aspects of touriSlll.
Page and Dowling (2002) state that further research was advocated in the role of
national parks and protected areas in relation to regional planning and
development, indigenous people, and tourism.
27
Smith and Tenner cited in Page and Dowling (2002), states that a popular study
found that although tourism brings substantial economic benefits, it is damaging
to the world's environment. Specific problems identified and described included
pollution of beaches, damage to coral reefs, disturbance of wildlife, degradation
of historic sites, air pollution, congestion, and negative social impacts on local
culture and customs. This study by Smith and Tenner (page and Dowling, 2002)
concluded that the tourism industry in its widest sense needs to take a lead in
becoming more environmentally sensitive to negate one of the main targets of
accusation that it is environmentally irresponsible. Ithala Game Reserve is a
protected area that is why all tourists who wish to visit the area have to make
reservation prior to their visit. Such arrangements are carried out to prevent
possible environmental degradation that may result from human action. Visitors
are also made to pay for their visit, so as to cater for the welfare of the
environment.
2.3.1 Characteristics and principles of ecotourism
Kutay cited in Page and Dowling (2002) argues that real ecotourism is more than
travel to enjoy or appreciate nature.
It also includes minimisation of
environmental and cultural consequences, contributions to conservation and
communities and environmental education. According to Wallace and Pierce
(1996), ecotourism may exist if it addresses the following four principles:
a)
It entails a type of use that minimises negative impact to the
environment and to local people.
b)
It increases the awareness and understanding of an area's natural and
.cultural systems and the subsequent involvement of visitors in issues
affecting those systems.
28
c)
It maximises the early and long-term participation of local people in
the decision-making process that determines the kind of tourism that
should occur.
d)
It detects economic and other benefits to local people that
complement rather than overwhelm or replace traditional practices
(farming, fishing, social system).
Honney as cited in Page and Dowling (2002), agrees with Wallace and Pierce
(1996) that ecotourism minimises impact, builds environmental awareness,
provides direct financial benefits and empowerment for local people, respect
local culture, and supports human rights and democratic movements. He further
added that it helps to educate the traveller, provide funds for conservation, direct
the benefits, the economic development and political empowerment of local
communities, and fosters respects for different cultures and for human rights.
It is a fact that when the Ithala community was forcefully removed, the above-
mentioned principles were not considered.
The aspect of minimising the
negative impacts to the environment might have been considered, but this was
done at the expense ofthe local people. Most of these Ithala people still seem to
have no proper tourism awareness. The authorities who were then in charge of
the management of the area left the Ithala community members out of the
decision-making processes pertaining to the management of their natural
resource for a long time. One of the challenges facing the authorities is making
people aware of the role of nature conservation and tourism. Local communities
are yet to be included in mainstream tourism development programs of the area.
Such inclusion will be possible once people are adequately informed about how
tourism operates.
29
2.4
KEY PLAYERS IN COMMUNITY TOURISM
It has been argued that in the pre-democracy period in South Africa, the tourism
industry was in favour of the private sector and the white population group,
while local rural communities were not benefiting from the tourism industry.
According to the Tourism White Paper (DEAT, 1996:54) communities in South
Africa are expected to play a vital role in the development of tourism. Many
communities and previously neglected groups, particularly those in rural areas,
such as the Ithala community, have not actively participated in the tourism
industry.
The White Paper proposes that communities must organize themselves as role
players, identify tourism resources, seek financial assistance for tourism
development, engage in partnerships, enhance the positive benefits of tourism
and promote responsible tourism. Ashley (1995) on the other hand proposes
that community-based tourism has emerged from three different perspectives,
that is, conservation in communal areas, sustainable local development and
tourism development.
These three elements of community-based tourism have played an important
role in enhancing the understanding and benefits of tourism to the local
communities. According to Garnsford (1997) these three perspectives have
progressively led to the emergence of community involvement in tourism. In
South Africa it was only after 1994 that community tourism began to emerge as
a specific and official approach in the management of tourism development.
30
FIGURE 2.1: THE ASHLEY COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM MODEL
Conservation in
Communal Areas
Incentives
Participation
Improved relations
Community
Sustainable
Local
Development
Tourism
. Development
Income, skills
Empowerment from
natural
resources
Ecoethical-cultural
tourism
Conservation
Broader base industry
(Source: Ashley,1995:65)
In community-based tourism, tourism development is considered to be a vehicle
fo~ promoting community sustainable development and conservation of natural
resources in communal areas so that all key players can benefit from tourism. It
can therefore be concluded that the three perspectives are equally important and
compliment each other in this process. Further, that these three perspectives are
important and play a developmental role in the study area.
31
Both community-based tourism and ecotourism have been perceived to be some
. strategy of simultaneously promoting both development and conservation in
communal areas through the generation of financial and social benefits. The
cooperation between key role-players in eco-tourism provide benefits for
everyone involved in the tourism industry. This kind of benefit can be expected
to be rooted in the Ithala Game Reserve policies, that is, if the best practices in
tourism were to be put in place.
2.4.1 The Government
The government has a major role to play in the development of tourism industry.
For the tourism industry to flourish, the government must establish a safe and
stable political environment, which is one of the indirect demands of the tourist
and tourism development. Legally speaking the government in South Africa has
a responsibility to facilitate, coordinate, regulate, monitor and develop the
promotion of the tourism industry (DEAT, 1996).
A successful tourism industry depends on the construction of partnership
between government private sector and local communities who play a hosting
role to tourists. It is the responsibility of the government to provide a range of
infrastructural support, such as roads, electricity, water and sewerage disposal
facilities, to the industry as a whole. The provision of the infrastructure does not
only benefit the tourists, the local communities also benefit in a sense that they
make use ofthe facilities provided. This is fundamentally relevant to the subject
matter ofthis research inqniry.
32
Goldin and Jordan (1996:8) have stated that the Spatial Development Initiatives
(SDIs) are programmes of strategic significance that are implemented by the
government aimed at unlocking the inherent and under utilized economic
development potential of certain specific spatial locations in South Africa.
These SDIs must be seen in the context of the new paradigm adopted by the
South African government aimed at moving away from protected and isolated
approach to economic development, towards one in which international
competitiveness, regional cooperation and a more diversified ownership base is
paramount.
The Lubombo Spatial Development Initiative (LSDI), in particular, creates a
stable climate for tourism development and economic growth in northern
KwaZulu-Natal. The LSDI is a government programme; which does not replace
the normal function of government programme and policies. It is a short-term
program directed at encouraging investment and development in the region.
This initiative is one which would encourage and indirectly promote economic
development, and specifically tourism development, in the Ithala area, as our
major area of study.
The government is also known to plays and important role in marketing and
promoting tourism.
In South Africa, the local govemmentpromotes and
provides financial support to the establishment of Tourism Publicity Association
(TPA) or Marketing Organisation, to facilitate, market, coordinates, and
administer tourism initiatives. For instance, the AbaQulusi Regional Council is
involved with production of marketing tools. The TPA also provides financial
assistance on tourism development and marketing projects (Tait, 1998). The
provincial government through the Department of Economic Affairs and
33
Tourism as well as the KwaZulu-Natal Tourism Authority (TKZN) also
provides policies and financial assistance to tourism as an industry or
competency (bttp://www.zulu.org.za. 2004).
Seaton et al (1994) believes that worldwide the government plays an important
role in land ownership, development and management of tourism. Through the
government policies community tourism can become a sustainable phenomenon.
2.4.2 The Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs}
Throughout the world, the voluntary, non-profit making or non-governmental
sector has become a major stakeholder in tourism development. The functions
performed by the NGOs are put forward in the Tourism White Paper (DEAT,
1996:57) as follows:
(a)
They develop policies and plans for tourism industry, which bind
the government, local communities and private sector.
(b)
They assist community and community group in orgamsmg
themselves, preparing them to implement tourism projects.
(c)
They educate, train, facilitate and bridge community on the content
of White Paper.
(d)
Assist the government by conducting tourism and environmental
awareness programmes and tourism industry.
The above-mentioned functions are rendered by the NGOs to develop, spread
and facilitate the development of tourism.
The NGOs also assist the local
community by attracting donor agencies to boost the projects that are developed
by the community. Invariably the donors have their own "ideologies" or system
34
that may conflict with the perceptions of the rural community. For example, the
accounting procedure and managerial requirement of donors may differ from the
one of the local community or maybe way ahead of the community capacity. As
for the NGOs, a tendency may easily creep in where they cease to be facilitators
and assume the role of "people spokesperson" (Chinhoy, 1997:87).
The NGOs help the local community by providing the skills such as
bookkeeping, management procedures and project development cycle. These
management techniques are vitally important and needed by the various
components ofthe Ithala study area.
2.4.3 The private sector
There is no business that can function successfully without capital. Therefore
the private sector is also in the development of community tourism because
most of the time the local communities lack capital. The private sector, as is the
responsibility of the public sector, plays a crucial role in the development and
promotion of community tourism.
According to the White Paper on tourism (DEAT, 1996) the private sector
provides amenities that are required in order to satisfy the tourist. The delivery
of quality tourism services and providing of customer with value for money are
largely private sector responsibilities.
The functions performed by the private sector are put forward by the White
Paper on tourism (DEAT, 1996) but only a few are mentioned in this regard:
35
a)
The private sector must involve local community m tourism
industry
through
establishing
partnership
ventures
with
communities outsourcing purchase of goods and services from local
communities.
b)
It must develop and promote socially and environmentally
responsible tourism.
c)
It must enable local communities to benefit from tourism
development for example local communities benefits directly new
reticulations and village electrification programmes developed
through tourism investments in rural areas.
d)
It must advertise and promote individual services as well as the
country, local, regionally and internationally. Private sector must
operate according to standards.
In essence, the role of the private sector in community tourism can be seen as a
two-fold process: to be involved as a donor or as profit making agent. It is
important to note that the Ithala community needs more assistance from the
private sector than should it expect extensive profit from the community.
2.4.4 The local community
The people who enjoy or suffer the mam impact of tourism are local
communities in the tourist destination. Tourism should involve and allow local
communities to participate in tourism development and ensure that they are
given a fair opportunity to compare (De Kadt, 1979). As the tourism industry
depends greatly on the goodwill and cooperation of host communities, there is
no amount of attraction that can compensate for rudeness or hostility that the
36
tourist can experience from host communities (Murphy, 1985). In order to
develop this goodwill, host communities need to be involved in the tourism
development decision-making process in relation to tourism development. The
community must be able to identify tangible benefits from the arrival of tourist
in their destination or environment.
Local communities must practice responsible tourism so as to attain tourism
sustainability. The main objective of responsible tourism is to bring the benefit
to all stakeholders of tourism, such as the tourist, the local community, and the
private sector without causing any damage that can affect those involved in
tourism. It is evident that tourism developers and promoters should consider the
interest of all parties involved in developing and marketing of tourism
destination (Bannet, 1995). This is a kind of practice that is highly desirable in
the study area.
D'Amore as cited in Bannet (1995:30) provides the following guidelines that
can be used to encourage commuility involvement in tourism:
a)
Residents should be made of the advantages of tourism and be
encouraged to share tourist resources and amenities.
b)
Tourism planning must be based on the goals that are identified by
local residents so that it can maintain the lifestyle, keep the
development within the caring capacity and balance the change
pace with local desire.
c) .
Encourage broad-based involvement in tourism events, as it is the
homes of local residents, which are being put into display.
37
In addition to the D'Amore guidelines the Tourism White Paper (DEAT, 1996)
has similar guidelines related to responsible tourism and these includes the
following:
a)
Communities seek partnership opportunities with the established
tourism private sector.
b)
Communities should participate in all aspects of tourism including
being a tourist,
c)
The local communities should oppose any development that is
harmful to the local environment.
In order to develop community tourism, the community should set the goals in
order to ensure that organisation knows what its strategies are expected to
accomplish its purpose.
Getz as cited in Heath (1989) suggested that the
following issues should be covered when developing community tourism goals:
•
Community development.
•
Heritage and environmental conservation.
•
Enhance of cultural identity.
•
Population and demographic change.
•
Provision and maintenance of living amenities.
The involvement of local communities
ill
tourism can lead to community
development and awareness of the value associated with tourism.
This
involvement is an important benefit because it accommodates the interest and
needs of the local community. Furthermore, involvement also encourages local
communities to practice and participate in tourism as tourists. The value of
tourism would be better understood in the Ithala community also makes an
effort to visit other destinations similar to theirs.
38
2.5
BENEFITS OF TOURISM TO THE LOCAL COMMUNITY
The involvement of local communities in tourism activities not only benefits the
community and the environment but also improves the quality of the tourist
experience. Local communities can become involved in ecotourism operations,
and in the provision of knowledge, services, facilities and products.
The
benefits should overweigh the cost of ecotourism to the host community and the
environment. Ecotourism can also generate income for resource conservation
management in addition to social and cultural benefits. The contribution may be
financial with a part of the cost of the tour helping to subsidies a conservation
project, alternatively it could consists of practical help in the field with the
tourist being involved in environmental data collection and analysis (Page and
Dowling, 2002).
The establishment and introduction of the Ithala Community Trust is aimed at
facilitating the equitable distribution of tourism benefits from the Ithala area.
These benefits are expected to play a meaningful role in the betterment of lives
of the Ithala people.
Such expectation will become possible through the
implementation of development policies and Memorandum of Understanding.
These legal documents carry the procedures on how should people go about in
as far as utilising tourism facilities to their own benefit.
The Ithala community is now able to come into contact with tourists. Though
this contact is still minimal, in a matter of time, local people are going to benefit
through this contact with tourists. This developmental contact is expected to
improve when local people are directly selling their products to the tourists.
39
Some members of the Ithala community have already started benefiting from
this venture. These are the individuals who are involved in selling of local
artefacts to tourists in the curio shop at Louwsburg, the nearest town to the
Ithala area.
Although selling of artefacts is happening on a very small scale, signs are
present that as more people become aware of tourism, they should maximise
their benefits. The Ithala community can also benefit from natural resources
such as ncema grass, which are readily available in Ithala area. This grass is
harvested at specific times particularly in the winter season. It is mainly used
for creation of sitting and sleeping mats and other ornamental artefacts that are
sold to tourists.
2.6
PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN TOURISM AND CONSERVATION
If tourism
IS
treated as a separate entity to conservation, the natural
environment, which is a core resource for tourism development, can be depleted.
Depletion of natural resources would obviously lead to the collapse of tourism
and failure of conservation.
Tourism development should therefore be
conducted in a responsible manner (DEAT, 1996). That is to say resources
should be utilised in a sustainable manner (Ashley, 1995).
DIUll1lll as cited in Page and Dowling (2002) argues that local communities
view ecotourism as an accessible development alternative which can enable
them to improve their living standards without having to sell off their natural
resources or compromise their culture. Ecotourism can provide a context for
local incentives for conservation and production. Noms as cited in Page and
40
Dowling (2002) has argued that ecotourism should integrate both the protection
of resources with the provision of local economic benefits. He also cites an
example of the Annapurna Conservation Area Project, where local people were
actively encouraged to take a leading role in conservation and development
activities, expressing their needs and concerns in open forums.
Several scholars agree that there should be co-operation between tourism and
conservation.
Integration of environmental conservation and tourism
development can result in sustainable development in tourism. According to
Wight as cited in Page and Dowling (2002), partnership between tourism and
conservation takes many forms including:
•
donation of a portion of tour fees to local groups for resource
conservation or local development initiatives.
•
education about the value of the resource.
•
opportunities to observe or participate in a scientific activity.
•
involvement of locals in the provision of support services or
products.
•
involvement of locals in explanation of cultural activities or their
relationship with natural resources.
In the Ithala study area, there seems to be enough co-operation between tourism
and conservation, what seems to been lacking for a long time is the involvement
of local people. The time has come for local people to be part and parcel of
development initiatives that are taking place in their land.
To ensure that local people are involved in the running of tourism initiatives, the
memorandum of understanding, which is a legal document, clearly states the
41
provisions that should be granted to local people. One such arrangement is that
70 percent of the amount accrued through tourism should be directed to the
Ithala Community Trust Fund.
This money is at the disposal of local
community, it should be used in the development of these communities. The
memorandum of understanding also states that the Ithala community should be
given priority with regard to employment chances.
The implementation of ecotourism as an example of sustainable development
stems largely from its potential to generate economic benefits (Lindberg as cited
in Page and Dowling (2002). These benefits include generating revenue for
management of natural areas and the creation of employment opportunities for
the local population.
2.7
THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF TOURISM
The impacts of tourism on society can be either positive or negative.
The
impact is positive when tourism yields benefits that are for societal
consumption. If tourism leads to the construction of an infrastructure, provides
job opportunities, improves communication levels within the community can be
viewed as having positive impacts.
Ageneralisation can be drawn from several studies (Mwandla, 1995; Mkhize,
1999; Magi, 2000) that have been conducted on tourism, that tourists and local
people are bound to clash if one party feels that his/her interests are not catered
for. When tourism sidelines the local people, there would be growing animosity
towards tourists and tourism from local people. In such situations, the impacts
are viewed as negative. Rivers as cited in Alister and Wall (1982) stress that the
42
animosity is not only confined to the socially and economically deprived, but
has also been expressed by concerned politicians, academics, churchmen, and
even some business people.
Reluctance to mention the shortcomings of tourism because of its economic
benefits is disappearing. Resentment tends to be highest where tourism is the
principal source of income to the community.
In these communities all
activities become oriented to accommodating and satisfying tourist demand,
which may be limited to a short season.
In the Ithala area, tourism has both the negative and positive social impacts. For
a long time the local community perceived tourists as invaders who are being
entertained in the land of their forefathers. This blaming of tourists stems from
the fact that when Ithala people were evicted they had no information on how
tourism operates. They still seem have very little information about tourism,
even worse, they were evicted from their land only to be replaced by forest and
animals. These are some of the negative impacts as perceived by the Ithala
people.
It is interesting to note that positive impacts are starting to bear fruit.
Eventually, people will become the custodians of their tourism resource. The
social and economic standards of people is beginning to show signs of
improvement. Though people are bitter about the eviction incident, they seem
to be willing to see progress on tourism, with an understanding that they can
reap the fruits oftourism.
43
2.8
SITUATIONS THAT PROVOKE TOURIST RESENTMENT
Alister and Wall (1982) state that there are numerous situations that provoke
feelings of tourist resentment The most intense feelings appear to develop from
particular conditions (only two situations are discussed, which are (a) the
physical presence oftourists and (b) foreign ownership and employment).
2.8.1 The phvsical presence of tourists
The physical presence of tourists in the destination area, especially if they are in
large groups, can intimidate local people. Residents frequently resent having to
share facilities and services with visitors, and often mention congestion as a
problem (Alister and Wall 1982). Some studies have mentioned the presence of
large numbers of tourists in particular places at specific times and the associated
congestion of facilities and services. A number of crude measures have been
employed as a first step towards such estimates. These include the ratio of the
number of visitors to the local population.
The issue of Ithala community is even worse, this community is not faced with
the problem of congestion, but they are faced with the problem of homelessness.
Asmentioned earlier the Ithala community were completely driven away from
their ancestral land. The presence of a tourist to them means the presence of an
invader, who has come to dispossess them of their land. It is through tourism
awareness programmes that the Ithala community may begin to properly
understand the importance and benefits oftourism.
44
2.8.2 Foreign ownership and employment
The employment of non-locals in managerial and professional occupations,
carrying greater responsibility and superior salaries to those available to local
residents, also provokes resentment. These features have been labelled in the
literature as an outgrowth of neo-eolonialism. The view that tourism is a new
form of colonialism and imperialism is one extreme perception of tourist
development and its effects. To qualify this point, Alister and Wall (1982)
maintains that the movement of metropolitan citizens from the developed
countries of Europe and North America to societies of the less developed world
has a long history.
According to some authors (McIntosh, et al. 1999; Magi and Nzama, 2002) the
growth of tourism in these destinations has been only a change in the form and
magnitude of travel without a major alteration in its colonial quality.
The
relationship between them has essentially remained the same. This condition
has prompted the charge that tourism is a neo-colonial activity (Alister and
Wall, 1982).
Secondly, the development of tourism may be accompanied by a one-way
transfer of wealth from the destination area to points of tourists generation. A
large proportion of expenditures and profits flow back to foreign investors.
High leakages may leave little profit in the destination area. A large proportion
of the goods and services, which are consumed by the tourists, are produced at
the place of origin and, thus, most of the profits are transferred to these places
. (Alister and Wall, 1982).
45
Tourism benefits should be shared equally between tourism service providers
and local people, which is what is hoped for in the Ithala area. Ifbenefits do not
improve the lives of local people, animosity is likely to occur. Local people will
tend to dislike a tourist who becomes an illegitimate beneficiary of tourism.
This research .study aims at revealing, among other things, the local
community's perceptions regarding such matters.
Thirdly, the employment of non-locals in professional and managerial positions
and the frequent existence of foreign, absentee employers have also provoked
charges of neo-colonialism. These features also contribute to high leakages
. through the remittances of salaries and profits to the tourist-generating countries.
Bungicourt (1979) as cited in Alister and Wall (1982), writing specifically on
African tourism, believes that these situations contributed to what he calls
'tourism with no return'.
He further argues that tourism is neo-colonialist
through the herding of local groups into 'reservations' for the purpose of
entertaining tourists, and through the transfonnation of the relics of past colonial
regimes, such as old fortresses and historic buildings, into tourist attractions.
Similarly, cultural symbols of art, music, dance and literature are exported to
cater to tourist curiosity and money-making.
Continuing with his argument Bungicourt (in Alister and Wall 1982) stresses
that the previous discussion represents a radical perspective on the role of
tourism in developing countries. There is certainly evidence to suggest that
tourism is exploitative and displays many of the characteristics of colonial
economics. Nevertheless, the validity of this viewpoint is still debated. Firstly,
46
the governments of developing countries welcomed tourism as a means of
stimulating economic growth. The encouragement of the growth of the industry
is not typical of colonial beginnings, which are usually imposed. Secondly, the
manipulation and control of local politicians and elites by foreign metropolitan
interests undoubtedly exists, but it is unlikely to be as influential and
domineering as living under colonial rule.
A synonymous scenario is visible and happening in Ithala Game Reserve; the
local community was sidelined from the economy of the area in favour of
foreigners and tourists. This was done so as to attract external skills and earn
foreign exchange.
Local people had to sacrifice their ancestral land
unceremoniously. This is similar to colonial rule; the only difference is that it
happened between the
citizens of the same country with different income status.
.,
2.9
PROPERTY AS POWER
From the dawn ofhistory, man has always wanted to demonstrate his superiority
over other men. This phenomenon of superiority became evident during empire
building, crusades, and colonialism. Voyages of conquest and discovery are a
true testimony of man navigating the planet earth to 'discover' unknown
destinations, which would be conquered later to extend the empire(s).
The
underlying aim was to acquire more land, because land possession was equated
with power.
The acquisition of land and power leads to the growth of the
economic gap between the conquerors and conquered, hence, the haves and the
have-nots. This power struggle resulted in the imbalance of power within a
single society. Obviously the most powerful became the decision-makers. The
47
decision-makers then became the manipulators of wealth and therefore
consumed more resources for their own benefit.
Denman (1978) argues that we speak of decision-making today as if it were a
new species of social animal. The forefathers of locals seem never to have met
with the current and new decision-makers, yet things were done and decisions
taken in old environment or world. People were always decision-makers. Why
then the novelty? Part of the answer is to be found in the curious twist we have
taken in our gravitation towards democracy. Everybody today must have a say
in everybody's affairs.
Officials and planners of various kinds are taking
decisions at elevated levels, which affect subordinate level activities in groups
and individual persons. People have begun to feel as if their lives are not their
own, and to seek out the decision-makers to counter them with neighbours,
-~
sympathisers arid other participants.
One of the strange abnormalities of the modem world with its obsession with
decision-makers is its neglect of property power. AB could be expected, the
Ithala people lost control over their property when they were evicted, hence they
forfeited their power. The lack of power on the side of the people resulted in
their exclusion from decision-making.
Deriman (1978) maintains that to avoid the ambiguities inherent in the notion of
ownership, it is better to treat the place in the hierarchy of power and decisionmaking by referring to property power in general. For some the power to use
and dispose of, is seen as managerial power over the resources so handled.
Whilst this may be so, it does not get away from the universality of the power of
,
48
property. Managerial power can be accepted either as a form of property power
in itself, or as being a derivative of that power.
Planners do not employ managers over the resources that are the subject of the
state and regional plans. The owners of the resources employ the managers; the
managers are agents of the owners of the holders of the property right. In the
South African situation, history has proven that land ownership can determine
who takes the last decision. Africans were dispossessed of their land, and they
became the hewers of wood and drawers of water, whilst their White
counterparts became landlords and decision-makers.
The dispossession of land led to continuous clashes over land ownership. The
Ithala Game Reserve issue is a typical example of this clash on land ownership.
The local community that had no information about land entitlement was forced
to relinquish its land. The loss of land meant loss of power. Until the rightful
owners of land become involved in the decision-making process, problems will
continue to prevail.
2.10 TOURIST-HOST INTERRELATIONSHIPS
Tourists and host communities have a special relationship that exists between
them. This relationship is similar to that of a client and a service provider.
There are expectations from both parties. Tourists expect to be treated with care
and gratitude, at the same time the host communities expect to be treated with
respect.
Alister and Wall (1982) argue that socio-cultural impacts are the
outcomes of particular kinds of social relationships that occur between tourists
.and hosts as a result of their coming into contact.
49
The nature of these
relationships, or 'encounters', is a major factor influencing the extent to which
understanding or misunderstanding is fostered by the tourism process.
According to Kadt as cited in Alister and Wall (1982), tourist-host encounters
occur in three main contexts: where the tourist is purchasing some goods or
services from the host, where the tourist and host find themselves side by side.
For example, on a sandy beach or at a night-club performance, and where two
parties come face to face with the object of exchanging information and ideas.
He also pointed out that when it is claimed that tourism is an important
mechanism for increasing international understanding, it is normally the third
type of contact that is in mind. However, the first two types of contact are
quantitatively more common.
Nettekoven (1981) as cited in Alister and Wall (1982) noted that for mass
tourists, intercultura1 encounters are less desired by the tourist than is often
suggested. Direct contact is not necessary for an impact to occur and the mere
sight of tourists and their behaviour may induce behavioural changes on the part
of permanent residents. Nettekoven (in Alister and Wall 1982) further states
that the tourist-host encounters, in which one or more visitors interact with one
or more hosts is staged within a network of goals and expectations. On the one
hand the tourist is mobile, relaxed, free spending, enjoying his leisure and
absorbing the experience of being in a different place. In contrast, the host is
relatively stationary and, if employed in the tourist industry, spends a large
proportion of the time catering to the needs and desires of visitors.
50
Tourist-host relationships are also determined by the characteristics of the
interacting groups or individuals and the conditions under which contact takes
place. The issue of Ithala Game Reserve is slightly different in a sense that the
tourist and the local people do not necessarily come into contact. The Ithala
community occupies areas away from Ithala Game Reserve, so they stand lesser
chance of interacting with the tourists.
2.11 BUREAUCRATIC IMPASSE
Taking a closer look at how land ownership affect the social well-being of
people, Evans as cited in Cross et at (1988) provide an insider perspective on
land ownership with special reference to land owner ship in KwaZulu-Natal. He
claims to have becOIne acutely aware of the central role that land plays in the
states policy ofland ownership and administrative responsibilities.
Recent political 'reforms' by the state has added a new and mere confusing
dimension to the already complex administrative structure, making the process
itself a factor in the deepening of racial divisions that already pervade the South
African state. Some states have tried to create new land-based administrative
structure while at the same time keeping to their agenda of tight central control.
Both land and local government issues are involved. As this process goes
forWard, it becomes less likely that land tenure reform, particularly freehold
tenure, will be able to extend the beneficial effects that are being mooted.
In the pre-democracy period coastal benefits were enjoyed only by a privileged
few in South Africa. Proactive facilitation of sustainable coastal development
projects along the coast is essential to begin to address the great inequalities of
51
our past. Rural parts of the coast, particularly those in the former Transkei,
Ciskei and KwaZulu-Natal areas, are characterised by underdevelopment and
lack of economic opportunities despite the enormous potential for particular
coastal activities.
Other characteristics include poor living conditions and
environmental degradation (DEAT, 1998).
Providing benefits on an equitable and sustainable basis is possible only if we
wisely manage the coastal ecosystems on which those benefits depend. This
means managing the coast in a way that recognises the interrelationships
between coastal ecosystems. Coastal ecosystems involve complex biological,
chemical and physical linkages between land, sea and air. The Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism, (DEAT, 1998) further states that without
effective management, many of our coastal resources will be used and degraded
"
to the point where social and economic benefits can no longer be derived from
them.
The specific complex and interconnected nature of the coast means that a
dedicated, co-ordinated and integrated coastal management effort is required.
For coastal development to be socially sustainable it should emphasise public
awareness and shared responsibility, empowering the disadvantaged individuals
and communities, including women and the poor.
For coastal tourism development to be economically sustainable it should
diversify opportunities, provide jobs and facilitate access to productive
resources. Further, for coastal development to be institutionally sustainable it
should involve creative partnerships between government, civil society and the
.private sector.
The above mentioned conditions all apply to Ithala Game
52
Reserve.
Ithala Game Reserve can not develop unless all role players are
involved, more especially the local people who are beneficiaries of tourism
benefits.
Tourism benefits are expected to bridge the gap that resulted from forced
removals of residents. Defining the current situation in Ithala Game Reserve
and the surrounding area., The Department of Environmental Affairs and
Tourlsm, (DEAT, 1998) states that Ithala is in a region, which is well known for
its typical natural features and scenic beauty. It is also characterised by poverty,
underdevelopment and unemployment where nearly two thirds of the population
is under 20 years old.
DEAT (1998) further states that land ownership issues and historical forced
removals of residents underlie deep-rooted conflicts between communities and
conservation bodies. Currently commercial, recreational and subsistence use of
natural assets is largely uncontrolled. With appropriate management of natural
resources and economic development opportunities, however, this region· could
provide an important economic base for the benefit of coastal communities. The
above-mentioned conditions best reflect the situation in the Ithala Game
Reserve. The Ithala community was scattered over a large area after eviction.
Recently, the Ithala community was recognised as custodians of Ithala area, so
they share the benefits of tourism generated in the Ithala Game Reserve. The
biggest question is whether these benefits are fairly and adequately distributed to
the local people. This is one of the crux questions this research investigation is
preparing to answer.
53
2.12 FACTORS LIMITING THE DELIVERY OF TOURISM
There are a number of factors that are hindering the effective delivery of the
tourism industry in South Africa. One of these factors as mentioned in the
Tourism White Paper (DEAT, 1996) is the limited involvement of local
communities. Local communities are only poorly involved in decision-making
processes; the same thing applies to previously neglected groups in the industry.
While this has been largely due to the previous Government's policies, the need
to reverse this situation is of urgent importance.
The tourism industry, perhaps more than any other sector, provides a number of
unique opportunities-) for involving and developing previously neglected groups,
including:
•
Operators of tourism infrastructure
•
Small guest houses or bed and breakfast establishments
•
Taverns, shebeens, bars and restaurants
•
Transport-taxi services, tours, trips, airports, and other transfers.
The Tourism White Paper (DEAT, 1996) further states that despite the obvious
and available opportunities, there are many factors that limit the meaningful
involvement of local communities in the tourism industry. These include: a lack
of information and awareness, lack of know-how and training, lack of fmance,
lack of interest on the part of existing establishments to build partnership with
local communities and supplies, and lack of incentives to reward private
enterprise that build or develop local capacity and create job opportunities.
These challenges are also surfacing in Ithala Game Reserve. Local communities
54
The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, (DEAT, 1998) further
states that the concerns and anxieties of the previously neglected groups need to
be understood and adequately addressed in building a successful tourism
industry in South Africa. Some ofthese concerns are that:
•
Tourism is a "White man's thing and not for us"- tourism
IS
perceived as catering to the predominantly white upper and middle
classes. There is belief that "tourism is what whites do when they
go to Kruger Park or the beaches in Durban", and certainly not
within reach of the previously neglected.
•
The majority of South Africans have never been meaningfully
exposed to the tourism industry and have not benefited from the
country's vast resources.
•
Suspicion and mistrust - most protected areas were proclaimed
without consultation with, or the approval of, affected rural
communities. Communities bore the cost of reduced access to
natural and cultural resources but did not perceive, or receive any
direct benefits.
•
Complete lack of knowledge and understanding of what tourism
really is. There is a perception that tourism refers only to people
travelling around and staying in hotels. The wider opportunities
offered by tourism are not seen as part ofthe tourism industry.
•
Inability to access finance to take advantage of entrepreneurial
opportunities provided by the tourism sector.
55
•
Lack of involvement - the majority of South Africans have not
been involved in the planning, decision-making, investment,
development or promotion of the tourism industry. Communities
have not been involved or consulted in respect of major investment
decisions or developments proposed for areas in which they live.
•
Inequalities - past inequalities and abuse of power have led to the
exploitation of local cultures and community groups.
•
Language barriers - the English language seems to be the
established language of tourism communication, effectively
excluding a majority of the population of South Africa, where 11
official languages are recognised.
•
Negative attitudes - negative attitudes exist within the industry
towards.~ommunity
tourism products, which are sometimes viewed
with scepticism and regarded as inferior. There is often a view that
what is white and western is best.
The value of previously
neglected people, their culture and their products often tends to be
unappreciated.
•
Lack of market access - local communities lack access to the
lucrative tourism market as visitors are kept within the hotels and
resorts and venture out only to 'sanitised' places of interest. For
the local shebeens or the local craft vendors, a visitor sighting is a
rare occasIOn.
•
Barriers to entry - these are caused by very large companies and
corporate structures which control the market. Businesses in South
Africa are either very large or very small and a middle segment is
only slowly emerging. The cost of capital furthermore prevents
many small operators from entering the market.
56
All of the concerns and anxieties of the previously neglected groups cited above
are applicable in the Ithala Game Reserve situation. Tourism is still viewed as
the "White man's thing" because Whites are perceived as rich people with lots
of disposable income, and therefore can afford to be adventurous. On the other
hand, the Ithala community is still struggling to understand the idea of tourism
because such concepts are still very fresh in their vocabulary. Furthermore, this
community is still living in areas with very insufficient basic infrastructure, their
level of education also limits their chances of grasping the tourism issues for
their own benefit.
The issue of tourism is also infested with suspICIOn and mistrust.
Such
conditions emanate from
the fact that when the Ithala people were evicted they
.,
were never given a satisfactory reason for their eviction. As if that was not
enough, when the decision of giving monetary restitution instead of going back
to Ithala Game Reserve was taken, the local people were not properly consulted,
so any development which has to do with the Ithala Game Reserve is likely to be
haunted by mistrust and suspicion.
2.13 CONCLUSION
Man.y of the prime tourism attractions of an outdoor recreation type are usually
located in the rural areas. Tourism allows rural people to share in the benefits of
tourism development, promoting more balanced and sustainable forms of
development.
Tourism provides an alternative approach to urbanisation,
permitting people to continue a rural family existence, enfranchising both
women and the youth (DEAT, 1996).
57
The proper management of tourism
benefits can bridge the gap created by forceful removal of people from their
ancestral lands.
The Ithala community stands a good chance of gaining from tourism benefits as
long as it is involved in the decision-making process. Any form of exclusion of
the Ithala people from land issues is likely to lead to further tensions and hard
feelings between this community and ecologists. Douglas and Butler (1999) are
of the idea that communities rarely have uniform views, particularly on the
factors such as tourism that are seen as capable of causing considerable change
to and within the community.
These differing views need to be taken into consideration when decisions are
taken, so as to prevent
., future conflicts. The recent developments around the land
restitution in Ithala Game Reserve have brought a glimmer of hope to povertystricken 'fugitives' ofIthala Game Reserve.
58
CHAPTER 3
THE PHYSICAL SETTING OF THE STUDY
3.1
INTRODUCTION
The researcher has found it wise to include this chapter on The physical setting
of the study for various reasons. This setting is intended to give the reader a
clear perspective upon which to understand this project and where it is located.
Accordingly, some expectations, which mayor may not be raised by this study
will have to be fulfilled at the end of the study. Due to the researcher's failure to
obtain written documents
on the background to the area, the researcher visited
-.
and interviewed an old man in the area called Phondolwendlovu (2003). The
old man knows the historical background of the area ofIthala Game Reserve.
3.2
THE LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA
This Game Reserve is geographically located in the area of Louwsburg, a subdistrict of Ngotshe. Itha1a Game Reserve overlooks the Phongolo River valley
in a rugged, mountainous thornveld of northern KwaZulu-Natal, and offers a
wildlife experience second to none. A morning's drive from Durban (400km) or
from Gauteng (500km), this prime tourist destination also has its own 1.2 km
all-weather airstrip. The Ithala experience combines excellent tourist facilities
with superb game viewing and bird watching in a beautiful setting [See Figures
3.1,3.2 and 3.3].
59
THE RELATIVE LOCATION MAP OF THE
FIGURE 3.1
STUDY AREA
MOZAMBIQUE
SWAZILAND
J
SOU1~
TEHBE
NOUMO
MPUMALAHGA
KO$I
AFRICR
BAY
LAKE.
SIEAYA
ITAlA
•
HkUZE
Louwsburg
FUE
Vryheid
Nell>Castle
STAle
SODWANA
BAY
•
PHINOR
HlomoHlomo
61tt:AlER
5f.LUCIA
Glencoe • Dundee
Van Reenen
Mlubatuba
lsandlwana
•
HLUHLUWEUMfOLOZI
• Ladysmith
ROYAL
NATAL
WETLAND
PARK (WHS)
PARK
Bergville
•
lJinlerton
Empangeni-
Richard's Bay
Estcourl
It
MooiAiver
StanQer
- . Zinkwazi8each
Sheffield Beach
Rosetta.
Nottingham. LidgeUon Vartburg
LESOTHO
AWd
•
. • At l C ..,~~Rock
Oargl...
HOWlCk I
tlS .P~ZimbaIi
•
Uon'S ,,"..
nover Pielermarltzburg
UmdIoti Beach
UTmlanga Rocks
Himeville:
Underberg
Lalucia
DarN.
Pinetown
Amanzimtoti
Kingsborgh
EASTERN
Kokstad
•
CAPE
PortShepstone
EASTER N CAPE
Margate
Port Edwald
(Source: http://www.sa-venue.com. 2004]
fiO
020
o
20
uo
80 kM
uo
HLS
80
FIGURE 3.2:
ABSOLUTE LOCATION OF STUDY AREA
,.......--:--
.-
"""-lJ:1-.-'fIh<np _
-e-
~
~
NI<
0
l1H<lI'....
•
~
lOo!
c.,.
--odJ- . . . ""*""
1llIIl"~
...... Coop"
P""
i
"'*- \'11'
""'.
~ 1llIIl_
Ufu
,_,.,....
,.,
» ~-
X.
•
,-
j
l'lIlt ".,
~
!IPum
lDl
-
lDl
[Source: S.A Geological Survey (1999)]
hI
FIGURE 3.3:
MAP OF TIlE STUDY AREA
(Source: KZN-NCS (2000))
62
The reserve was proclaimed a protected area in 1972 and currently covers 29
653 ha, bordering on the south bank of the Phongol0 river approximately 70km
east ofVryheid (KZN-NCS, 2000)
3.3
DIVERSITY OF HABITAT
Scenic beauty aside, Ithala's most characteristic feature is perhaps its astonishing
geological diversity. Some of the oldest rock formations in the world are found
here dating back 3 000 million years. The topography varies from 400 m above
sea level in the north to 1450 m above sea level in the south near Louwsburg.
This gives rise to great diversity of habitats, fauna and flora [See Figure 3.3].
3.4
mSTORY OF ITHALA
The history of most game parks, reserves and natural areas in South Africa is
characteristically dominated by the apartheid ideology of discrimination,
involving land exclusive use to a particular race group, land evictions and land
re-allocations. This state of affairs only came to an end with the. emergence of
the democratic dispensation.
The land Ithala Game Reserve occupies was the setting for many historic events
of the 19th and 20 th centuries. From Shaka's reign and running through those of
successive Zulu Kings these included the arrival of Voortrekkers in Natal, the
Anglo-Boer Wars (1881 and 1899-1902), a number of early gold-mining
enterprises and the 30-year anti-nagana campaign against the disease-carrying
tsetse fly.
63
3.5
FAUNA AND FLORA
The magnificent geographic landscape of Ithala Game Reserve gives rise to
breath-taking fauna and flora. Ithala is a place of great seasonal contrast. In
spring the grassIands are alive with warthogs. Masses of red "Pride of De Kaap"
offset the fruiting wild dates along the slopes and streams banks in summer.
Hundreds of aloes transform the drab winter veld into a spectacular landscape.
With its many perennial streams and rivers, and the frequent occurrence of cliffs
and rock faces, Ithala is also the ideal haven for a large variety of birds, trees
and mammals that can be seen. (KZN-NCS, 2000)
Ithala's big game species include white and black rhino, elephant buffalo and,
notably giraffe (which serves as Ithala's emblem). The absence oflion makes for
a relaxed air among these animals and other game such as zebra, blue wildebeest
and a wide variety of antelope. These include impala, oribi, red hartebeest,
eland, kudu, waterbuck, tsessebe, common-and mountain reedbuck, steenbok
and common duicker.
Ithala Game Reserve does not posses the king of the predators, the large and
vicious predators such as the lions. Predators which are not often seen, are
leopard and the spotted hyena. Sightings of large birds at Ithala may include
black eagles, lappetfaced- and whitebacked vultures, ostriches and secretary
birds stalking across the veld (KZN-NCS, 2000).
64
•
3.6
FACILITIES IN ITHALA GAME RESERVE .
There are many outdoor recreation facilities in Ithala Game Reserve, which is
why Ithala is a tourist friendly destination. It has suitable accommodation,
conference centre, campsites, log cabins, hiking trails, 4x4 trails, day and night
drives, picnic sites, beautiful scenery etc. Most of the hiking trails are clearly
sign posted, and take tourists to remote areas that are relatively free of the sights
and sounds of man.
The Ithala Game Reserve, as already been mentioned has many animals, some
of these animals are quite dangerous. In order to prevent any form of casualty
that may result from the encounter between a visitor and a local animal, the area
is clearly demarcated and warning signs are posted for visitors to take
precautionary measures when necessary. (KZN NCS, 2000).
3.6.1 Conference Centre
Ntshondwe's spacious, thatched conference centre has a main auditorium seating
120 delegates and two smaller halls, each seating 18 people. State-of -the-art
facilities include a fully equipped projection room, an integrated sound system
with convenient patch points, versatile automatic lighting, excellent acoustics
and air conditioning. Special functions such as weddings can be arranged
through the conference co-ordinator. (KZN NCS, 2000). Many international
tourists come to Ithala Game Reserve for conferences and weddings, so this
proves that Ithala is a tourist destination.
65
FIGURE 3.4: CONFERENCE CENTRE AT ITHALA GAME RESERVE
FIGURE 3.5:
AIR-CONDITIONED MAIN AUDITORIUM
The versatility of the air-conditioned main auditorium speaks for itself: it offers
a cinema style seating arrangement for up to 90 people, a lecture style for 60 or
a single U-shape for 30 people. The two breakaway rooms are also airconditioned and each offers a cinema-style seating arrangement for 22 people,
lecture style for 18 and single U-shape for 16.
Equipment in the main
auditorium is state of the art; a fully-equipped projection room, integrated sound
system with convenient patch points, versatile lighting, video projector with a
computer interface, slide and overhead projectors, fixed screen, stereo cassette
player, public address (PA) system, flipchart, whiteboard and Gripperfix. All
this and versatile seating make the most effective communication possible
(KZN-NCS,2000). Apart from having conference equipment similar to that of
the main auditorium, the two breakaway rooms enjoy the advantage of also
having a Flexirail system.
3.6.2
Self Guided Walking Trails
A number of self-guided trails traverse the wooded mountainside above
Ntshondwe camp, inviting guests to enjoy glimpses of the indigenous wildlife
while stretching their limbs. The sight of black rhino and elephant droppings
along a path adds a rush of adrenaline to experience. Rhino occasionally enter
the camp at night, therefore visitors are advised to exercise caution. (KZN-NCS,
2000).
The self-guided trails also provide an opportunity to explore the abundance of
the bird-life within Ithala Game Reserve. There are well-developed facilities for
bird-watching enthusiasts or ornithologists, including the usage of conference
67
facilities.
It is recorded that many tourist-ornithologists visit Ithala Game
Reserve for bird-related recreation and study.
3.6.3
Day and night drives
Day and night drives are conducted in open viewing vehicles and are a popular
tourist's attraction in the reserve. These can be booked at Ntshondwe camp
office. Night drives have been found to be more exciting than day drives by
many tourists.
FIGURE 3.6:
DAY AND NIGHT DRIVES VEIDCLE
3.6.4 Self-Guided Auto Trails
Ithala has a number of well-laid out auto trails.
These enable visitors to
appreciate aspects of the reserve's fascinating wildlife while enjoying the
comfort and privacy of their vehicles.
Driving along these routes one is
constantly struck by the wide range of habitats which support a large
biodiversity of plant, bird and animal life in the reserve. (KZN-NCS, 2000).
3.6.5 Picnic Sites
Picnic sites are situated in several scenic spots which offer spectacular views
and are ideal for game watching. These all have barbecue facilities and toilets.
3.6.6 Camping
Ithala offers limited facilities for camping in tents. The reserve's small rustic
campground has basic facilities for up to 20 people. There is a cold water
shower, a flush toilet and a kitchen area. A thatched shelter serves as a
communalloungel dining facility.
3.7
ACCOMMODATION FACILITIES
Ithala Game reserve has sufficient accommodation facilities for every type of
tourists. It has chalets, campsites, log cabins etc. It should be noted that most of
the facilities mentioned above have not been utilised by the community since
they were forcefully removed from the place where some of these facilities are
now situated.
Accommodation in Ithala is geared to suit all, from the sophisticated
international ecotourist or business executive, to large tour groups and family
parties.
69
3.7.1 Ntsbondwe Camp
Ntshondwe, Ithala's main camp, is ingeniously camouflaged against a plateau at
the foot of the cliffs after which it is named. Towering above the camp,
horizontal contours of pink and russet sandstone offset vertically jagged spires
of dolerite rock. These provide the ideal haven for raptors, their calls echoing
from rock face to crevice as they soar into the sky in territorial display.
FIGURE 3.7
NTSHONDWE CAMP
Ntshondwe's 39 thatched chalets blend into a lush setting of acacias, wild figs,
cabbage trees and other indigenous flora. A variety of self-catering chalets, with
two to six beds each, some of which have been designed for use by the
handicapped, are geared for tour groups and conference delegates. These are
situated around the Visitor's Centre which has a fully licensed restaurant, a bar
and an open game viewing deck which overlooks a small pan. Other amenities
include a swimming pool built around a giant rock, a fully equipped conference
70
centre, and a imaginatively stocked curio shop which also carries a range of
basic provisions.
FIGURE 3.8:
RECEPTION AT NTSHONDWE CAMP
FIGURE 3.9
MBLANGENI BUSH CAMP
71
3.7.2 Mhlangeni Bush Camp
Set on a rocky outcrop overlooking a stream, the Mhlangeni bush camp
accommodates up to ten guests in five two-bed units. A central open-plan
lounge and sun-deck offer excellent views-as do the showers! The services of an
attendant are provided and a field ranger is available to take guests on game
walks.
FIGURE 3.10:
MBIZO BUSH CAMP
3.7.2 Mbizo Busb Camp
Mbizo is ideally situated beside a series of rapids an pools near the spot where
the Ngubhu and Mbizo rivers meet. A total of 8 guests can be accommodated
her, in two separate bush chalets constructed of wood, reed and thatch. Each has
two bedrooms, its own lounge, kitchen and viewing deck. The camp has two
separate ablution facilities.
77
3.7.4 Thalu Bush Camp
Thalu Bush Camp is tucked away at the foot of a steep slope and the banks of
the Thalu River. A picturesque barbecue area overlooks a large pool in the river
where swimming is pennitted. Thalu accommodates four people in two
bedrooms linked by a kitchen, lounge and viewing deck.
FIGURE 3.11
3.8
THALU BUSH CAMP
CONCLUSION
Ithala Game Reserve as the study area of inquiry has many ecosystems, which
gives this area a distinct quality in the Province of KwaZulu-NataI. It offers
visitors worthwhile experiences, because it has moderate temperature that is
convenient for various activities.
The area also has sufficient tourism
infrastructure to make it possible for tourists to maximise their recreation
opportunities.
71
The Ithala Game Reserve has many attractions that make it a worthwhile tourist
destination. It caters for different types of tourists.· Tourists from all walks of
life are likely to be found in this slice of Africa because of its uniqueness. At
the same time this worthwhile tourist destination is bound or expected to offer
the needed economic and resources development in the area for the benefit of all
surrounding communities.
74
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
4.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter concentrates on the findings that have arisen from analysis and
interpretation of data.
The information at hand was primarily assembled
through sets of questionnaires that were delivered personally to respondents.
The questions were structured in relation to the objectives of the study, so as to
achieve desired results. The respondents differed widely with their personal
attributes such as age, level of education, employment status, et cetera. The
respondents shall remain anonymous to observe the ethics of research and to
honour the promise between the interviewee and interviewer.
4.2
RESTATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES
It is important at this juncture to restate objectives and hypotheses, as these
provide direction for the analysis and eventual conclusions of the study.
Objectives give guidelines and focus to the interpretation of the data process.
To achieve its targets, the study, therefore has been narrowed down into the
following objectives and hypotheses:
•
Objective 1:
That
the
Ithala
understanding ofthe meaning oftourism
75
people
have
a
poor
•
Hypothesis 1:
That
the
Ithala
people
have
a
poor
understanding ofthe meaning oftourism.
•
Objective 2: That there is no clearly defined criteria and strategy
used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism
benefits.
•
!Iypothesis 2:
That there is no clearly defined criteria used by
authorities to determine the beneficiaries oftourism benefits.
•
Objective 3:That the Ithala people do not participate actively in
decision-making concerning tourism benefits.
•
Hypothesis 3:
That the Ithala people do not participate
actively in decision-making concerning tourism benefits.
•
Objective 4:That the level of accessibility to tourism resources is
relatively restricted among the Ithala community members.
•
Hypothesis 4: That the level of accessibility to tourism
resources is relatively low among the Ithala community members.
•
Objective 5:That tourism benefits do enhance the livelihood of the
Ithala community in a sustainable manner.
•
Hypothesis 5:
That tourism benefits enhance the livelihood of
the Ithala community in a meaningful way.
The reason behind the restatement of hypotheses is that the data that has been
. collected has to affirm or refute each of the above stated hypotheses.
76
Hypotheses together with objectives of the study provide guidelines for the
analysis of data.
4.3
DEMOGRAPffiC CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA
Demographic characteristics of data reflect the personal attributes of
respondents.
These respondents differed widely with respect to personal
attributes, which involved gender, age, marital status, level of education,
employment status, and monthly income. The information gathered here would
be instrumental in the interpretation of the study at large.
On the topic "Ithala Game Reserve as a tourist destination: Community
perceptions and participation".
females.
More than half of respondents (54%) were
Males only constituted 46 percent of the respondents.
The total
number of respondents was 80 people. The reason why there are more female
respondents is that most males work at distant areas. For this reason females run
most of the households, and some households depend solely on the female
pensioners. It is not unusual in the Ithala community to get a household being
occupied by an elderly woman with only her grandchildren.
In the Ithala
community the elderly women, who are usually pensioners, play a big role in
sustaining the family while the younger generation is out scouting for work.
TABLE 4.1: GENDER OF RESPONDENTS WHO ARE COMMUNITY
MEMBERS
VARIABLE
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
Male
37
46
Female
43
54
Total
80
100
77
The respondents ranged from 21 years of age to more than 51 years. More than
half ofthe respondents (69%) were above 40 years of age. Only 9 percent of the
respondents who were between 20 and 30 years of age, responded to the
questionnaire. The responses indicate that mainly elderly people participated in
this study. Between the ranges of 31 to 39 years of age, only 22 percent
responded to the questionnaire. During the time of eviction, the respondents
.
from the age range of 31 to 39 years were still too young to understand the
developments that were taking place, hence their knowledge about eviction is
also limited.
The reason why most respondents are elderly people is that the eviction took
place about 30 years ago, so needless to say the actual victims are now aged.
The younger generation has little or no knowledge of the eviction of people
from the Ithala area, precisely because they were not directly affected by
eviction incident. Furthermore, the younger generation indicates that it has
never been to Ithala, they simply adapted to the conditions in which they were
born. It is through the oral tradition that the youth get to know about Ithala life.
However, the preliminary perceptions of all age groups are to the effect that they
are all not properly consulted when the decisions concerning their land are
taKen, this is why we may be inclined to reject hypothesis 3: That the Ithala
people do not participate actively in decision-making concerning tourism
benefits. This hypothesis is further discussed in some detail later in the chapter.
The second set of questionnaires was directed to the Ithala Community Trust
. Fund Committee, which has 18 members. The sample size of 9 people was
interviewed.
Out of 9 members of the Trust Fund Committee who were
78
interviewed, only 2 were females. The remaining 7 were all males. The number
and composition of responses reflect the imbalance that still persists in matter of
land ownership and power relations.
The disproportionate representation of Ithala Community Trust respondents in
terms of gender is based on the notion that men are custodians of land; therefore
it is men that seem to discuss any land related issue. Such a notion is inherent in
•
the IthaIa community and many other previously disadvantaged communities
(DEAT,1996).
All three members who were· interviewed from KwaZulu-Natal Nature
Conservation Services (KZN NCS) were males. This is largely because these
respondents assumed their duties at KZN NCS when women were still not
empowered for managerial positions. Such a phenomenon is still very much
experienced in the field of work, especially in the managerial sectors related to
wildlife management.
Another reason for the absence of females in the management of nature
conservation is the societal stereotype found in local traditional communities.
The stereotype states that the domain of the female is in and around the house.
Hence, some societies have informally addressed women as household
executives.
The outdoor recreation responsibilities such as hunting, stock
farming, game ranching, fishing, etc are regarded as masculine obligations. It is
out of such reasons that females are not fully represented in the nature
conservation organisations including KZN NCS.
79
FIGURE 4.1: AGE OF RESPONDENTS OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS
35.0%
.,
30.0%
V
~
~
~
25.0% _V
23%
r==
20.0%
V
15.0%
V'
'~
Lul21-25
26-30
~
~
f--
f--
f"'=
~"
6%
0.0%
f-
F=
-== -
3%
I--
13%
10.0% -V
5.0% _V
f---
l--
31-35
I---
r-
r-
f-
~
l-
f-
f-
I-
I-
36-40
41-45
46-50
>51
Age of respondents
Most of the Ithala Community Trust members are above 40 years of age. The
reason for this age group is simply that people who were appointed on to the
committee had to be people who had first hand experience of the eviction.
Sound knowledge about Ithala and its people was also considered when
appointing these members.
Such knowledge would be quite useful when
identifying the authentic beneficiaries of Ithala tourism resources. The younger
member, whose age is between 25 to 30 years, was appointed on to the
committee to represent her age group, especially when decisions are taken.
Respondents from KZN NCS did not differ widely with regard to age. They
ranged from 36 to over 51 years of age. These respondents are understandably
old because they have served at NCS for quite a long time. It is noteworthy that
80
none of these respondents was already servmg under NCS when the Ithala
community was evicted. So their knowledge on the topic of the eviction is
somewhat limited.
It is interesting to note that KZN NCS agrees with the Ithala Trust that there are
criteria used to determine the legitimate beneficiaries of tourism benefits in
Ithala area, and for this reason hypothesis 2: That there is no clearly defined
criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of
.
tourism benefits, is rejected.
FIGURE 4.2: AGE OF ITHALA COMMUNITY TRUST
MEMBERS
40.0%
-,...
35.0%
-v
30.0% -
-.-r
-==
I-
32%
=
.
.
f-
r-
r--
f--
25.0%
-
20.0%
-V
-
f--
15.0%
-1./
-
f--
-
I--
-
I-
-
f--.
10.0%
.--
1n ...
9%
pc
:==;
4%
5.0%
2%
0.0%
~
21·25
26-30
~r:n-DJ31·35
36-40
41-45
Age of respondents
I---
46-50
>50
Respondents were asked to reveal their age with a view of establishing their
participation in the activities of the Ithala community. Out of 80 people who
were interviewed, more than half of the respondents (54%) were married. The
81
respondents who were single amounted to 24 percent, while 19 percent of
respondents are widowed, and only 3 percent of respondents are divorced. It is
noteworthy that a large number of husbands do not share households with their
respective families, because they are in urban areas or big cities for reasons of
employment.
In many of the household younger and able-bodied men
continually away from home and females then assume the role of household
leader and
m~e
all the important decisions.
It is evident that community
matters relating to the Ithala Game Reserve have to be taken with the cooperation ofwomen.
It was quite noticeable that in several cases the women support their families
single-handedly. There are sporadic subsistence farming plots that are manned
by women.
Such plots are mere vegetable gardens, only sustained through
primitive irrigation schemes. It is from these plots that most women constantly
support their families.
Such subsistence farming practices have started to give way to maize meal
plantations, which promises to be a major income earner for the local
community. However, the absence of reliable irrigation infrastructure poses
another challenge to· the local farmers. Maize meal farming also has its own
ch£llenges that usually surface in the course of time.
The most common
challenge is land conflict, which results from individual farmers encroaching on
areas that do not belong to them.
More than two thirds of the respondents (69%) had an education level below
standard 10. About 14 percent of respondents had post standard 10 certificates,
&2
and 10 percent had post standard 10 diploma. The respondents who had post
standard 10 degrees only amounted to 7 percent.
FIGURE 4.3: MARITAL STATUS OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS
60.0%
54%
-I
50.0%
i
40.0%
/
30.0%
V
,
24%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
~V
I ~ '"
V
4%
1/
S iagle
L..-
--
M a rried
Widowed
/"
I
Cl
--'
Divorced
MARITAL STATUS
The reason behind the Iow level of education is that before the eviction, the
Ithala community depended largely on subsistence farming, hunting and
gathering. None of these skills appeared to need formal education, so no one
paid attention to formal education.
The resurgence of tourism has brought new hope to the Ithala people, hence they
have developed a positive attitude towards tourism irrespective of Iow levels of
education, so hypothesis number 1: That the lthala people have a poor
understanding ofthe meaning oftourism is rejected.
83
Another interesting factor is that there was literally no formal school in Ithala
area. It was only visiting missionaries who offered elementary education in
church buildings, much of the education that was offered by missionaries was
religious. For further education one was forced to move to other areas such as
Vryheid, which had readily available schools.
TABLE 4 2: LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
>std 10
55
69
Post std 10 certificate
11
14
Post std 10 diploma
08
10
Post std 10 degree
06
07
Total
80
100
LEVEL OF EDUCATION
The community members also differ widely with regard to their respective level
of education.
It must be pointed out that the office bearers of the Ithala
Community Trust Fund do not get any payments for their responsibilities, so
educational level was not one of the prerequisites for Trust Fund committee
membership.
The most called upon prereqUIsIte for being a member of the Trust was
knowledge of Ithala community members. Such knowledge became a criterion
for determining the rightful beneficiaries of Ithala tourism developments hence
hypothesis 2: That there is no clearly defined criteria and strategy used by
authorities to determine the beneficiaries oftourism benefits is rejected.
84
A large number of respondents, who are working, belong to the private sector.
Most of them work either as shop assistants or household maids.
The
respondents from this sector constituted about 31 percent. The respondents,
who are self-employed, are either street-vendor, selling anything from fruits and
vegetables to second-hand clothes, they constituted 26 percent. A sum of 28
percent of respondents is unemployed, and 12 percent is employed by the state.
FIGURE 4.4: EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF COMMUNITY
MEMBERS
35.0%
31%
30.0%
25.0%
20.0%
15.0%
10.0%
5.0%
0.0% .JL-----'=----.:...~-~--~---...,_------'~----===--__/
State
Private
Unemployed
Student
Self employed
Employment status of respondents
The employment status of respondents clearly indicates that the Ithala
community is largely constituted of low-income individuals.
Given this
situation and also considering the high rate of male absenteeism, it can be
concluded that
the
Ithala
community
needs tangible
improvements to stabilise the prevailing scenario.
socio-economic
To the local community,
tourism is one of the rare income earners that are likely to improve their living
85
conditions.
Although this community has very limited information about
tourism, they still hope for the better life which was promised.
One of the important employment categories within the study area is the farming
practice. Given the right advice, the Ithala farmers can play an important role in
improving the lives of Ithala people.
The farmers can contribute to the
betterment of lives of the Ithala people by creating tourism related job
opportunities such as food production and catering. Such improvements can
only come to reality if the Ithala people have informed access to tourism
resources.
FIGURE 4.5: EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF TRUST MEMBERS
2 2 % _ - - - - 1 - - - -__
CS elf em plo yed
DStale
11 %
[]Unemployed
For the fact that there are no stable monetary returns derived from being a
member of the Trust Fund, members of the Trust Fund Committee have to rely
on some alternative source of income other than Trust Fund. Most of these
respondents (67%) are self-employed; they rely on commercial sugar cane
86
plantation and the public transport industry. Some members of the Trust are not
employed. Their service as Trust members is more of a voluntary work, because
there are no salaries that are received from the Trust.
If tourism benefits had not remarkably improved lives of the Trust members, it
could be stated without any argument that the plight of community members is
even worse, hence hypothesis 5: That tourism benefits do enhance the livelihood
of the Ithala community in a sustainable manner is rejected.
The Ithala
community is still living under similar conditions as those of the 'pre-tourism
benefit era'. Their lives are still characterised by joblessness, a high school
dropout rate, male absenteeism and many other setbacks that are experienced by
any community that has been forced out of its land.
FIGURE 4.6: MONTHLY INCOME OF COMMUNITY MEMBERS
1.::-
35.0%
30,0%
~
25.0%
/
20.0%
~
15.0%
./
10.0%
5.0%
.
I
I
~
~
~
'~
-
-
-
-
~
,-
,
0.0%
P501-Rl000
--!
c---
-
./
< R50a
~
R1QQ1·
R1500
R1501R2000
R2001R250Q
~
,
>R3000
Respondents' monthly income
It is important to note that the employment status of Trust members as
mentioned above refers to their employment outside the Ithala Community
87
Trust. The appointment into the Trust does not necessary elevate an individual
to a better employment status. In other words, trust members are no better off
than other ordinary community members are. Such a condition results from the
fact that Trust membership is not recognised as remunerative employment, and
such reasons confirm the rejection of hypothesis 5: That tourism benefits do
enhance the livelihood ofthe Ithala community in a sustainable manner.
It was discovered that many respondents depended on monthly pensions and
street vending (self-employment) for their source of income. One third of the
respondents (33%) earns less than R800. Such low monthly income reflects the
fact that most respondents are unskilled labourers, and many of them are
unemployed. A further 31 percent of respondents earns between R801 and
R2000.
Only 36 percent of respondents earn more than R2001.
The latter
amount is unreliable because it is mostly based on the commercial maize meal
plantation, which does not necessarily yield income on a monthly basis, but
rather has lengthy time intervals in between the payments. At times maize meal
production is affected by climate, which is why it is quite unpredictable. The
Ithala community is undoubtedly a low-income society and tourism has not yet
improved the social condition of people, this is why hypothesis 5: That tourism
benefits do enhance the livelihood of the Ithala community in a sustainable
manner is rejected.
It is worth mentioning that while the Ithala community earns a low income with
a high level of unemployment, it has relatively larger members per family. Like
most rural communities, family planing is minimal. Such conditions usually
result in starvation and migration of people towards areas with better job
opportunities. As in any other jobless society, crime is escalating within Ithala
88
community, house-breaking and theft being the most common, stock theft has
been also reported to be on the increase. It is due to such reasons that the Ithala
community impatiently awaits tourism sector to provide job opportunities.
From the analysis undertaken in previous section (Refer to FigA.2; FigA.3), it is
evident that, so far tourism has not lived up to its expected status, the lives of the
Ithala community have not improved convincingly, this is why hypothesis 5 is
rejected.
The tourism concept is still very much ideological and the Ithala
community expects to see tangible improvements such as creation of proper
infrastructure, job opportunities, and many other development related
improvements (DEAT, 1996).
With regard to KZN NCS, it was not surprising that all respondents had monthly
income that exceeded R3000. 00. The reason being that all respondents were
employed by the government and they all held managerial positions.
The
education level of respondents ranged from Std 8 to post Std 10 degree (Refer to
Table 4.2).
Interestingly the level of education of community did not seem to correspond to
their monthly income; in other words there was no large margin between the
monthly income of respondents caused by their level of education. A possible
reason why there is no remarkable difference of the monthly income of
respondents due to their level of education is that the respondents with relatively
lower education level had quite extensive experience.
Generally, all
respondents had vast experience in their field of work, which is why they earned
reasonably well.
&9
4.4
PERCEPTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS OF ITHALA
COMMUNITY FROM TOURISM
The Ithala community had a variety of expectations and perceptions about .
tourism from Ithala area. The varying perceptions stem from the fact that the
tourism concept is relatively new to the Ithala community.
expectations, monetary benefits took first priority.
Among other
The reason why Ithala
community expected to get money is that they had received some monetary
restitution, which amounted to R30000 per household, and the implication
thereof was that there is still money coming their way.
The People of Ithala expect to see immediate results, such urgency is largely
because this community has, for a long time, been excluded from the affairs of
their own area. It should also be understood that the Ithala community is
relatively poor, so if there is any form of development that promises to provide
job opportunities, people become anxious to grab such rare opportunities.
Another important factor behind the urgency for the delivery of tourism benefits
are suspicions and mistrust between Ithala community members and the
managers of the area in question. Suspicions emanate from the fact that when
the eviction took place, no one gave a clear explanation as to why the
community was evicted.
Furthermore, it is generally known that when the decision to give monetary
restitution was taken the community was not properly involved. So the Ithala
community remains very speculative about the future ofIthala, both as their area
and as a tourism destination. As mentioned earlier, tourism has not yet brought
90
about any remarkable improvement in the lives of Ithala people, hence
hypothesis 5: That tourism benefits do enhance the livelihood of the Ithala
community in a sustainable manner is rejected.
For this study to be a success it is important to find out how people feel about
tourism. This information is of utmost importance especially when tourism
related decisions have to be taken. It is also crucial to involve people when you
are informed about the perceptions towards a particular issue, which in this case
is tourism. Studies have shown that the behaviour of people is determined by
their underlying perceptions towards a certain issue.
TABLE 4.3: PERCEPTIONS OF THE COMMUNITY ABOUT TOURISM
PERCEPTUAL STATEMENTS
SA=l
There are many benefits which results from tourism
1
at Ithala
The community IS involved In tourism related
1
matters and activities
The community has adequate information about
0
tourism in Ithala
The community is aware ofIthala Community
2
Trust fund
Many job opportunities have resulted from tourism
0
in Ithala
Tourism development in Ithala has led to provision
0
offacilities in education, health, housing, etc.
Ithala community have easy access to Ithala
0
Community Trust Fund
It can be generally accepted that relocation of people
0
from Ithala was a blessing.
Because of tourism benefits, people are no longer
0
bitter about the relocation incident and its impacts.
N= 80: Each respondent chose a Single alternative from
91
A=2
N=3
D=4
SD=5
50
24
15
10
6
34
46
13
3
14
64
20
59
10
9
20
4
16
45
35
0
6
33
61
14
40
25
21
1
4
26
69
3
1
31
65
each category.
The following ratings in Table 4.3 have a list of statements, which allow
respondents to express their feelings and attitudes towards tourism. These
statements also evaluate the opinions of the respondents towards tourism. The
Likert five-point scale has been used for this purpose and statements have been
weighed as follows: Strongly agree-I; Agree-2; Neutral-3; Disagree-4; Strongly
disagree-5. The responses are in percentage.
4.4.1 Community perceptions of the availabilitv of tourism benefits
Before the eviction, some of the Ithala community members used to assist the
visitors by carrying their bags to campsites found in the Ithala area. In return
visitors gave the host community monetary returns, and remaining foodstuff on
their return.
This encounter was not perceived as tourism opportunity,
nevertheless, the local community benefited from it. It is not surprising that,
when the Ithala community is asked about benefits in Ithala, they gave an
affirmative response.
The community is aware of benefits oftourism in Ithala; the only shortcoming is
that they have been excluded from these benefits for a long time.
So their
knowledge is very limited. More than half of respondents (51%) agreed that
It was noticeable that a handful of
there were many benefits in Ithala.
respondents, who amount to 24 percent, were undecided. They had no idea
whether tourism was beneficial or not. Such behaviour resulted from the fact
that many people still lack knowledge about tourism. Nevertheless, the Ithala
community still remain positive about the outcomes of tourism from Ithala; this
further supports the rejection of hypothesis 1 which states "that the Ithala
people have a poor understanding ofthe meaning oftourism
92
H.
For the mere fact that 51 percent of the respondents agreed that there are
benefits accrued through tourism in Ithala, hypotheses number 1 is rejected. In
fact people had high hopes that tourism was going to yield job opportunities and
better income for the Ithala community.
The only setback is that this
community has been left out of tourism matters for a long time, so they tend to
be sceptical when there is no immediate tangible evidence of improvement.
4.4.2 Community involvement in tourism related matters
Although many people claimed to be aware of tourism benefits in Ithala, they
were quick to point out that the community is not involved in tourism related
matters.
About 59 percent of respondents disagreed that the community is
involved or participates in decision-making relating to tourism related matters.
Quite noticeably, about one third of the respondents (34%) had difficulties in
deciding whether the community is involved or not, so they ended up being
neutral on the issue.
The percentage of respondents (59%) who disagreed with a statement that the
community is involved in tourism related matters. It is quite reasonable then to
accept hypothesis 3: that the Ithala people do not participate actively in
decision-making concerning tourism benefits. If people are not involved in
tourism-related matters, it stands to reason that they are also not involved in
decision-making concerning tourism in their area.
The exclusion of Ithala people from decision-making was also confirmed when
63 percent of respondents disagreed that they have been involved in tourism
93
decision-making.
It must be pointed out though that a large number of
respondents (53%) claim to have attended meetings related to tourism. The
contributions of these respondents during the land discussions amounted to
nothing simply because they still lack basic tourism knowledge, so their views
are uninformed, and therefore cannot be considered with great attention (DEAT,
1996).
4.4.3 Community level of knowledge about tourism
It could be stated without argument that the community has very little
information about tourism in Ithala.
Such a conclusion is based on the
observation that 84 percent of respondents disagreed that the community has
adequate information about tourism in Ithala. Such information also adds up to
the argument that affirms hypothesis 3: that the Ithala people do not participate
actively in decision-making concerning tourism benefits. People cannot take
sound decisions when the subject to be decided on is incomprehensible to them.
Until the Ithala community gains sound knowledge about tourism, it will remain
unclear about the decision-making process.
4.4.4 Community awareness about Trust Fund
We have to remember that the incident of land eviction and compensation
resulted in the Ithala community becoming aware of the importance of decision
and procedures involved. People had to be screened by the Trust members
together with Ithala elders before they could qualify to be compensated. The
community members were also told that the initial compensations were the
beginning of a long relationship, where the community members are to get
94
tourism benefits continuously. This is why 61 percent of the respondents agree
that the community is aware ofIthala Community Trust Fund.
Some of the Ithala people were also aware that their licence to tourism benefits
is only obtainable from the Trust Fund committee. It must be pointed out that
the knowledge of people about the Trust is only because it exists. It is also
evident that not all people knew about the Trust Fund because its knowledge
came through the grapevine or community gossip. The manner in which the
Trust operates is still not clear to people, the reason being that the Trust is
relatively new, and the Trust members are still trying to settle into their newly
acquired responsibilities.
4.4.5 Community perceptions of job opportunities in tourism
It is clear that tourism has not provided the expected job opportunities to
community members, as such. About four in five respondents (&0%) disagreed
that many job opportunities have resulted from tourism in Ithala.
People
expected to be employed immediately after they were told that tourism was
going to open doors for employment.
Obviously, the high hopes were instigated by the fact there is too much
uriemployment amongst the Ithala community. However, the fact that Ithala
community has not received sufficient benefits from tourism has not instigated
negative perceptions of the field from people, therefore hypothesis 1: that the
Ithala people have a poor understanding ofthe meaning oftourism is rejected.
95
It should be pointed out also that because of limited tourism knowledge, Ithala
people expect the tourism industry to provide jobs in a 'conventional' way,
where there is wealthy employer and desperate employees who run the chores
within the premises of the work place. The idea ofjob creation through selling
local products to tourists is still unfamiliar to many Ithala people. The reason is
that after their eviction, the Ithala community ceased to be self-sufficient
because the area they were moved to was less productive than the original Ithala
area. As a result they started to look for work elsewhere rather than creating it.
Responding to the question whether there are any families that depend on
tourism for their livelihood, 88 percent of respondents disagreed.
Possible
justification are that most community members still lack tourism training and
basic skills required in tourism industry.
Up to now there are very little
opportunities that have been opened for local community to make use of the
tourism infrastructure, which will ultimately assist them to become selfsufficient.
The Ithala community also still [mds it very difficult to access the tourism
resources readily available at Ithala, so hypothesis 4: that the level of
accessibility to tourism resources is relatively low among the Ithala community
members is rejected.
The reason behind lack of access to Ithala tourism
resources is lack oftourism knowledge OD the side of the Ithala community. To
address the challenge of shortage of required tourism skills, plans have been
made to make sure that programmess to educate some members of the
community take shape. Hopefully in the near future these plans will begin to
bear fruits.
96
4.4.6 Community perceptions of the provision of infrastructural facilities
Up to now tourism has not lived up to communities' expectations, it has not
provided what most people expected such as tourism training centres,
telecommunication infrastructure, health care centres, etc.
Almost all of
respondents (94%) disagreed that tourism development in Ithala has led to
provision of facilities of health, education, sanitation, housing, etc. If tourism
has not provided employment opportunities, education, health, sanitation and
telecommunication facilities, then hypothesis number 5: that tourism benefits
enhance the livelihood of the Ithala community in a meaningful way is refuted.
There are no remarkable improvements that have been brought about by tourism
benefits into the Ithala community.
Interestingly, members of the Trust Fund Committee also share similar views
with the community that tourism benefits have not adequately satisfied people.
one would have expected that Trust Fund Committee members were benefiting
something out of the tourism industry. Such dissatisfaction is largely because
the whole arrangement of compensating the victims of eviction is relatively
fresh in everybody's mind, hence hypothesis 5: that tourism benefits enhance
the livelihood of the Ithala community in a meaningful way is rejected. The
Trust Fund itself is still a fresh concept.
Another challenge that still needs serious attention in the study area is that the
Ithala community is scattered over a large area from the Ithala Game Reserve.
Any form of equitable distribution of tourism related resources seems very
difficult if not impossible. Nevertheless, the people of Ithala still wait for the
provision of facilities through tourism development initiatives.
97
4.4.7 Community access to Trust Fund
As mentioned earlier, the Trust is still in its infancy stage, it is still in the
process of formulating the channels of communication with the community.
Understandably the community members find it difficult to access the Trust
Fund. To further emplif)' the understanding ofthis process, commonly members
were asked to respond to questions relating to access to Trust Funds, with a view
of getting a better understanding of the community's perception of the workings
and benefits of tourism as a resource and an industry for Ithala people.
Interestingly only 46 percent of respondents disagreed that Ithala community
has easy access to Trust Fund. It is important to note that this response was not
overwhelmingly supported because of various possible reasons.
It is further noteworthy that 40 percent of respondents were undecided on the
issue of access to the Trust Fund. The reason behind this ambivalence is that the
community once accessed the Trust when they were compensated for the loss of
the land. The impression that was created on this encounter was that there were
many benefits that would follow. Reasonably, the Ithala community then feels
that they should access the Trust on a regular basis, but they are not sure of the
time frames on which such visits would be more appropriate. The inability to
access the tourism resources on a regular basis leads to the rejection of
hypotheses 4: that the level ofaccessibility to tourism resources is relatively low
among the Ithala community members.
Some community members are aware that there are other benefits that are
obtainable at certain time intervals. These benefits are in the form of resources
9&
such as ncema grass (Juncus kraussii1 which could be quite useful if harvested
sufficiently. These people are aware that they should approach the Trust for
permission to utilise these resources, but they are often unsure as to when should
they do likewise. These are some of the grey areas that the Ithala Community
Trust must address with immediate effect. In order to overcome such setbacks,
the Trust need to maximise interaction with the community members.
It is expected that the interaction between community members and the Trust
will provide a forum whereby the legal document such as the Memorandum of
Understanding, which contains the procedure of access to the resources, will
eventually be thoroughly explained to people. Unless the issue of access to
tourism resources is thoroughly dealt with, the people of Ithala will continue
feeling alienated from Ithala tourism related resources; hence, it is why
hypothesis 4: that the level ofaccessibility to tourism resources is relatively low
among the Ithala community members is rejected.
4.4.8 The community perceptions of the results of eviction
A period of about 30 years has passed since the Ithala community was evicted
from its ancestral land. Not surprisingly, Ithala people still have fond memories
about their land. When asked if it can be generally accepted that relocation of
people from Ithala was a blessing, 95 percent of respondents disagreed, in fact
more than two-thirds (69%) ofrespondents strongly disagreed.
The people of Ithala still insist that nothing will ever replace the love they had
for their land. Through eviction, they were totally dispossessed of one of the
99
most precious slices of land in Africa, which provided for most of their needs.
Needless to emphasise, people are still bitter about the eviction.
Responding to the question of eviction all respondents from KZN NCS agreed
that they are aware of the incident of eviction which took place about 30 years
ago. However, only two respondents out of nine continued to answer most of
the questions in the questionnaire. The other respondents declined on the basis
that they were unsure of many details regarding lthala people. During the
political transformation of South Africa to democracy, the issue of land
redistribution has been associated with political unrest and mistrust.
Any
potential respondent tends to be sceptical when the subject to be discussed is
related to land redistribution.
The respondents from KZN NCS stated that the motive behind the eviction was
political, and most of the eviction victims are now in Louwsburg. Two of the
nine respondents also confirmed that they are aware of lthala Community Trust
Fund.
The respondents further stated that KZN NCS and the Trust Fund
Committee have established mutual co-operation.
4.5
UTILISATION OF TOURISM FACILITIES BY ITHALA
COMMUNITY MEMBERS
The Ithala community has been out of their area, which is lthala Game Reserve
for a long time, so they are not familiar with the tourism facilities that are
available in their area. Such facilities include campsites, lodges, chalets, hiking
trails, etc. About 90 percent of respondents felt that they have never used
tourism facilities that are found in Ithala, so hypothesis 4: that the level of
100
accessibility to tourism resources is relatively low among the lthala community
members is rejected.
It is not surprising that most Ithala community members have no idea of what a
hiking trail is. . It is also unthinkable that a person who lives in a make-shift
house can have enough money or time to book in a game lodge or a posh chalet.
So the plight of Ithala people is predictable, they are poor and therefore cannot
afford recreation luxuries. It must also be noted that Ithala community did not
use their area as a tourist resort before their eviction, they used it for agricultural
purposes. Some of the recreation facilities which were established while they
inhabited the area of Ithala did not mean much to them. Until the period where
Ithala community sees itself utilising their land the way they used to, it is most
likely going to take a long time to have them convinced that they are actually at
liberty to make use of the available tourism resources within and around the
Ithala Game Reserve.
Most of the tourism facilities found in Ithala Game Reserve are associated with
the wealthy citizens, who are usually white. The idea of recreation is usually
associated with readily available disposable income, which most of Ithala
community members cannot afford. Another important factor that causes the
ItIlala community not to use tourism facilities is that this community stays at
areas distant from Ithala Game Reserve where the recreation facilities are found ,
so even if they wanted to use these resources, it would be cumbersome.
As expected, the knowledge of the Trust members about tourism facilities in the
Ithala Game Reserve superseded that of the community members. The Trust
members have been exposed to more information as to how to access the
101
tourism resources found in the Ithala Game Reserve, which is why they have
utilised these resources more regular than community members.
It must be also indicated that the Trust members usually utilises the tourism
facilities, especially the lodges, for their meetings that do not last for a long
time. Most of the community members have virtually no idea what a tourism
resource is, hence hypotheses 4: that the level of accessibility to tourism
resources is relatively low among the Ithala community members is not
supported. Most community members view Ithala as the land ofplenty.
So the biggest resource they want to access is their land, so that they may utilise
it to their own benefit. Most respondents feel that the only solution to Ithala
Game Reserve problems is land redistribution.
TABLE 4.4: UTILISATION OF TOURISM FACILITIES BY ITHALA
COMMUNITY MEMBERS
FREQUENCY
FACILITY
PERCENTAGE
08
Fishing material
89%
06
Swimming equipment
67%
06
67%
Hiking trails
04
44%
Chalets
01
Game lodges
ll%
25
Total
Mean 55%
..
N- 9 Each respondent chose more than one facIlIty from lIst gIven.
The political dispensation at the time when the people of Ithala were evicted
also had larger impact on the motive behind the eviction. As a result, people
102
were further divided on a racial basis. Tourism for a long time has been seen as
a 'white man's thing', because of money.
Some activities are still associated with whites. The resources related to these
activities are still viewed as specifically for whites.
Most of the Ithala
community members still feel deprived of access to tourism resources; this is
why hypothesis 4: that the level ofaccessibility to tourism resources is relatively
low among the Ithala community members is rejected. People ofIthala still need
to be familiarised with recreation activities so that they can begin to make use of
tourism facilities available in their area. Failure to understand the importance of
these facilities leads to people claiming to have no access to tourism resources.
4.6
DETERMINAnON OF BENEFICIARIES OF THE TRUST
All respondents from the Trust agreed that the beneficiaries of the Ithala
Community Trust Fund are the victims of eviction. One of the crucial questions
that the committee had to answer was, which criterion is used to determine the
legitimate beneficiaries of the Trust Fund? The consensus was that the Trust
. Fund Committee members, together with Ithala elders, screened people. The
Committee held interviews with Ithala people to ensure that they were legitimate
beneficiaries of the Trust, hence hypothesis 2: That there is no clearly defined
criteria and strategy used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of
tourism benefits is rejected.
The Ithala Trust also stated that there were several cases where illegitimate
beneficiaries made false claims, but were unsuccessful because they were denied
access to the Fund. Such denial of access to the Trust Fund was made evident
103
by the fact that each claimant screened was at times cross-examined by the Trust
and Ithala elders. Such facts introduce a point of contradiction regarding the
rejection of hypotheses 2: that there is no clearly defined criteria and strategy
used by authorities to determine the benefiCiaries of tourism benefits.
Nevertheless, further investigation revealed that such cases were very rare,
which is why they do not challenge the original finding convincingly.
The issue of determination of legitimate beneficiaries had some grey areas
especially when people were compensated for eviction.
Such grey areas
emanated from the fact that only one person accepted the monetary restitution
on behalf of the family. Some claimants were declined on the basis they had no
households of their own when they were evicted. These were individuals who
had families co-existing within the premises of extended families; hence their
claims were integrated with those of the extended families they fell under. Such
individuals who were denied restitution strongly believe they were dispossessed
of benefits that were rightfully theirs. It is upon the basis of such rare cases that
hypothesis I: that the Ithala people have a poor understanding ofthe meaning
oftourism is accepted.
The respondents who were denied access to monetary restitution feel that the
tourism beneficiaries were not properly identified. Such facts challenge the
acceptance of hypothesis 2: that there is no clearly defined criteria and strategy
used by authorities to determine the benefiCiaries oftourism benefits, but such
respondents are too few in numbers to make a significant impact to results of the
study.
104
4.7
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES
In any given situation variables occurring at similar time frames are bound to
influence one another. The same notion applies to human beings. How an
individual perceives life usually depends on various factors such as
environment, religious background, level of education, and so on.
In this study most of the respondents were drawn from a similar environment,
though they differed in terms of personal attributes like level of education,
monthly income, et cetera.
It is quite observable that the perceptions of
respondents towards tourism benefits in the Ithala Game Reserve do not differ
significantly.
The reason behind similarity of perceptions of respondents is probably that the
respondents come from a similar background and have been subjected to similar
information. The concept or notion of tourism benefits is relatively new to
many of the local community members, including the Trust.. However, a
significant majority of the respondents still remain positive that tourism is going
to yield benefits, though to many respondents benefits are not clearly
understood, hence the acceptance of hypothesis 1: that the Ithala people have a
poor understanding ofthe meaning oftourism is accepted. Such positivism does
not take away the fact that Ithala people still feel left out of decision-making,
which is why hypothesis 3: that the Ithala people do not participate actively in
deciSion-making concerning tourism benefits is rejected.
105
FIGURE 4.7: KNOWLEDGE OF TOURISM BENEFITS BY GENDER
25.0%
20.0%
15.0%
ft---------
10.0%
_Male
DFemale
5.0%
0.0%
S agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagreee
$. Disagree
Responses
There is no significant relationship between the gender of respondents and their
perceptions with regard to the availability of benefits resulting from tourism in
the Ithala Game Reserve. Both genders agree that tourism yields benefits. The
only shortcomings are that those benefits are not readily accessible to everyone.
For a long time the Ithala community has been deprived access to these benefits,
which is why hypothesis 4: that the level ofaccessibility to tourism resources is
relatively low among the Ithala community members is not supported, but the
community is aware that there are benefits of tourism in their area. It should be
pointed out that the unavailability of resources has affected the feminine gender,
because males tended to migrate to urban areas where work was available. Such
migration led to male absenteeism, which meant females had to fend for
households all by themselves. In addition, males have tended to respond to
inquiries in terms ofwhat their spouses perceived as important.
106
There is no significant relationship between age of respondents and their
involvement in decision-making regarding Ithala issues. All age groups vary
with regard to whether they have been involved in decision-making or not.
Most of the respondents disagree that they have been involved in decisionmaking hence hypothesis 3: that the Ithala people do not participate actively in
decision-making concerning tourism benefits is not supported. People attended
mass meetings where they were told about the latest developments in land
restitution and the special arrangement with regard to Ithala, where the local
community received money instead of going back to Ithala.
To some
community members attending meetings means they were involved in decisionmaking, on the other hand the majority denies any fonn of involvement on the
basis that they were given ready-made decisions.
FIGURE 4.8:
KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRUST BY AGE OF
RESPONDENTS
20.0%
.,
18.0%
i
20
--j
----;
16.0%
1--'
14.0%
13%
-
12.0%
10.0%
-,
~
UttIe
8.0%
6.%
6.0%
I
3%
r
I
0.0%
21·25
n
26-30
-
?
r;
I",
..'"
4
4.0%
2.0%
l.-verymUch
OAdequate
J%
3
-
36-40
41--45
Age of respondenls
107
h
J
,
31-35
r-"
4
3%
46-50
.1
>51
10N0 Knowledge
The age of respondents did not significantly interfere with the amount of
information the respondent had about the Trust. All age groups were aware of
the existence of the Community Trust, but their knowledge was very limited.
The age group of 21 t030 years was the age group with the least knowledge.
This may be attributed to the fact that most claimants were senior citizens who
were evicted from Ithala 30 years ago, before the younger generation was
conceived. There is also a general trend among youth that issues related to land
ownership is solely a domain of adult males, who are the custodians of almost
every commodity. Youth is therefore less interested on land issues, hence their
representation is somewhat limited.
Another important factor is that most respondents were aged above forty, so
they had a larger chance to air their perceptions on the subject. Whether young
or old, most of the respondents still feel that the access to tourism benefits and
resources is minimal hence hypothesis 4: that the level of accessibility to
tourism resources is relatively low among the Ithala community members is
rejected.
Although the majority of the Ithala people have a low standard of education
(formal schooling), the respondents confirmed that they have some information
about Trust Fund. It is noteworthy that their knowledge goes only as far as the
existence of the Trust Fund. The manner in which the Trust Fund operates is
not clear to most people. Another limiting factor towards understanding of
operation of the Trust is that the beneficiaries are scattered over a large area, so
it is not easy to experience the functions of the Trust on a daily basis.
10&
However, the respondents are full of hope that tourism will deliver the promised
benefits, such as job opportunities, better life, and many more so hypothesis 1:
that the Ithala people have a poor understanding of the meaning of tourism is
rejected. It is also worth mentioning that all education levels are exposed to
similar information, so they do not differ significantly on the awareness about
Trust Fund.
FIGURE 4.9:
LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRUST BY
EMPLOYMENT
18.0%
~-%:;------------------,
16%
16%
16.0%
14.0%
12.0%
10.0%
%
DVery much
8.0%
.Adequate
DLittJe
6.0%
ONo infomlation
4.0%
3
2.0%
0.0%
Self
employed
State
Private
Unemployed
Student
Employment status of respondents
One would expect the unemployed people to have more knowledge about the
Trust since it promises to have an alternative solution to problems related to
unemployment.
The respondents' type of employment had no significant
relationship with their knowledge about the Ithala Community Trust Fund.
109
Every sector of the society had similar views about the Trust Fund irrespective
of who their employer was.
All Ithala community members expect to reap
benefits from tourism development initiatives that are currently taking place in
Ithala area, so their perceptions about tourism are positive. Such development
initiatives promise to provide people with better job opportunities and stable
income that will change the situation of the Ithala community for the better.
FIGURE 4.10: INVOLVEMENT IN DECISION-MAKING BY LEVEL OF
EDUCATION
15.0%
21%
20.0%
15.0%
13%
DAgree
eutral
10.0%
.Oisagreee
os. Disagree
5.0%
0.0%
..\-db,!,,,,
>std 8
Std
to
Post std to
POs'std 10
Post.1d to
urtdiCate
diplom.
degree
Level of education of respondents
Respondents from all education levels indicated that they disagree with the
notion that the community is involved in decision-making concerning tourism in
Ithala Game Reserve. It could be generally expected that people with a higher
education level would be more involved in discussions relating to tourism
development in Ithala, but this is not the case.
110
Respondents with a higher education level are exposed to the same information
about tourism as any member of Ithala community. The reason why there is a
larger percentage of respondents with an education level below Standard 8 who
maintain that the community is not involved in decision-making is that there
were many respondents from this education level (>Standard 8).
FIGURE 4.11:
ACCESS TO THE TRUST FUND BY MONTHLY
INCOME
14.0%
13%
12.0%
%
10.0%
8.0%
[]Agree
.Neutral
[JOisagreee
6.0%
CS. Disagree
4.0%
3
2.0%
0.0%
<R500
R501·
R1001·
R1501·
R2001·
R10Q0
R1500
R2000
R2500
Respondents' monlhly income
>R:lOOO
Monthly income of the respondents does not interfere with their access to the
Trust Fund. All monthly income categories have similar access to the Trust
Fund. Interestingly the majority of respondents claim to have no access to the
Trust Fund and other resources, hence hypothesis 4: that the level of
accessibility to tourism resources is relatively low among the lthala community
111
members is rejected.
They have only received compensations for eviction,
which amounted to R30000 per household. This amount was usually allocated
to the head of the household; the other members of the family would accept
whatever amount the heir was willing to share.
Such arrangement usually
sidelined the feminine gender that is usually not considered to be heirs. Taking
into account that most households are sustained by females, it is quite
reasonable that they should have been at the same level as males.
4.8
CONCLUSION
It is quite noticeable that, despite the fact that the respondents had varied
personal attributes, their perceptions of tourism related activities and governance
did not differ significantly.
The community has been exposed to similar
information, and they seem to have developed similar interests about tourism
benefits. The fact that the respondents had little information tended to channel
them into a common direction of thought and perception hence their views
tended to be identical.
It has been evident also that the eviction process affected both males and
females alike. That is why the views of both genders were similar. The delayed
effect of eviction tended to inflict more on females, who were usually left to
man the households while men migrated to urban areas in search of job
opportunities. The area that is now inhabited by the lthala community has
relatively few schools. Children have to travel long distances to get education.
These children very often drop out of school because of starvation and a less
conducive learning environment. Tourism benefits brought a new hope that
people were going to reap the benefits of their land.
112
Until the period when the Ithala community will have sound knowledge about
tourism development initiatives, and also become part and parcel of decisionmaking, mistrust and false hopes will, it seems, continue to haunt this
community. The high unemployment and lack of basic infrastructure forces
people to opt for any form of survival skill, which very often results in the
escalation of crime. Tourism seems to be one of the few beacons of hopes in the
lives ofIthala people.
113
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 5 rounds off the study by giving an overview of what the study entails
and has found. It generally looks at how the objectives were achieved, and also
reflects whether the hypotheses were accepted or rejected. For the achievement
of its aim this chapter is subdivided into the following sub-headings: summary,
general conclusion, recommendations, and conclusion.
5.2
SUMMARY
The study was divided into five chapters, introduction chapter, theoretical
background chapter, study area chapter, fmdings and interpretation chapter, and
conclusion and recommendation chapter. AIl these chapters had specific roles
to play in the justification and completion of the study.
Chapter I highlighted the orientation of the study. It did this by introducing the
concepts that would be dealt with in the study. The concepts that were prevalent
in the study were defined and contextualised. Such concepts included tourism,
eviction, previously disadvantaged communities, etc. The orientation chapter
also presented objectives of the study, which provided guidelines of how the
study should be conducted.
Furthermore, this chapter also provided the
11.1
statements of hypotheses upon which most of the findings of the study were
based.
Chapter 1 also provided the methodology of data collection, analysis and
interpretation of data. The sets of questionnaires proved to be quite effective as
a technique of collecting data.
The computer programme like Statistical
Package for the Social Science (SPSS) was appropriate in data analysis. It was
through this computer programme (SPSS) that frequency and cross-tabulation
tables were formulated.
These tables were also useful in the graphical
presentation of data for purposes of analysing and drawing of inferences from
data.
Another important chapter in the study was chapter 2, which provided
alternative paradigms and frameworks to the study by reflecting what other
scholars have researched and concluded in relation to the topic at hand. Among
other important things, this chapter provided the possible reasons of eviction
hitherto not adequately investigated. People can be evicted from their respective
lands for various reasons for instance if they inhabit the area that has been
pronounced as special preservation area such as wildlife sanctuary, biosphere
reserve, World Heritage site, et cetera.
Furthermore, chapter 2 provided scenarios or theoretical frameworks that have
provoked tourist resentment. The provocations include physical presence of
tourist, foreign ownership and employment, etc. In any community where there
is scarcity of job opportunities, local communities tend to have hard feelings
when the limited job opportunities are taken by foreigners. The studied Ithala
scenario was even worse, the local community forfeited their estates, which
were their source of income. The whole atmosphere of eviction boiled down to
racial tension where the victims who happened to be black developed hard
feelings against the new owners of their land and tourist who happened to be
white.
Chapter 2 also explored factors that limit the effectiveness of tourism, these
limiting factors include the limited involvement of local communities in
decision-making, complete lack of knowledge and understanding of what
tourism really is. Such information was quite relevant to this study, because the
Ithala community has very little knowledge about tourism, and they seem to
have been less involved in tourism decision making.
The solutions to the above-mentioned challenges were also provided.
Such
solutions involved the revision of government's policies such that they provide a
number of opportunities involving previously neglected groups, like operation
of tourism infrastructure, establishment of small guest houses or bed and
breakfast, et cetera.
The study would not have been complete without the physical setting chapter,
which gave the actual map location of the study area, which is Ithala. This area
is' situated at latitude 28°00'-28°25'S and longitude 32°25'-32°30'E. It is 65 km
north east of Vryheid with the annual rainfall of about 2 000 mm.
The
temperature in this area ranges from 12-20°C Minimum to 20-30°C maximum.
Such temperature is ideal for sightseeing activities.
Ithala was found to incorporate an astonishing variety of habitats ranging from
grasslands, forests and mangroves. This diversity gives rise to a multiplicity of
11/l
fauna and flora, unrivalled anywhere in South Africa. It supports an abundance
of hippo, as well as black and white rhino, buffalo, water buck, kudu, nyala,
impala, duiker, and reed buck, among a host of other species. The area is also
famous for its bird life, which includes thousands of water birds such as
flamingos, pelicans, herons, ducks, geese and storks (Natal Parks Board: Visitor
Guide, 2003).
One of the key chapters of the study was the chapter presenting of findings
chapter.
In this chapter the data was presented both in qualitative and
quantitative fonus. Figures and
table~
were used to give more clarity to data
presented. The demographic characteristics of data were fIrst to be analysed.
This preference of analysis was done to give the nature and background of the
respondents, so that they could be understood on a wider scope.
The
respondents differed widely with regards to demographic qualities.
The presentation of findings chapter also looked at the perceptions and
expectations of Ithala community as well as the Trust. Ithala people had high
hopes that tourism was going to yield more job-opportunities. The relationships
that exist between variables were also looked at. Ithala people seem to have
been exposed to similar knowledge about tourism, hence their views tend to be
identical. The fact that respondents differed widely in their personal attributes
did not significantly affect the manner in which respondents viewed tourism.
The findings chapter also provided the basis upon which the statements of
hypotheses could be assessed. That is why this chapter is considered as the core
and one of the most important chapters in the study.
117
The study was completed with a concluding chapter which gave a general
overview ofwhat the study was all about and what it had achieved. This chapter
also gave general conclusions of the study, and also suggested recommendations
where applicable.
5.3
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
The study focus was mainly to establish the perceptions and participation of
Ithala people towards Ithala Game Reserve when they were evicted from their
ancestral land about 30 years ago. This rather broad focus was narrowed down
into measurable objectives.
The objectives included among other things
investigating the perceptions and expectations of the Ithala people about tourism
related to the Ithala Game Reserve.
5.3.1 Achievement of objectives through hvpothesis evaluation
It had been hypothesised that Ithala people had negative perceptions about
tourism. This hypothesis was rejected on the basis that more than half of the
respondents (51%) from the community members agreed that there are benefits
accrued through tourism in the Ithala Game Reserve. Respondents are still
expecting to gain from these benefits. The only question is when and how will
people in the study area sufficiently benefit from tourism? Otherwise people are
hopeful that tourism is going to deliver the promised benefits.
Another equally important objective was to identify the criterion that was used
to identify the authentic beneficiaries of tourism resources. The respondents
from the Trust Committee stated that beneficiaries were identified through a
11~
screening process whereby an individual appeared before the Trust members
and Ithala elders. In some cases people were cross-examined so as to verify
their authenticity, so hypothesis 2: that there is no clearly defined criteria and
strategy used by authorities to determine the beneficiaries of tourism benefits
was rejected. The beneficiaries were mainly identified so as to provide them
with monetary restitution to compensate for loss of land 30 years ago.
According to respondents from NCS the beneficiaries are the people who were
evicted from Ithala area.
The level of participation of the Ithala community in decision-making is very
low. More than half of respondents (46%) disagreed that the community is
involved in decision-making, such conditions led to the acceptance of
hypothesis 3: that the Ithala people do not participate actively in decisionmaking concerning tourism benefits. As stated earlier, the people of Ithala have
very limited information concerning tourism and its benefits, obviously their
contribution to decision-making can be expected to be minimal.
Some
respondents agreed that they had attended meetings where tourism issues were
discussed.
During such meetings the respondents maintained the observer
status, while the future of their land was being decided.
A person who is used to living under humid conditions of Ithala Game Reserve
would find it much harder to adapt to the dry conditions of Louwsburg. It is
also noteworthy that when people were evicted, they did not actually choose
their new destinations. This led to further movements whereby people were
then looking for more convenient places to live. Such movements were also
necessitated by the fact that Ithala people were agrarian.
They primarily
depended on subsistence farming and gathering. When the families began to
llQ
move to better environments, the families lost contact and the next of kin
became distant acquaintances. There are many other disturbances that were
experienced after the eviction of the Ithala community.
5.3.2 Community awareness about the Trust Fund
There is no debate about peoples' awareness about the Trust Fund. Respondents
are aware of the existence of the Trust, but their knowledge is very limited. As
pointed out earlier people find it hard to access the Trust Fund and resources
there of, hence hypothesis 4: that the level ofaccessibility to tourism resources
is relatively low among the Ithala community members was rejected, this is
mainly because the Trust Fund members are still adapting to their newly
appointed responsibilities.
5.3.3 Community access to tourism facilities
The arrangement for people to benefit from tourism is still in its infancy stage.
For this reason it is possible to understand why 46 percent of respondents
disagreed that they have any access to Ithala Community Trust Fund, it was on
the basis of such information that hypothesis 4: that the level of accessibility to
tourism resources is relatively low among the Ithala community members was
rejected.
Tourism resources are available in the Ithala area, the only
shortcoming facing people is shortage of knowledge of how these resources can
be accessed.
The Itha1a community is also scattered over a large area. Sending and receiving
a message to and from the beneficiaries is a mammoth task. Electronic media
1')1)
seem ideal for a task of such nature, but then the people of Ithala still lack access
to telecommunication infrastructure. It is hoped that the very same tourism
benefits shall redeem the situation of shortage of infrastructure. It should be
stated also that access to any resource is strictly controlled. Any person who
wishes to access the resources should firstly get authorisation. Such control is
done to limit any form of degradation to the environment that may result from
human action.
The mere fact that Ithala people still await the promised tourism benefits does
not take away the fact that they are still bitter about the eviction incident. Many
respondents alluded they would rather go back to their land if an opportunity
avails itself. Some respondents still adhere to the notion that through eviction,
they were despised in favour of animals. However, Ithala people can begin to
accept the situation if they are given first priority when job opportunities are
available.
5.4
RECOMMENDAnONS
In any given problematic situation, the basic step towards providing effective
solutions is to understand the cause and the nature of the problem. Tourism in
Ithala cannot be understood in isolation. It should be understood within the
context of all previously neglected communities, therefore some of its solutions
need to be drawn from the already existing governmental frameworks of societal
rehabilitation such as Reconstruction and Development Program (ANC, 1994),
the Tourism White Paper (DEAT, 1996) and others.
1")1
5.4.1 Community involvement in decision-making
Over the past few years there has been an outcry from many previously
disadvantaged communities that the local people were never consulted when the
decision concerning their wellbeing was taken, and this was the case of the
Ithala people. To address the issue of non-involvement of local people, it is
recommended that both KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Services and the
Ithala Community Trust Fund Committee must maximise the involvement of
people in decision-making. This means that meetings must be held more often
including community members.
The people of Ithala should feel that decisions that are taken contribute towards
their betterment. Such a situation can only be possible when decisions that are
taken reflect the will of the people. Failure to involve the Ithala community in
decision-making will result in people feeling more alienated from their own
affairs.
5.4.2 Tourism awareness
The involvement of people in decision-making lies heavily on how much
knowledge people have.
This means therefore, lthala people must be
empowered with tourism knowledge. Tourism awareness strategies that need to
be employed include disseminating tourism brochures. These brochures need to
be written mostly in the language that the local communities understand (in this
case Zulu). These brochures should be readily available in public places like
museum and information centres. These museums and information centres are
not yet available, so they have to be constructed where the people are.
1')')
One of the most effective tools for addressing the challenges that are related to
tourism development in the Ithala area is tourism education and training.
Provision of tourism education can help to create tourism awareness amongst
the Ithala community. Such a notion cannot be confined to the Ithala area alone,
but is applicable to all of South Africa.
The White Paper "The Development and Promotion of Tourism in South
Africa" (DEAT, 1996) states that while the tourism industry has tremendous
potential to create jobs, the government recognises that appropriate skills and
experience are necessary to facilitate employment growth as well as
international competitiveness. With the projected staffing needs of the tourism
industry and the current lack of physical and financial capacity to deliver
education and training, the industry will increasingly be faced by a critical
shortage of skills. Tourism education and training is one of the fundamental
pillars of development of a new responsible tourism in South Africa. Such
ideology needs to be adopted in the Ithala context.
Tourism has to be offered at local schools as a subject. It should be taught
alongside subjects like home economics, hospitality management, etc. Tourism
education will ensure that young people have information about tourism and can
easily identify job opportunities, which are still unknown in the Ithala area.
Teaching of tourism will also ensure that values of the Ithala community will be
transmitted from one generation to the other. A tourism curriculum needs to be
established such that it complies with the industry requirements.
Such
curriculum establishment requires the involvement of the private sector in
education and training.
Special tourism education and training programmes for Ithala community
members who may wish to participate in tourism enterprises need to be
established. Such programmes include introductory and bridging courses, where
community members from all age groups will be taught the basic skills needed
in the tourism industry. This programme must be funded by Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism and KZN NCS.
One of the alternative skills training that has to be administered to the Ithala
community is a transportation service. Ithala people need to be encouraged to
play an active role in transportation service where they will directly interact with
tourists while transporting them to various tourism destinations.
The taxi
transport sector needs to be incorporated into tourism industry and taxi operators
need to be empowered with hospitality skills so that they can be competent in
managing tourists.
5.4.3 Provision of infrastructure
One of the practical ways of distributing tourism benefits to the Ithala
community is provision of infrastructure. According to the Tourism White
Paper (DEAT, 1996), the infrastructure for tourism is critically important and
wide-ranging. It includes telecommunications, rail and road networks, signage,
information centres, convention and conference facilities, etc.
The well being of the Ithala community it is expected to improve once they have
reliable tourism infrastructure and this community can then start to be selfsufficient. The improvement of infrastructure will allow for accessibility to the
1'J.1
Ithala community and improve relationships between tourists and the host
community. It should be pointed out that the suggested provision of
infrastructure does not necessarily need to be within the boundaries of the Ithala
Game Reserve, but should be spread to areas which were occupied by the Ithala
community after eviction.
5.4.4 Knowledge dissemination
To ensure that all Ithala tourism beneficiaries are at the same wavelength with
regard to tourism resource accessibility, the Trust Committee must make the
Memorandum of Understanding easily accessible to the Ithala community. This
legal document must be translated into the Zulu language, the Ithala people can
understand. In addition, tourism brochures must be in Zulu so that people can
fully understand what tourism entails. People will be more involved and start to
access the resources as soon as they become aware ofpolicies and procedures.
Open communication channels have to be opened and strengthened between
KZNNCS, the Ithala Community Trust Fund Committee and the public. People
should feel free to access any KZN NCS office should they have an interest in
tourism and nature conservation. Transparency should be seen to exist so that
people can be at ease about their benefits. This implies that meetings must be
held regularly.
5.4.5 Remuneration of Trustees
The Trust Fund Committee should also be given more clearly defined job
description, this will help to focus their attention to a specific direction. It may
also eliminate possible overlapping of responsibilities whereby the members
might end up shifting responsibilities.
The Committee must also be gIven
monthly salaries so as to encourage them to do their jobs more efficiently.
Public meetings need to be held as often as possible. These meetings should be
rotated to the venues where people are, that is to say meetings need to be rotated
to areas in and around Louwsburg. Such rotation should be done to ensure that
everyone has access to information. It will also familiarise the Trust to the
people. Such familiarity will then provide a convenient atmosphere for effective
communication.
5.4.6 Youth development programmes
Youth tourism and cultural tourism should be encouraged, so that people can
identify tourism attractions where they are. This may help to prevent flocking
of people into ecologically sensitive areas.
Through cultural tourism local
people can develop self-employment and tend to depend more on themselves.
Once people start generating income, they will become more self-sufficient and
begin to let go of the bitterness of eviction.
Some Ithala tourism benefits should be put aside for youth development
programmes. The Tourism White Paper (DEAT, 1996) recognises that young
people have a critical role to play in the growth and development of the tourism
industry.
The government should consider establishing special programmes
aimed at addressing the needs of the youth, in particular to address backlogs in
training, job creation and recreation.
Such programmes include the
encouragement and development of youth travel where young people should be
126
encouraged to travel. Such government initiatives should be incorporated into
Ithala youth development program so that Ithala develops at the same pace with
the rest of historically disadvantaged areas of South Africa. Involvement of
youth in tourism related initiatives would ensure that tourism is transmitted from
one generation to the other.
The Tourism White Paper further states that special prices for youth travel and
accommodation should be encouraged as well as the development of youth
hostels, exchange programmes, summer camps, etc. As pointed out earlier, the
encouragement of youth tourism will not only benefit the Ithala community, but
the South Africa youth at large.
The Ithala youth can be empowered through the creation of summer jobs in the
tourism industry to expose youth at an early age to the travel and tourism
industry. This could include for example internship at hotels and restaurants,
tour guides, trackers, and hospitality ambassadors at airports, points of interest
and tourist attractions. The engagement of youth through the participation of the
Trust members and the community will create a sense of ownership to all
stakeholders in the Ithala Game Reserve facility.
The Ithala management authorities should establish an effective co-ordination
forum for tourism training and education, where all institutions involved in
Ithala tourism are represented. Such a forum will be an avenue for discussions
and decision-making processes, where the concerns of the Ithala community
with regards to tourism is involved. The Ithala authorities can also apply for the
Sector Education and Training Authority (SETA) funding to get these initiatives
of the ground.
127
5.4.7 Marketing and promotion oflthala Game Reserve
The geographical location of Ithala makes it accessible to tourists.
Such
credentials need to be marketed through utilisation of modem computer and
communications technologies. This marketing and promotion of tourism should
be spear-headed by local communities so that all the benefits that will be
accrued will be channelled directly to the Ithala community.
Another equally important aspect of tourism that needs to be strengthened is
safety and security. The number of tourists who visit Ithala can increase if they
are certain that safety and security is guaranteed. The message of guaranteed
safety and security should be incorporated into the marketing and promotion of
tourism in Ithala area.
Local communities also have to be encouraged to
safeguard the experiences of the tourist against any form of criminal activity that
may be targeted at tourists.
It is an undeniable fact that some areas of Ithala are ecologically sensitive,
therefore any form of development in such areas should be administered with
great care. To ensure that environmental hazards are avoided in all new tourism
projects, the Integrated Environmental Management should be conducted. In
such areas that are ecologically sensitive, sustainable and responsible tourism
development should be promoted and encouraged, inter alia by means of
incentives to private enterprises and communities (DEAT, 1996).
l?R
5.4.8 Creation of cultural village
To provide employment for the local community, a cultural village needs to be
established in the area that has been earmarked for development in the Ithala
area. The local community can use this village for various purposes. They can
sell their products from this village. Their products can even include local
dances and songs.
A curio shop can also be established where traditional
artefacts can be sold to tourists.
It became evident during the course of the study that women play a major role in
the sustenance of the Ithala community. Male absenteeism often forces women
to take care of their respective families, but these women are not properly
represented in the development structures. There is a need to recognise the
efforts ofwomen in the development of the Ithala community. Such recognition
can only be enforced through the involvement of women in the management
structures.
Women, especially in rural communities, have a particularly important role to
play in the development of responsible tourism. The employment of women can
be a fundamental determinant of the development impacts of the tourism
industry. In a survey conducted among women farm workers in the Lowveld, it
was demonstrated that a strong correlation exists between salaries and
household welfare among employed women.
The success of tourism lies primarily in mutual co-operation between all role
players. The employment of local people and their involvement in decisionmaking will solve many problems.
Tourism benefits must be distributed
l"JQ
equally. Until the above mentioned happens, there will always be an outcry
about broken promises.
5.5
CONCLUSION
As in any other society, the eviction of people from their ancestral land was and
continues to be painful experience in the lives of the Ithala people. About 500
households were evicted, leaving behind their arable land, crops in the fields,
plenty of natural resources, like herbs and wild fruits, etc. These households
were translocated to areas in and around Louwsburg. There was no explanation
that was given to people as to why were they being evicted, so the people ended
up concluding that they were despised in favour of a pine plantation and
animals. The idea of tourism was never mentioned during the time of eviction,
so people have little or no idea about tourism development initiatives. The only
solution to solve this challenge of lack of tourism knowledge is community
involvement in decision-making.
Although the tourism issue in Ithala Game Reserve is still clouded with lack of
information to the local community, it is hoped that in the near future people
will gradually understand tourism and its related development. The outcry from
local people that they are not thoroughly consulted when tourism decisions are
taken, needs to be given serious attention. Once people feel that their voice is
given enough respect, they will begin to accept the intricacies of tourism and
therefore begin to search for lucrative development initiatives which will be
manned by them. Such state of affairs will bring prosperity and social stability
amongst the Ithala community.
no
Ithala Game Reserve is doubtless one ofthe spectacular destinations of Africa; it
needs to be handled with care, so that it can provide optimum benefits in the
world of tourism. All development initiatives need the involvement of local
people so that they can learn the skills required in the field of tourism.
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APPENDICES
139
UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND
CENTRE FOR RECREATION AND TOURISM
RESEARCH PROJECT QUESTIONNAIRE
TOPIC:
ITHALA GAME RESERVE AS A TOURIST DESTINATION:
COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS AND PARTICIPATION
Dear RespondentPlease read the questions carefully and respond honestly and to the best of your
feeling. I pledge as a researcher that the information will be treated with
strictest confidentiality. For this reason do not write anything that will reveal
your identity, e.g. name or surname etc.
This questionnaire does not elicit any right or wrong answers. It all depends on
how the questions or statements apply to you personally.
It should not take more than 5 minutes of your precious time to fill in this
questionnaire. Your unselfish co-operation in this matter is of utmost
importance!
Thanking you in advance for your willingness to participate
140
APPENDIX A
A Questionnaire to the local community
Ithala Game Reserve tourism benefits: Do they answer relocation questions?
SECTION A: BIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
1.
Gender
I-=~:=eal:::m-=-~::-e------I--:;:,-:- 2.
Age
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
>51
3.
1,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Marital status
Single
Married
Widowed
Divorced
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Level of education
>mde 10
Grade 10-12
Tertiary education
illiterate
1.
2.
3.
4.
141
5.
Employment
Self-emoloyed
Government
Private sector
Unemoloved
Student
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SECTION B: PERCEPTIONS AND EXPECTAnONS
6.
Use these ratings to evaluate the following statements: Strongly agree=l,
Agree=2, Disagree=3, Undecided=4, Strongly disagree=5
1.
2.
There are many benefits which result from tourism at Ithala
The community is involved in tourism related matters
The community has adequate information about tourism in
Ithala
Manv job oooortunities have resulted from tourism in Ithala
Tourism development in Ithala has led to provision of
facilities of education, health, sanitation, housing etc.
It can be generally accepted that relocation of people from
Ithala Game Reserve was a blessing
Because of tourism benefits, people are no longer bitter
about the relocation incident and its impacts
7.
What do you expect to gain from tourism in Ithala Game Reserve?
Emplovment
Infrastructure
Other
8.
I Yes
1.
2.
3.
Have you attended any meeting related to tourism?
11.
142
3.
4.
5.
!No
9.
\2.
Have you ever been involved in the decision-making concerning tourism
benefits in Ithala Game Reserve?
10.
How often do you utilise the following resources found within Ithala
Game Reserve?
Mark using the following ratings: Very often=l, Often-2, Occasinally=3,
SeldoDl=4,~ever=5
1.
2.
3.
Game lodge
Chalets
Swimming eQuipment
11.
Do you know any family who depends on tourism for living?
Know many
Know few
Do not know any
1.
2.
3.
12.1 Do tourisDl benefits have an impact in Ithala game Reserve and the
surrounding area?
143
4.
5.
12.2 if yes, what impact do you think tourism benefits in ltahla Game Reserve
have on the following:
Mark using the ratings: Strongly agree=1, Agree=2, Disagree=3,
Undecided=4, Strongly disagree=5
2.
1.
3.
4.
Employment
Income
Cultural awareness
Morality
Crime
Education
13.
General Comment
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144
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5.
APPENDIXB
An interview questionnaire directed to Ithala Game Reserve KZN Nature
Conservation Service.
. Ithala Game Reserve tourism benefits. Do they answer relocation questions?
. SECTION A: BIOGRAPffiC INFORMATION
1. Gender
I~~~e~~~~-e------I~~c:...:- ---i
2.
Age
21-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
>51
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3. Marital status
Sincle
Married
Widowed
Divorced
1.
2.
3.
4.
4. Level of education
>grade 10
Grade 10-12
Tertiarv education
1.
2.
3.
145
I illiterate
5. Employment
Self-employed
Government
Private sector
Unemployed
Student
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. Position held
Director
Manager
Supervisor
Officer
Other
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SECTION B: INVOLVEMENT OF NCS IN TOURISM DEVELOPMENT OF
ITHALA GAME RESERVE AND SURROUNDING AREAS.
7. About 12 years ago, people oflthala Game Reserve were relocated to areas
in and around Louwsburg, are you aware of such an incidence?
8. Approximately how many families were relocated?
<50
50-70
60-90
70-100
100<
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
146
9. What was the motive behind the relocation ofthese people?
Conservation
Development
Politics
Agriculture
Other
10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
where are these people located now?
Louwburg
Corronation
IDobane
Vryheid
Other
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
11
Are there any strategies that have been developed by KZN Nature
Conservation to ensure that relocated communities have access to Ithala Game
Reserve?
If yes, what are some ofthose strategies?·
12.
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In your knowledge who are the beneficiaries?
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147
14. Is the local community involved in the decision-making regarding the
distnbution oftourism benefits?
14.1 If yes, in which way?
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