Views of God and Consequences for Behavior
Nikolette Lipsey, Gabrielle Pogge, James Shepperd, & Wendi Miller
Abstract
What are the consequences of believing in loving God versus a
punitive God? Belief in a punitive God may prompt good behavior
because people fear punishment (Supernatural Punisher
Hypothesis) or aggressive behavior because a punitive God
models how to behave (Punitive Model Hypothesis). Belief in a
loving God may prompt good behavior because of the possibility
of rewards or because a loving God models for good behavior
(Positive Agent Hypothesis). We tested these hypotheses
longitudinally and cross-sectionally. Adolescents (N=1,162)
reported the extent of their beliefs in a loving God and a punitive
God and reported their engagement in prosocial and antisocial
behaviors. We found no support for the Supernatural Punisher
Hypothesis or the Punitive Model Hypothesis; belief in a punitive
God was unrelated to behavior. We found consistent support for
the Positive Agent Hypothesis; belief in a loving God
corresponded with reports of less aggressive and more prosocial
behavior.
Competing Hypotheses
Recent research documents differences in how people view
God, with some people viewing God as punitive and some
people viewing God as loving. The consequences of these
different views of God are unclear. We gleaned from the
literature three hypotheses regarding how different views of
God may correspond to behavior.
Supernatural Punisher Hypothesis
People are particularly sensitive to potentially negative
supernatural consequences of their behavior, i.e.,
punishment (Johnson & Krüger,2004). Accordingly, greater
endorsement of a punitive God will presumably correspond
with reports of greater prosocial behavior and less antisocial
behavior.
Punitive Model Hypothesis
People who believe in a punitive God may infer how to treat
others from their beliefs. Accordingly, greater endorsement
of a punitive God will presumably correspond with reports of
less prosocial behavior and greater antisocial behavior.
Positive Agent Hypothesis
People who believe in a loving God may believe that good
behavior will be rewarded (paralleling the Supernatural
Punisher Hypothesis) or may infer that a loving God models
how people should behave towards others (paralleling the
Punitive Model Hypothesis). Either way, belief in a loving
God will presumably correspond with greater prosocial
behavior and less antisocial behavior).
Regression Results
Results
Separate Regressions
Loving God
Outcomes (Measured at
Time 2 and 3)
Time 1 Time 3
Antisocial Outcomes
Indirect Aggression
-.122** -.048
Direct Aggression
-.101* -.060
Prosocial Outcomes
Everyday Helping
.155** .141**
Religious Charity
.395** .387**
Secular Charity
.306** .190**
Religious Volunteering
.295** .343**
Secular Volunteering
.194** .184**
Forgiveness of Others
.158** .165**
Punitive God
Time 1 Time 3
.014
.066
.034
.077
-.012
-.005
-.046
.009
-.057
-.040
.030
.006
-.034
.028
-.034
-.086*
Simultaneous Regressions
Loving God
Outcomes (Measured at
Time 2 and 3)
Time 1 Time 3
Antisocial Outcomes
Indirect Aggression
-.124** -.049
Direct Aggression
-.103* -.060
Prosocial Outcomes
Everyday Helping
.157** .141**
Religious Charity
.397** .387**
Secular Charity
.308** .190**
Religious Volunteering
.299** .342**
Secular Volunteering
.198** .183**
Forgiveness of Others
.158** .164**
Punitive God
Time 1 Time 3
.013
.067
.035
.074
-.010
.001
-.043
.011
-.054
-.041
.031
.013
-.031
.033
-.032
-.082
Note: *p < .01, **p < .001. All numbers reflect standardized regression
coefficients after controlling for social desirability concerns..
Looking at the analyses collectively, the data provide no
support for the Supernatural Punisher Hypothesis or the
Punitive Model Hypothesis. Belief in a punitive God was
unrelated to physical or verbal aggression and unrelated to
our measures of prosocial behavior. Conversely, we found
strong support for the Positive Agent Hypothesis.
Specifically, endorsement of a loving God corresponded with
more prosocial behavior and less antisocial behavior.
Discussion
It is noteworthy that few participants endorsed a punitive
God. The vast majority of our participants viewed God as
highly loving and non-punitive (48.9%) or as highly loving
and moderately punitive (32.6%). Virtually no participants
viewed God as highly punitive. Thus, the lack of support for
the Supernatural Punisher Hypothesis and the Punitive
Model Hypothesis may have arisen from the fact that our
sample generally did not view God as particularly punitive.
Future Directions
Future research should attempt to test how views of God as
a positive model versus the potential for supernatural reward
operate to increase prosocial behavior and decrease
antisocial behavior among religious adolescents.
Presented at the 17th annual meeting of the
Society for Personality and Social
Psychology in San Diego, CA.
Nikolette Lipsey: [email protected]
Gabrielle Pogge: [email protected]
Graduate researchers,
University of Florida