A Question of Accessibility:
Exploring Barriers to the Free Flow of Information
資訊取得性的問題:
探討資訊自由流通的障礙
Jennine Knight
Li brarian , Main Li brary,
The University of the West Indies , Cave Hill Campus , Barbados , U.S.A.
Email: jennine.knight@cavehil l. uw i. edu
Cheryl King
Special Collections Li brarian , Main Li brary,
The University of the West Indies , Cave Hill Campus , Barbados , U.S.A.
Email: chery l. king@cavehil l. uw i. edu
Keywords (關鍵詞) : Information Access (資訊取得) ; Free Flow of Information (資訊自由
流通) ; Information Deprivation (資訊剝奪) ; Technology (科授)
【摘要】
<Abstract >
In the 。巾， the concept of freedom of access
to information is ideal , particularly since democracy warrants the free flow of information.
However, in practice this seldom occurs ,
especially among various classes and groups ,
and across several geographical boundaries.
There are many factors and obstacles which
理論上，資訊自由取得的概愈是理想的，尤
其因為民主制度正保證了資訊自由流通。然而
這樣的情彤在實務上卻很少發生，尤其少見於
不同的階層與群體間，及不同的地域間。障礙
或阻礙賀訊流通的因素繁多，本文探討了一些
自由流動資訊的主要障礙，並提出使用科技來
減輕或消除這些障礙的方法。
hinder or prohibit the flow of information.
This paper explores some of the main
barri幽
ers to the free flow of information and identi-
Introduction
The major barriers which affect the flow of informa-
ties ways in which they may be alleviated or
tion may be divided into three categories - personal,
removed through the use of technologies.
economic , and legal.
Personal barriers are those
in-built obstacles that are unique to an individual (Tedd,
圖書館學與資訊科學 36
(2) : 93 - 101 (民九十九年十月)
93
Llwyd, Simon & Lithgow, 2009). Barriers of this type
tion carriers to people and societies propels the discus-
stem from socialisation or experiences, and determine
sion of barriers to information.
how an individual functions within a society.
Exam-
pies of these barriers inelude information illiteracy,
computer illiteracy, physical or mental disabilities,
geographical boundaries , language differences , time ,
Levels ofBarriers to Information
Flow
Tedd et a l. (2009) identify two levels of the main
education, social status and political affiliations.
barriers to information flow, namely, at the point of
Economic barriers relate to the cost of accessing in-
production and at the point of use or access
formation for the individual, while legal barriers are
The former refers mainly to output, time and institu-
those imposed by the state's legal machinery and in-
tional barriers , while the latter refers to information
elude , for instance , laws against libel, sedition, slander,
handling skills of users, personal or psychological ,
baπiers.
geographical, ability or disability, cost, technological
and 悅ason.
As it relates to output, users
and linguistic barriers.
Tedd et al. (2009) assert that there is the right not
only to receive information but also the right to impart
information without restriction (p. 2).
This concept
underpins several legislations , namely, the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (Art icle 19), the Euro-
seek to optimise a sub-set of information that meets
their needs.
However, they are sometimes greeted
with so much information that it becomes impossible
for it to be effectively used by them - the result of
i月[ormation overload.
pean Convention ofHuman Rights (Article 10 (1)), the
International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights
With the overwhelming quantities of information,
(Art icle 19) and the Declaration of Freedom and In-
users often have a limited time in which it may be
formation adopted by the Council of Europe Commit-
consumed.
tee of Ministers on 29 April 1982 (p. 6).
maximise time , users must sieve through vast quanti-
Freedom is
understood as the condition of being free or unrestricted.
However, with respect to information flow ,
there is no such thing as
unres甘icted
mation irrespective of the society.
access to infor-
Furthermore , even
in democratic societies , legislations may dictate access
Katz (1988) offers that information flow is
“the
amount of information flowing through formal (measch位mels"
producers,
tion" (p. 3).
“the
flow of information between the
distributo悶，
must exercise their power of choice.
They
Choices are
administered by both the senders and receivers of information as to the quantity and
disclosed or retained
(也is
quality 也at
should be
stems the dispute of the
mat of delivery and receipt of information (the debate
is usually print versus electronic), and whether the
information should be available for 企ee or a fee.
(p.
131), whereas Tedd et al. (2009) suggest a more precise meaning:
ties of information and set priorities for usage.
To
‘ right to know' versus 'the right to privacy'), the for-
to information, thereby regulating this access.
urable) and informal (non-measurable)
This introduces the barrier of time.
and assimilators of informa-
Thus , information is transmitted between
Technology seeks to overcome at the point of pro-
duction and at the point of use or access barriers by
implementing devices whereby users can store and
peruse information at their convenience.
Websites
carriers.
can be bookmarked, the Uniform Resource Locator
The latter includes , inter alia, books , magazines ,
(URL) may be deposited on storage devices or the
the sender and receiver through
i，月[ormation
newspapers, radio , television, films , telephone and
information may be printed.
Internet hosts. Varying accessibility of these informa-
information required may be facilitated by CD , DVD
Quicker access to the
ROMs , and other electronic devices which allow users
94
Journal of Li brary and Information Science 36 (2) : 93 -101 (October, 2010)
Nonetheless, the
Two groups of persons who may be considered
information contained in these sources lacks currency,
among the mobility impaired are those confined to
and are subjected to the durability of the source.
wheelchairs and those with no hand usage.
to cue from one link to another.
In
The for-
addition, these technologies command access to a
mer group of persons usually experience difficulty in
computer, printer, DVD and CD player, and instruc-
gaining
tions in their use.
Furthermore , there is the additional setback of being
en虹y
into facilities to access information.
able to manoeuvre even after gaining successful entry.
Personal Barriers
Persons with no hand usage are limited in using stan-
Personal barriers may be as a result of illiteracy,
dard computer input and output devices.
unawareness, the inability to articulate coherently,
shyness in approaching information professionals , the
perception that the required information is non-existent,
or poor comprehension of the information received.
Hence, even though society is rife with information
and information resources, an unequal awareness
among users of the nature and location of available
information may be an impediment to access.
These
conditions speak also to the information literacy skills
of the researcher.
According to the definition by the
Association of College and Research Libraries
(ACRL) , a division of the Am erican Library Association (ALA) in the United States of America (US), to be
information literate, a person must be able to "recognise when information is needed and have the ability to
locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information" (2000).
Information illiteracy may result
Technology has assisted in facilitating the flow of
information to disabled groups.
For instance, infor-
mation is accessible through the use of Braille, talking
newspapers and special photocopiers which ‘read' the
text for the blind and partially sighted.
Moreover,
with environmental adjustments and the appropriate
Adaptive of Assistive Technology the flow of information can be perpetuated.
Adaptive or Assistive Tech-
nology is computer software and hardware that has
been modified to be accessible by persons with disabilities. Some of the hardware and software used,
include speech recognition, memory aiding, touch
screen and eye-tracking devices , joysticks, trackballs ,
big visual cursors and large keyboards.
Organisations
such as Apple and Ability Hub focus on providing and
locating the tools which are necessary for special needs
groups to access information. Other organisations such
from information deprivation among some groups.
as the Information Access Laboratory in the US , assist
An ability or disability barrier is another factor that
students with disabilities in their educational pursuits
may either debar or curtail the flow of information to
through the development of innovative technologies
an individual.
(Information Access Laboratory, 1998).
Cunningham and Coombs (1997) de-
fine disability as “a physical or mental impairment that
substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such an individual , a record of such an impairment or being regarded as having such an impairment" (p. 2).
i旬.，
Disabilities may include vision, mobil-
hearing and speech impairments , learning disabili-
ties, and 仕aumatic brain
i吋 uries.
In their effort to comply with the standards of the
Accessibility for Ontarians with Disabilities Act
(AODA) , 2005 , libraries in Ontario , Canada endeavour
to become:
more accessible to everyone by ensuring that users
Vision impairments
can enter the library facility and successfully navigate
are categorised into various forms , and these usually
within it; communicate effectively with staff who are
hinder the individual's ability to read printed materials,
trained to respond to specific requests for accommoda-
computer screens and keyboards.
tion; access print and electronic resources using a variety of assistive devices; and fully participate in events
圖書館學與資訊科學 36
(2) : 93 - 101
(民九十九年十月)
的
and other activities held in the library (Chittenden &
Dermody, 20 1O).
Feather (1 988) notes that “online databases starkly illuminated the financial dimension ofthe market-place"
The Act establishes accessibility standards to effect
the achievement of equal and equitable access and use
of resources, including those in libraries , to all Ontari-
(p. 71). He also informs that there was a demand but
the potential customers had insufficient resources to
purchase the product.
Therefo 時，
the CD-ROM was
developed, thus bringing supply and demand into bal-
ans.
ance within the financial limitations of the customers.
Economic Barriers
In his updated work, Fωther (2008) emphasises:
Cost is another major factor which appears at both
levels of the barriers to information.
sents the view that cost should not
The ALA pre-
in企inge
on or inter-
The hardware needed for access to CD-ROM is
comparatively inexpensive, and is both cheap and easy
to maintain compared with the high capital and run-
fere with the provision or delivery of information and
ning costs of online access.
resources for any users of a publicly supported library.
of removing the telecommunications element from the
In the document Economic Barriers to Information
information technology equation.
Access: An
Inte.ψretation
of the Library Bill ofRights
CD-ROM has the effect
Th is is of the ut-
most importance in developing countries , where the
which was adopted by the ALA Council on June 30,
telecommunication
1993 , the association states:
the technology for transmitting digitised data often
Library services that involve the provision of infor-
in仕'astructure
is often weak, and
does not exist (pp. 120-121).
mation, regardless of format, technology, or method of
Cost deters some information poor countries from
delivery, should be made available to all library users
investing in Integrated Communications Technology
on an equal and equitable basis.
(l CT).
Charging fees for the
use of library collections , services, programs , or facilities that were purchased with public funds raises barriers to access.
Such fees effectively abridge or deny
access for some members of the community because
吐ley
reinforce distinctions among users on their ability
As posited by Tedd et al. (2009), the investment in
ICT is a crucial factor in establishing and retaining a
competitive edge in macro-economic terms.
These
writers mention numerous inequalities of information
access, which can result in information imperialism -
and willingness to pay
data flowing in abundance between Western Countries
Moreover, cost is a determinant for both the indi-
but a lack of collaboration
wi也 the
Third World.
vidual and institution in their purchasing habits of tra-
Therefore, the flow of information is either denied or
ditional and contemporary sources of information as
clouded.
well as specific information technologies. This factor is
ers as a way of overriding the cost factor.
also extended to the country as a whole.
Users can manipulate the information carriFor in-
The indi-
stance , the consumer book market has a clear
vidual and the institution may opt for a print-based
socio-economic bias towards the wealthier and better
source over, for example, an online source.
educated members of a society.
With the
However, television
online source, there is the cost for access to the infor-
and radio may transcend those boundaries.
mation in addition to the cost of the telecommunica-
tially, broadcast information is easier to absorb and
tions.
Furthermore, the exorbitant fees of electronic
sources permit access on subscription basis.
Essen-
cheaper to receive than printed information. The cost
of technology has been significantly reduced, thereby
facilitating the access to a wider source of electronic
information.
96
Journalof Li braryandlnformationScience 36 (2) :93-101 (October, 2010)
Geographical Barriers
tion to a good balance of telecommunication and tech-
Geographical obstacles to infonnation occur as a
consequence of the residence of the individual and the
inaccessibility to
infonnation providers.
The advent of electronic libraries has helped to
These limitations can be classified as local (urban ver-
eliminate some geographical barriers. Access to bibli-
sus rural areas) , regional (states or countries in close
ographies , indexes, various publications and even da-
proximity), and international (developed countries
tabases is facilitated
versus developing
various
nological resources is needed if technology can assist
in removing geographical barriers to infonnation.
coun出es).
The latter is often re-
by 也is
means. Moreover, with the
introduction of electronic publishing, the inconven-
ferred to as the information rich and information poor.
ience
The information rich are those persons with access to
poor places, however, users still have to travel to a
abundant resources of infonnation and the ability to
library or some other facility where computers are
retrieve and utilise the infonnation obtained.
available for use in order to access needed infonnation.
i月(ormation
The
poor are 伽 complete opposite.
The level of education of a group, the type of resources , technological and telecommunications infrastructures detennine the categorisation of information
rich and information poor. This is highlighted in the
1995 work by Haywood
In.舟-Rich， In.舟-Poor:
Access
and Exchange in the Global Information Society. This
author posits that an information divide results “ where
access to higher education is symptomatic of access to
interesting infonnation-based work opportunities, and
the pursuit of rich and abundant life choices , while
exclusion 企om
of 個.velling
to libraries is diminished. In many
Language Barriers
“ The most prevalent and specific intellectual barrier
is a linguistic one" (Tedd et aI., p. 11). This is a limitation to the recipient of the infonnation
b的ause
of the
inability to understand the written or spoken message.
An individual greeted with a linguistic or language
barrier may
become
企ustrated
and relinquish the
source or seek an alternative source instead of attempting to find
a 仕'anslation
of the document or a
仕anslator.
higher education generally reduces
A study conducted by Fisher et al. (2004) reveal that
access to infonnation rich environments . . ." (pp.
migrant Mexican workers faced serious challenges in
22-23).
locating and assimilating infonnation which was nec-
Tools such as the computer, telephone and radio are
extremely useful to the flow of infonnation.
Through
the use of computer technologies, access is granted to
the bulk of infonnation stored
elec仕onically，
where
updating , revision, and correction of infonnation can
be a continuous process. Internet technologies afford
infonnation to be transmitted so that delivery is virtually instantaneous. Furthennore , users can exploit the
services of electronic mail and instant chat.
It is im-
portant to note though that the value of the Internet as a
essary for active participation in their daily existence.
This was so because most of the documents which they
needed to access were written in English and their
native language was Spanish.
The writers also dis-
covered that many of the older immigrants relied on
their children to interpret and conduct their everyday
transactions for them.
Technology has made progress in alleviating the
language barrier which has been affecting migrant
workers.
According to Fisher et al. (2004)
“. . .
good resource to accessing infonnation is often com-
availability of cutting edge technology and training is
promised by the lack of proper telecommunication
positively affecting the lives of the people in these
services to remote areas. The consensus seems to be
communities by giving them the
that education among the service population, in addi-
crease their literacy levels , technology and job skills in
圖書館學與資訊科學 36 (2) :
93 - 101
oppo討班lity
(民九十九年十月)
to in-
97
addition to creating a sense of community." Today,
saying “ if the information obtained by the police, the
search engines such as Google and Altavista offer fur-
Inland Revenue , the social-security service, and other
ther assistance through the facilitation of translation
agencies were to be gathered together on one file , the
features as part oftheir service to Internet users.
freedom of the individual would be gravely at risk" (p.
Zhang's discourse International Students and U. S.
Academic Libraries Revisited identifies three
116).
m句 or
The computer, because it can link and match scraps
information 企om
challenges which international students experience
of
when trying to access information from US academic
tential to be used as an instrument in the sullying of an
various data sources has the po-
According to that writer, language , com-
individual's integrity. Robertson (1993) notes that this
munication and technology barriers prevent these stu-
ability to store personal data in various locations on the
dents 企om
computer is actually ‘ to build up an incomplete jigsaw
libraries.
effective use of library services.
Brown
(2000) , Kumar and Suresh (2000) and Wang and Frank
(2002) are also commentators on the subject ofbarriers
to information access which are experienced by inter-
of the individual on record" (p. 117).
Legal Barriers
Legislation is required to protect the individual's
national students in US academic libraries.
personal data.
Institutional Barriers
The United Kingdom (UK) Data Pro-
tection Act, 1998 , speaks to prohibiting the abuse of
Institutional barriers are limitations to information
personal data.
A news item on November 14, 2010
access designed by individual organisations and the
headlines “ Google ‘breached data protection act' in
As it relates to individual organisations ,
UK." According to Christopher Graham, Britain's In-
range 企om
formation Commissioner, Google “ broke the law when
government.
barriers to information may
the refusal to
invest in ICT to curtailing the flow of information on
Street View cars collected personal data from unse-
the grounds of commercial confidentiality.
cured wi-fi networks." The Internet giant was
In the
latter instance, only a selected few, mainly senior
ac心used
of “ deliberately collecting millions of passwords, web-
members of staff or certain departments are privy to
sites (URLs) and emails for commercial gain." Google
‘ sensitive'
The government sometimes
had recently launched a Street Vi ew mapping cars in
utilises legislations to withhold information ‘ for the
Ireland. The Internet service provider was not penal-
public good' and ‘ for the public health'.
ised after pledging not to repeat the violation (Break-
information.
The objec-
tive, in these instances, is to protect the individual ,
society, and the state.
ingnews .ie. , 2010).
Copyright; Intellectual Property; and Defamation
In Britain, according to Robertson (1 993),“the av-
acts are other forms of legislations in the UK and US
erage adult has private information about himself or
which are designed to protect the individual. However,
herself on over two hundred
sep訂ate
files and by 1982
the enforcement of these laws may be confined to a
For instance, in November 2003
Government departments alone boasted 220 different
specified territory.
computerised data banks" (p. 116). The individual's
when damaging information on Prince Charles was
personal record is scattered among “ school and NHS
circulated, the local media, through an
records , tax and VAT returns , insurance, mortgage and
the British High Court was prevented from disclosing
credit ratings , social-security files , motor-vehicle li-
the details of the allegations.
ce凹的，
Further,
was not afforded this protection on the Internet.
Browne-Wilkinson as
Through a link to an Italian Press, the information was
police records and the like" (p. 116).
Robertson
98
(1 993) 中0臨 Lord
Journal of Li brary and Information Science 36 (2) :
93 一 101
(October, 2010)
injunction 企om
However, the Prince
made available to alI web users.
Additionally,
tion. The whole world now is exploring a way to man-
Google was very effective in removing the linguistic
age the Internet and China is also working on this"
barriers for those people who did not speak or under-
(BBC. Google , 2002).
stand Italian.
in an effort to
Under the UK Official Secrets Act, which was implemented to safeguard national security, the British
government in
1987 出ed
Spycatche月 which
to prohibit the
publi臼tion
of
was authored by a former British
Intelligence Officer, Peter Wright. The UK Law of
Sedition also aims to safeguard national security, while
the Race Relations Act was implemented to protect
groups within a society. Robertson (1993) believes that
irrespective
of 也e
legislations, British society still has
automatically
search engine.
訂閱 Internet
allow 企'ee
Content Provider
access to its Chinese users
redirected 也em
This action
to its Hong Kong's
displeased 也e
Chinese
government, who insisted on being able to censor information accessed via the Internet within China.
After years of negotiations, Google in March 2010
agreed to stop the automatic redirect.
More recently, in August 2010 , two Gulf States , citing security concerns , announced bans on some functions of the Blackberry mobile phone.
Saudi Arabia
access to information which contains obscenities
prevented the use of the Blackberry. to-Blackberry
through the use of technologies. “The main battle-
instant messaging service. Additionally, the United
ground has shifted to television drama - EastEnders
Arab Emirates (UAE) intended to block such function-
and the plays of Dennis Potter and the late-night mov-
alities as sending e-mails, accessing the Internet, and
ies on Channel 4, and the imminent invasion of alien
delivering instant messages from one Blackberry
porn from outer space through the satellite dish" (p.
handset to another, in October 2010.
212).
ban was not put into effect after Blackberry's maker
Censorship res甘icts the free flow of information to a
society.
Through acts such as the UK Obscene Pub-
lications Act, 1959, or policies of individual institutions, the state and other entities are able to
the free flow of information.
obs甘uct
A case in point . the
publication, The Satanic Verses was banned under the
Blasphemy Law of several Islamic nations.
more, several publications are
banned 企om
Further-
institutions
Research
in
Motion
proved
to
However, the
the
UAE's
Telecommunications Regulatory Authority that it was
“ compliant
with its security needs" (BBC. United,
2010).
Conclusion
The role of technology in the flow of information is
seamless.
Technology can both facilitate the flow and
also create barriers to information.
Persons may have
annually through their individual collection develop-
difficulty in understanding how to use it or may be
ment polices.
unable to keep abreast of the dynamic changes as there
Th is does not only relate to books. In
July 2002 , the Saudi Arabian Govemment blocked
is a lack of standardisation.
Furthermore, this diffi-
approximately 2000 websites. Most of the blacklisted
culty can be compounded by technophobia.
sites were either deemed sexually explicit, about relig-
puter packages can still be inflexible and unsophisti-
ion, on women's history or about bathing suits (BBC.
cated.
Saudis, 2002).
so自ware
Google.com was banned in China, in September
2002.
The rationale verbalised by the Chinese for-
Com-
In addition, there may be instances whereby
changes may be incompatible with an indi-
vidual's computer.
However, software and hardware
is sold with manuals which provide instructions as to
eign ministry spokesman was: “ Obviously there is
usage.
There are also help screens and faqs to facili-
some harmful information on the internet [and] not
tate easy access to information.
everyone should have access to this harmful informa.
tings , guidance to individuals in need is provided by
圖書館學與資訊科學 36
(2) : 93 - 101
In some public set-
(民九十九年十月)
99
information professionals who
are 甘ained
in the use of
Retrieved November 15 , 2010, from
the technologies offered.
There will always be barriers to the
fre活 flow
of in-
formation. These may occur as a result of personal or
economic factors which affect an individual. Alternatively，位ley
may be imposed by the society or the
state's legal machinery for the protection of a people.
As highlighted by this paper, not all barriers are insurmountable.
Technology has played a very effec-
tive role in alleviating and removing some of the
ba叮i­
ers to allow access of information. Libraries are also
playing their part in making information more accessible to those who experience challenges occasioned by
barriers which restrict
the 企ee
flow of information.
“ Information is power." In most cases , researchers are
disadvantage when there are barriers to information
access.
‘ significant breach' of UK Data Laws. BBC News.
They are empowered when there is free flow
h句 ://www.bbc.
co.uklnews/technology-11684 952.
British Broadcasting Corporation (2002 , September 3).
Google fights Chinese ban. BBC News. Retrieved
July 21 ,
2010，企om
http://news.bbc.co.ukll /hi/
technology/2233229.stm.
(2002 , July 31).
British Broadcasting Corporation.
Saudis block 2,000 websites. BBC News. Retrieved
August 24 , 2010 , from http://news. bbc.co.ukll /hi/
tee趾lology/2153312.stm.
(2010 , August I).
British Broadcasting Corporation.
Two Gulf states to ban some Blackberry functions.
BBC News. Retrieved August 14, 2010 , from
http;/川ww.bbc.co.uk
/news/world-middle-east-I 0830485.
British Broadcasting Corporation. (2010, October 8).
United Arab Emirates will not ban Blackberries.
of information.
BBC News. Retrieved November 19 , 2010 , from
http://www.bbc.co. uklnews/ technology -11499755.
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