Session 3: Understanding
Motivation
The session contents:
The Significance of Motivation.
Motivation Theory: Human Need & Satisfaction.
Outcomes: Expectancy Theory.
The Psychological Contract.
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The aims of this session are to:
To stress the linkage between motivations,
needs, and desires.
To highlight the connection between
outcomes, rewards and motivation.
Identify the relationship between motivation
and psychological contract.
Recognize the limitations of any one approach
to motivation.
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1- The Significance of Motivation:
The concept of motivation addresses:
what leads people to work well and
hard, to persist and overcome
obstacles, to engage with and be
enthusiastic about their work.
Example 3.1
page - 48
Activity 3.1
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It is helpful to think about your own
motivation by focus on what is called
Critical incident analysis:
Analyzing particular events from the
past to help explain and/or predict
reactions, behaviors or opinions
related to things that are happening
currently or might happen in the future.
Activity 3.2
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2- Motivation Theory:
Human needs and satisfaction
Once managers understand human
needs, they can arrange the workplace in
such a way that workers are motivated
and can move towards satisfying these
human needs.
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Hawthorne studies and the social
needs model:
Hawthorne studies carried out at the Hawthorne works by the
Australian academic , Elton Mayo (1933). [box -3.1]
It’s demonstrating the influence of social factors on workplace
behavior.
First stage: the illumination experiments to show the
relationship between the amount and quality of lighting and the
efficiency of workers.
Second part: was the relay assembly test room study which
focused on a small group of female workers, 13 periods of work
studied during which changes were made to the hours of work,
tea breaks and rest periods.
The results
initially production was increased
and this increase was maintained.
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A social model needs was based on
at least two assumptions:
Work represents an important mechanism through which
people basic social needs are met. It provides a source of
identity and an opportunity to meet other people, develop status
and establish social relations.
Individuals respond more to pressures made within their social
group. Managerial controls are effective only to the extent that
they influence the achievement of social needs.
 Managers need to arrange work so that it meets the need of
people and not just the need of production help employees to
meet their social needs.
 individual need are social not only economic
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Maslow(1954)developed the idea of a
Hierarchy of needs
A motivation theory which explains that
individuals are driven by a desire to satisfy a
range of needs .These form a hierarchy of five
categories & the suggestion is that unless lower
level needs are satisfied first, higher level ones
cannot be satisfied.
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Maslow hierarchy from a basic level
upwards is:
Physiological needs: food, drinks and shelter.
Safety needs: protection against danger
&threat
Social needs: love, affection and acceptance
as part of a social group.
Esteem needs: to have high self-esteem and
the respect of others (prestige, status).
Self-actualization needs: to realize our
potential and develop skills, to become what we
believe we are capable of becoming.
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One of implications of Maslow theory is that the
higher-order needs for esteem and selfactualization provide the greatest motivation
because they grow in strength after the other
are satisfied .The lower order needs weaken
once they satisfied.
Table 3.1 simple prescriptions based on a
hierarchy of needs. [page – 53]
Masslow needs hierarchy has been criticized
(p - 53).
.
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Herzberg
et al.
(1959):
They asked people to recall times when they
had felt satisfied and motivated by their work,
and times when they had felt dissatisfied and
demotivated, then asked their subjects to
describe what factors had caused these
feelings.
[figure 3.1 / page 54]
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Hygiene factors :
The factors which will demotivate staff if they are absent or
unsatisfactory, but which in themselves do not act as long –
term motivators.
 Supervision.
 Working conditions.
 Interpersonal relationships.
 Pay and job security.
 Company policies.
He
argues that improvement in some areas (hygiene
factors) would help to remove dissatisfaction but it
would not necessarily increase satisfaction.
According to Herzberg; hygiene factors play little part in
motivating employees. they are important to maintain in any
organization at a reasonable level ,and people are expect them
to be there ,but improving or introducing them will not increase
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job satisfaction.
Motivation factors:
The factors which motivate people to work to meet
personal, group and/or organizational goals.
Achievement.
Recognition.
The work itself.
Responsibility.
Advancement and growth.
An important point is the suggestion that (de)motivators
vary in duration of effect. (example p-55)
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The discussion of Herzberg raises some
important general points about motivation
at work (page - 56)
As with all motivation theories ,the model has drawn both
support &criticism (p-56).
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Out comes: Expectancy theory:
The theory that an important factor in people’s motivation
is the perceived link between the effort they put into work
and the rewards they receive for it.
Expectancy theory focuses on the link between effort and
reward.
For a reward to affect a person decision to exert effort, that person must
believe that the effort will increase the likelihood of obtaining the reward.
 Figure 3.2 / page – 57 illustrate the chain that link between effort & reward
 Figure 3.3 / page – 57
adds a third element to the chain called (performance)
when a reward is given its usually for the result of the effort rather than for
the effort itself.
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To summaries , if you want to improve
motivation at work, expectancy theory
implies that you need to consider
three factors:
The link between effort and performance.
The link between performance and
rewards/costs.
The types of reward/cost available.
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Linking effort and performance:
The weaker link between effort and performance the less
motivation will be in an organization.
Expectancy theory suggests that any attempt to improving
the motivation will be fail if attention is not paid to the
relationship between effort & performance.
Factors affecting the strength of the link between
effort and performance : [figure 3.4 – page 58]
Ability & Skill
Goals
Resources
Time
Job design
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 Intrinsic reward (people internal motivation ,they
don’t have to be given by somebody else ,include a sense
of achievement ,a feeling of having learned something or having performed
a worthwhile job (enjoyment, satisfaction& learning).
Extrinsic reward (what organizations formally provide ,
Are those which have to be given by someone else, include the
offer or withholding of such benefits as pay increase, development and
training opportunities and promotions.
(page -59)
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Equity Theory :
The theory developed by ADAMS ,He proposed in his
development of equity theory that individuals compare
the relationship between their inputs and the
outcomes with those of other people and their own
past experience (Example 3.2).
.
Expectancy theory offers a number of valuable
lessons about motivation (P -60\61).
The expectancy& the other motivation theories
emerged at a time when economic &political
conditions were quite different,
TIMES HAVE CHANGED .
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4-The psychological contract:
The agreement between two parties, such as an
employer and an employee, that covers terms and
conditions of the employment relationship. These will
include the expectations that each one has of the
other and may form part of a formal contract of
employment. A psychological contract usually also
covers other aspects of the relationship, which may or
may not be documented. (P -62)
For example ,in return for performing well in a job ,an
employee may expect rewards in the form of training, additional
pay.
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The psychological contract is a
‘met expectations’ model
that considers the fit between
expectations of employees
and employers. (figure 3.5)
These expectations can be transactional ,such as
pay or hours, or they can be relational
,such as
trust ,commitment, honesty& equity.
If the employees and employers do not share these
mutual expectation, problems are likely to be emerge
(p-63/64)
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So you need to understand and
manage mutual expectations.
There is no universal answer are
provided by any of the approaches to
what motivates different people in
different work contexts.
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Session 4: Job design
Contents:
Are jobs really designed?
The job characteristics model
The socio-technical systems approach
Employee involvement and empowerment
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This session addresses the way jobs are designed and
who they might be redesigned to increase employee
satisfaction, productivity and motivation.
The aims of this session are to:
Evaluate the job characteristics model and its implications
for job design.
Explain that job develops overtime and that this has
implications for motivation.
Examine critically current practice in job design.
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Are jobs really designed?
Job design:
The way in which of tasks ,duties,
responsibilities and accountabilities are
combined to make up a particular job of work.
( Is concerned with how tasks are co-coordinated in order
to make complete jobs. It looks at how work might be
organized or reorganized to meet the social needs of
individuals and the operational needs of organizations).
Activity 4.1 p – 71.
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It is good practice for a manager to be proactive and to review
jobs periodically to see how they have developed rather than
waiting until problems arise.
There are certain critical times for reviewing jobs
and their content:
When major organizational changes are taking place.
When recruitment is about to take place.
During an annual appraisal, this gives employees an
opportunity to review their jobs with their managers or
colleagues.
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The job characteristics model :
A method of describing a job, originally developed by
Hackman and Oldham (1976), by analyzing its key
dimensions, how these contribute to the psychological
states of the job holder, and how these states in turn
affect the outcomes for the job holder of doing the
work.
This model remains significant because of the
inclusion of job characteristics that looks at the
relationship between core job characteristics,
Employee’s psychological states and key outcomes.
Figure 4.1 p – 73 the job characteristics model
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In the following we will address the
Core job dimensions :
The three elements defined by
Hackman& Oldham in their job characteristics model which
enable job design to be undertaken in a structured& rational
way.
1-Skill variety: the degree to which a job includes a
variety of activities and therefore requires the
jobholder to use a number of different skills and
talents.
2-Task identity: the degree to which a job requires
completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
It is about doing a job from beginning to end.
3-Task significance: the degree to which a job has an
impact on the lives or work of other people, whether
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within the organization or in the external environment.
Meaningfulness at work:
Combining of the core job dimensions - Skill variety,
Task identity ,Task significance together shape the
extent to which work is felt to be meaningful, valuable
and worthwhile to the individual.
Autonomy:
The degree to which a job provides freedom,
independence and discretion to the individual.
Feedback :
It help people to form an image of themselves
and how well they are doing.
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Feedback can be either intrinsic or extrinsic:
Extrinsic feedback:
comes from outside the job, such as praise from
manager when a difficult situation has been handled
well.
Intrinsic feedback:
comes from knowing that you personally have been
effective
 when people are aware of their own performance,
recognize their strengths and weaknesses and take
appropriate action to modify them as they feel
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appropriate.
Calculating the motivating potential
of a job:
Motivating potential score (MPS):
A technique for assessing how motivating a job
will be for the holder.
The job characteristics model of Hackman &Oldham calculates an MPS
based on the five dimensions.
MPS = (Skill Varity +Task identity +Task significance) / 3
× Autonomy × Feedback
 Three principles of job design [p -78]
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The model suggests that the motivating potential of jobs
can be increased by employing certain practices to
enrich the working life of employees :
Job enrichment:
Adding variety to a job to make it more
interesting, demanding, challenging and
developmental for the job holder.
for example:
Combining tasks.
Forming natural work units.
Giving increased responsibility.
Vertical loading.
Opening feedback channel.
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The social-technical systems approach:
An approach to job design and job analysis developed
by the researchers at the Tavistock Institute in the UK,
which suggests that each job exists within a broader
context consisting of, among other things, the
technology and the culture of the group and
organization.
This means that any actions relating to designing or
redesigning jobs need to take account of this broader
context, and to recognize the social and technical
factors that influence the work and the way it is done.
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The approach was based on the notion that
organizations can be thought of as
open systems
that balance social and technical needs
Open systems have the following characteristics:
1-They are able to self-regulate.
2-They are flexible and adaptive.
3-They only survive through their interactions with
external environment from which they obtain
resources.
Box 4.1 p – 80 (Principles of the socio-technical approach)
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Semi-autonomous work group:
 A group of people working together, who to a
large extent, monitor and control their own
activities, with little control imposed of them
from outside. (self regulating &participative)
Semi-autonomous work group are part of the
Humanization of Work Movement Approach
to job design, although they have their
limitations.
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Employee involvement:
An approach to management whereby the opinions and
ideas of employees are sought and their participation is
encouraged the ultimate manifestation of such
involvement is the delegation of some authority to
employees for taking action or marking decisions.
The two important forms (practices) of employee involvement are:
Empowerment: The transfer of responsibility and
decision making power to individual through the
delegation of authority and resources.
Quality circles: A group of employees who meet
regularly to identify and try to resolve issues relating to
the quality of the products or services provided to
customers. participation may come from various part of
the organization.
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Quality circles have the following
seven characteristics:
1-Membership is voluntary.
2-Meetings are regular.
3-Group usually small < 15.
4-Membership is drawn from people who do the
same or similar tasks.
5-Leadership and structure can be decided by the
group.
6-Group identifies problems and causes.
7-Group develops and produces solutions.
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