Overview of The Researcher’s Notebook
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OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK
The Researcher’s Notebook is a series of assignments and exercises that provide students with an
opportunity practice the craft of criminal justice research. This resource allows students to apply
the methodological principles they learn in the classroom, and become more skilled at evaluating
the research of others.
Specifically, the Researcher’s Notebook provides students with an opportunity to;
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Develop a viable research question,
Write an introductory section of a research report,
Develop an outline for a literature review,
Access literature that is relevant to their topic,
Learn how to recognize the most authoritative literature available on a subject,
Annotate a literature review outline with information from the literature,
Learn how to know when they have accessed ‘enough’ literature,
Write a literature review, and
Develop a research plan that, if implemented, would produce the data necessary to
answer the research question.
The Researcher’s Notebook responds to a long held desire among methods instructors to engage
students in the criminal justice research process through meaningful practical exercises that, in
the end, will not require an excessive amount of assessment near the end of the semester or
quarter. The assignments and exercises that culminate into a research proposal are content
driven. This enables you to assess student work in a more objective and efficient manner. In
addition, the assignments and exercises are distributed throughout the semester or quarter
specifically to reduce the usual ‘end of the term’ crunch time.
An important dimension of the Researcher’s Notebook is that the focus of the student assessment
is on the process rather than the product of research, i.e. the traditional ‘research paper’. We’ve
all read ‘research papers’ that appear to have been written the evening before they were due. The
Researcher’s Notebook requires students to complete narrowly focused parts of the research
process over the course of a semester or quarter. In doing so, you are able to assess student
learning at a more detailed level, and if necessary, make corrections at appropriate times.
For your convenience, assessments are provided for each of the six assignments. These rubrics
are consistent with the requirements outlined in the assignment and enable you to efficiently
evaluate student performance. Of course the point value of each assignment may be adjusted
depending on your personal preference or teaching objectives.
The Researcher’s Notebook begins with the creation of a researcher’s notebook. This is an
interactive tool that has proven to be highly effective at helping students organize large amounts
of information and remain focused on a narrow research topic over an extended period of time,
such as a semester or quarter. (See Assignment #1 – Developing Your Researcher’s
Notebook) (link here) The exercise associated with this assignment is designed to provide
students with specific guidance for creating this interactive tool. Normally, the students are
asked to develop their notebooks within the first week of the term.
Next, students are asked to develop a viable research question. (See Assignment #2 –
Developing Your Research Question) (link here) There are two exercises associated with this
assignment that guide students through this important step in the research process and
demonstrate how research questions are developed. The materials in the exercises are consistent
with the content in the textbook on the elements of a good research question. Normally,
Assignment #2 is completed very early in the semester or quarter.
Then, the students are asked to write the introduction to their research proposals. (See
Assignment #3 – Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal) (link here) It is
with this assignment that the content driven nature of the process is most evident. The
assignment requires the students to develop a short introductory section that contains five
specific content elements. Of course you may revise these to fit a particular style, but in the end
the content specific nature of this assignment enables the objective (i.e. more efficient)
assessment of student performance. There are two exercises associated with this assignment that
guide students through this important step in the research process and demonstrate how
introductory sections should be written. Normally, Assignment #3 is completed within the first
two weeks of the semester or quarter.
Next, the students are asked to develop the literature review of their research proposals. (See
Assignment #4 – Developing Your Literature Review) (link here) This assignment begins
with the development of an initial outline for the literature review, provides a structure for the
search for sources, offers suggestions on how to annotate information from the sources into the
literature review, and culminates with the production of a cogent review of the literature. It is
with this assignment that the focus on the process, rather than the product, of research is most
evident. You may find it helpful to assess the student’s annotated outlines as well as the final
draft of their literature review sections. This will allow you to assess whether the students used
individual sources multiple times throughout the literature review and grouped similar research
findings together prior to writing the first draft. There are eight exercises associated with this
assignment that guide students through this important step in the research process and
demonstrate how introductory sections should be written. Normally, Assignment #4 is
completed before the middle of the semester or quarter.
The next assignment turns the student’s attention to the development of a research method that, if
implemented, would likely produce the data necessary to answer the previously developed
research question. (See Assignment #5 – Designing Your Research Method) (link here)
Ideally, instructors would prefer to have enough time for a student to actually conduct a research
project that includes data collection and analysis. Unfortunately, there is simply not enough time
in a semester or quarter to do this. So Assignment #5 asks the students to do the next best thing
– develop a methodological plan. The assignment anticipates that the students will develop an
outline of the methods section of their research proposal. However, you may ask them to convert
this outline to a paragraph format. Among other things, the assignment requires the students to:
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Revisit the research question,
Develop null and alternative hypotheses (if necessary),
Clearly define their concepts,
Operationalize their concepts,
Identify the unit of analysis,
Develop a list of the variables and their attributes,
Discuss how they will insure the validity and reliability of their measures,
Discuss how they will (if necessary) protect human subjects,
Comprehensively discuss the actual method they intend to use during the data collection
process,
Identify the sampling strategies they intend to use,
Develop the instruments they intend to us, if any,
Develop a-priori assumptions as part of an initial analysis plan, and
Identify the anticipated weakness of the research proposal.
The five exercises associated with Assignment #5, in addition to the materials from the textbook,
are designed to help students with completing this assignment. Ideally, Assignment #5 is
completed before the final week of the semester or quarter. Given the objective nature of the
assessment this should provide you enough time to provide feedback prior to the end of the term.
The final step in the Researcher’s Notebook requires the students to synthesis the three parts of
their research proposals into a single document. (See Assignment #6 – Synthesizing Your
Research Proposal) (link here) This assignment requires students to revisit previously
completed steps in the research process to insure the final research proposal is coherent. This
reinforces what the students learned in Chapter 2 about the internally cyclical nature of the
research process. While it represents an important learning opportunity, this assignment may be
overlooked in the interest of time. After all, the nature of the Researcher’s Notebook resource is
to place more focus on the process of research rather than the product of research. Ideally, the
synthesized research proposal could be submitted on the final day of the semester. Because all
of its critical parts (the research question, the introduction, the literature review and the
methodological plan) have been previously evaluated additional assessment at the end of the
term is not as time consuming.
THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK
Assignment #1
Developing Your Researcher’s Notebook
DUE: Enter due date here
Points Available: 25
The Researcher’s Notebook is a highly effective technique for organizing large amounts of
information for a research project or paper. This method is particularly useful for individuals
that simultaneously manage multiple priorities or for those unable to work on a single project
from start to finish without an interruption.
Using a loose-leaf binder, tabbed dividers, your own paper, and the instructions on the resource
CREATING A RESEARCH NOTEBOOK create a notebook for your research proposal. Do a
good job because you will use this notebook throughout the term as you complete your research
proposal. Bring your notebook to class on the due date and to each class thereafter.
Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)
1. Whether your notebook has all of the required sections and tabs.
THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK
Assignment #2
Developing Your Research Question
DUE: Enter due date here
Points Available: 25
A research question is an interrogative statement. This simply means that research questions are
actual questions, as opposed to statements. There are four criteria for a good research question
(see the section titled Elements of a Good Research Question in Chapter 7 in Research Methods
in Crime and Justice for more information on this topic.) Research questions must be;
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Measurable
Unanswered
Feasible
Disinteresting
Use the exercises called “Developing a Research Topic” and “Topic Selection/Research
Question Demonstration” to develop a question for your research project. Your research
question must;
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Be an interrogative statement, i.e. an actual question,
Include measurable concepts,
Be reasonably feasible,
Unanswered, or at least covering an unsettled area of the research, and
Disinteresting, i.e. not personal, to you as an individual.
Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)
1. Whether your research question meets the criteria listed above.
THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK
Assignment #3
Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal
DUE: Enter due date here
Points Available: 25
The introduction to your research proposal should communicate what your research proposal is
about. Introductions should contain;
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The purpose of the research,
The problem or issue,
The intended audience of the research project,
The sources of information used during the research process,
The research methods you used during the research process,
The intended outcome of your research, and
How your research paper is organized. .
Of course at this point in the research process it is likely that you will know all of the
information listed above, but it is important at this point to put something down on paper. You
will file this introduction in the Proposal section of your Researcher’s notebook and refer to it
over the course of the term to remain on track.
Write a two to three page document that includes the elements listed above. Use the exercises
titled “Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal” and “Introduction Worksheet” to
guide you through this process.
Manuscript requirements
1. Double spaced, one inch margins all around
2. 10 to 12 point font
3. Number pages
4. Name and title at top of first page (no separate title pages)
Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)
1. Whether or not your introduction contains the required content, as outlined above.
2. Whether or not you adhered to the manuscript requirements.
3. The extent to which you ‘make the case” for your research. For example, does your
proposed research respond to an actual problem or issue.
4. Grammar, spelling and punctuation.
THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK
Assignment #4
Developing Your Literature Review
DUE: Enter due date here
Points Available: 100
The literature review is a summary of the research on your topic. It should clearly indicate;
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What we know (from previous researchers) about a research topic,
What we do not know (from previous researchers) about a research topic.
What previous researchers agree on in a research topic.
What previous researchers disagree on in a research topic.
Write a literature review relevant to the research topic discussed in your introduction. You will
actually turn in two versions of your literature review – an annotated outlined and a first draft.
Annotated outline
1. Develop an outline for a literature review that is relevant to your topic.
2. Locate an appropriate number of independent and reliable sources on your topic.
3. Identify the important parts from each source that you want to use in your literature
review.
4. Using these parts annotate your outline (see the instructions in the exercises titled
Creating a Researcher’s Notebook and Annotating the Literature Review Outline). Be
careful to as we discussed to include the origin of the source (i.e. author’s last name and
year following the citation).
5. At the end of the annotation process save a copy of your annotated outline.
TURN IN YOUR ANNOTATED OUTLINE WITH THE FIRST DRAFT OF YOUR
LITERATURE REVIEW.
Literature review
1. Using the annotated outline write a draft of your literature review.
2. The draft must be typewritten and from three to five pages in length.
3. Sources used in text must be identified using an appropriate citation style (APA, MLA).
4. Attach your reference page to the draft.
5. In addition to the above requirements your paper must conform to the following
manuscript requirements.
a. Double spaced.
b. One inch margins all around.
c. Include your name in the upper right hand corner.
d. Number the pages in the lower right hand corner.
e. 10 to 12 point font.
f. Free of obvious spelling and grammatical errors.
The following resources may be helpful to you as you develop your literature review.
Exercise #4a – Brainstorming the Literature Review Outline
Exercise #4b – Bubble Sheet Outline Demonstration
Exercise #4c – Planning and Managing the Literature Review Search
Exercise #4d – Starting the Literature Review Process
Exercise #4e – Annotating the Literature Review Outline
Exercise #4f – Organizing What We Know/Don’t Know and What We Agree
On/Disagree On
o Exercise #4g – Writing the First Draft of Your Literature Review
o Exercise #4h – Creating the Theoretical Context
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Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)
1. Grouping of similar research findings from multiple sources.
2. Identification of conflict and agreement among the previous researchers.
3. Integration of single sources throughout the outline.
THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK
Assignment #5
Designing Your Research Method
DUE: Enter due date here
Points Available: 100
The best way to learn how to conduct research is to actually complete a research project.
Unfortunately this is not possible within the time constraints of a typical semester or quarter. So
the next best thing is to apply what you are learning from the classroom and develop a research
plan.
The overall objective of this assignment is to develop an outline that describes exactly how you
intend to collect the data or information you need to answer your research question. Ideally, this
outline should be detailed enough for you to determine whether or not the data collected using it
would be responsive to your research question.
Write an outline of a research plan that includes the following elements.
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Revisit the research question and revise as necessary.
Develop null and alternative hypotheses, if necessary.
Clearly define the concepts in your research question.
Operationalize the measurement of your concepts.
Identify your unit of analysis.
Develop a list of the variables and their attributes that you intend to use.
Discuss (if applicable) how you will insure the validity and reliability of your measures.
Discuss (if applicable) the strategies you will use to protect human subjects
Comprehensively discuss the actual research method (e.g. survey, experiment, secondary
analysis, etc.) you will use during the data collection step.
Identify the sampling strategies (if applicable) that you intend to use.
Develop the measurement instruments (e.g. survey, pretests/posttests, coding sheets, etc)
you intend to us, if any.
Develop a-priori assumptions for your analysis.
Identify the anticipated weakness of your research proposal.
Not all of these will apply to every research plan. For example, some research projects may not
include a sampling plan or a-priori analysis statements. However, you will be evaluated on the
extent to which you addressed or considered each of these issues.
The following resources may be helpful to you as you develop your literature review.
o Exercise #5a – Creating a Variables and Attributes Table
o Exercise #5b – Writing the Hypotheses (include worksheet)
o Exercise #5c – Creating and Defending Conceptual Definitions (include
worksheet)
o Exercise #5d – Operationalizing Your Conceptual Definitions
o Exercise #5e – Will Your Method Work?
Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)
1. The extent to which you have considered the methodological concepts that are relevant to
your research project. For example, if your research requires the collection of a sample,
then your research plan should discuss how you intend to collect the sample.
2. Whether or not you have accurately applied the methodological concepts.
3. Would the proposed method produce the data necessary to answer the research question?
THE RESEARCHER’S NOTEBOOK
Assignment #6
Synthesizing Your Research Proposal
DUE: Enter due date here
Points Available: 25
At this point you have three documents – an introduction, a literature review and an outline of a
research plan. The purpose of this assignment is to provide you the opportunity to merge these
three documents into a single document.
A research proposal, sometimes called a prospectus, is the first three sections of a research report
– the introduction, the literature review and the methods sections. In an academic environment a
research prospectus would be presented to a thesis or dissertation committee. If the committee
agrees with the researchers plan then they may approve the student to complete the research
project. The functional equivalent of this routinely occurs in criminal justice practice. Often
practitioners are asked to offer proposals for conducting agency sponsored research or to secure
the necessary resources.
Merge and rewrite if necessary your introduction, literature review and research plan into a
single document in the form of a research proposal. Use the resource titled, Tips for
Synthesizing the Introductory, Literature Review and Methods Outline Sections, to help you with
this process.
Key Assessment Issues (Your grade is based on)
1. The extent to which your introduction, literature review and methods plan are congruent.
For example, your literature review should be relevant to your research question and the
methods plan should produce the data necessary to answer your research question. This
may require extensive revision.
2. The readability of your manuscript. The information should be well organized.
3. Grammar, spelling and punctuation
Exercise #1a – Creating a Researcher’s Notebook
The notebook method is a highly effective technique for organizing large amounts of information
for a research project or paper. This method is particularly useful for individuals that
simultaneously manage multiple priorities or for those unable to work on a single project from
start to finish without an interruption. Use the following instructions to create a notebook for
your research project.
1. To set up your notebook you will need a two (2) inch three ring binder and a set of eight
tabbed dividers. Pockets on the inside of the notebook are helpful. In this notebook you will
keep all the information relevant to your project. The notebook should be divided into the
following sections.
TASK LIST
INFORMATION TO LOCATE
INSTRUCTIONS
PROPOSAL
SOURCES AND NOTES
OUTLINE / WORKING DRAFT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FINAL PAPER
2. In the front of the notebook keep a "TASK LIST". On this list write down all the tasks you
can think of that are necessary to complete or progress to the next stage of the project. Be
sure to include the anticipated time necessary to complete each task. Ideally, the tasks on the
list should require different amounts of time. For example, one task, reading a short article,
might take 15 minutes. Another task, finding five articles, might take thirty minutes.
Normally during the course of a day you will find several fifteen to twenty minute
increments of uncommitted or transitional time. Occasionally, you may even find as much as
an hour. This time can easily be devoted to your project if you have previously identified the
length of time necessary to complete each task.
The "Task List" is critical for individuals (most of us) that cannot devote enough time to
complete a single project before moving on to another. At the end of each research or
writing session make a list of things you need to do when you are able to return to the
project. When you return to the project, the "Task List" reminds you where you stopped.
But more importantly, the "Task List" tells you where to start. This improves your
continuity and speeds up the research and writing processes.
3. In the "INFORMATION TO LOCATE" section keep a working list of the information,
articles, books, policy manuals, people, etc. that you want to locate or contact for information
during your research. Typically, during the research process you will find information that
leads you to another source of additional information. For example, after reading an article
you may notice that the bibliography includes references to other articles that might be useful
to your project. Similarly, individuals that you contact may refer you to another person or
department for further information on your topic. When you identify these additional sources
of information, list them in the "INFORMATION TO LOCATE" section. Later, after you
have located all of your ‘original’ sources, and when you have enough time, you can look up
the other articles or contact the additional people for more information.
The "INFORMATION TO LOCATE" section supports another very important part of the
research process called pyramiding. Since most research projects result in relatively short
documents (e.g. articles) it is critical to use only the most authoritative sources. In almost
every topic there are a few individuals that are recognized as experts. Typically, these
experts are cited again and again in the bibliographies of other articles relating to the subject
of your research. When you reach this level of repetition you can be relatively sure that you
have found the most authoritative research on your topic.
4. In the "INSTRUCTIONS" section keep information relating to the mechanics of writing
your paper. You will refer to this section often as you begin to write your final paper. At a
minimum this section should include the names and addresses of potential publishers and the
manuscript and citation formats.
5. Keep your original proposal or idea in the "PROPOSAL" section. It will be necessary for
you to periodically refer to your proposal while conducting your research or writing the
paper. The comments on the proposal made by previous reviewers should be instructive as
you begin the research. In addition, because the research
6. In the "SOURCES AND NOTES" section you will include copies of articles, policies,
interviews and all other materials that you may use as sources in your paper. As you research
your topic you will find that some of the information in the articles you locate does not relate
to your topic. The key to effective research is to separate what you can use from what is not
relevant to your project. This process starts by recalling the purpose and content
requirements of your paper. Knowing this you can readily identify the information that is
relevant to your topic as you read through the source. Many researchers simply copy and
highlight key passages from the sources. This may be necessary if you do not have ready
access to a library. However, the most effective way to conduct research is to make notes on
the sources. These notes should include information (quotes, statistics or concepts) from the
sources that are relevant to your project, or what you might highlight if you copied the
source. Your notes should include the full bibliographic citation of the source and the page
number(s) from which each relevant quote, statistic or concept is found. At first, this will be
a tedious and time-consuming process. However, making notes in this way will be of
substantial benefit later as you begin writing your first draft.
7. The initial and subsequent drafts of your paper will be filed in the "OUTLINE/WORKING
DRAFT" section. It is in this section that you will "assemble" your first draft and eventually
the final paper.
Admittedly, the process of transferring information from your sources and notes into the
paper’s format is tedious and time consuming. However, using the following steps as a guide
can save a substantial amount of time.
a. From the outline of your research paper, develop an expanded outline.
b. Remove your sources and notes from the notebook and place them in the upper left
hand corner of your desk.
c. From the first source or set of notes in your stack, identify the information (quotes,
statistics or concepts) pertinent to your project. This is usually the information you have
previously highlighted or written down in the form of notes.
d. Using your outline as a guide, determine where each quote, statistic or concept from
your sources or notes should "fit" into the paper. You should anticipate that different
quotes, statistics or concepts from a single source may be cited in several places
throughout your paper.
e. Transfer each quote, statistic or concept into the appropriate section of your expanded
outline. Be sure to include the parenthetical citation (author's last name and the page
number) as you transfer the information.
f. This process continues until all information from all sources is incorporated into the
expanded outline.
When all information from your sources has been transferred into the expanded outline you
are ready to begin actually writing the first draft. The first step is to read over your outline
looking for information that may be included in the wrong place. Second, it is usually a good
idea to double check the number of citations between sections. Third, arrange each quote,
statistic or concept in a logical manner within each subsection of the paper. For example, if
you are outlining the development of a legal principle, it is normally a good idea to arrange
court findings chronologically. Finally, write the transitional sentences between the citations.
When this is completed your first draft is ready for review.
8. In the "BIBLIOGRAPHY" section keep a running list of the sources you intend to use in
the final report. If you are using a computer keep it on a disk. If you do not have access to a
computer or prefer not to use one, you may put the references on index cards. The cards can
be easily alphabetized later. Keeping a separate bibliography section saves an immense
amount of time during the final stages of writing the paper.
9. Keep your final paper in the "FINAL PAPER" section. This version of the paper will be
used to make revisions during the publication or review phase of your research.
Exercise #2a – Developing a Research Topic
The objective of this exercise is to assist you with developing a research topic and question.
Ideally a research topic or question should be;
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Measurable. A research question should have the capacity to be measured. For
example, the question, Is chocolate better than vanilla? cannot be measured. A better
question would be; Which flavor (chocolate or vanilla) is more popular? You can
measure ‘popularity’ but it is not likely we would agree on way to measure ‘better’.
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Unanswered. Very few research questions in social sciences are completely unanswered.
With the exception of new or emerging social trends and phenomena, most issues in the
social sciences have been asked and answered by another researcher. This does not mean
that future social science researchers have little more to do than learn from the research
of their predecessors. Societies are changing every day, sometimes dramatically. Who
could have predicted the effects of social media on social interactions prior to the
popularity of Facebook? Old research needs to be replicated. Lingering questions from
past research need to be explored. New research and analytical techniques need to be
applied to old data. There is always more to do.
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Doable. All research projects have practical limits. Money, time and access to expertise
are always finite. A researcher may want to conduct a nationwide survey of prison
inmates, but unless he or she has considerable funding and time it is not likely to happen.
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Interesting but not passionate. It is important for a researcher to be interested in a
research topic. The investment of time necessary to complete a research project can be
considerable. Often researchers spend weeks, months and even years working on a single
project. Being interested in a research project’s topic is essential for maintaining focus
over the long haul. Being passionate about a research topic, however, can be
counterproductive. Researchers should avoid topics that they are passionate about.
Emotional involvement in a research topic can restrict a researcher’s objectivity.
Begin the process by thinking generally about the topics that might interest you.
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Brainstorm. List as many topics or issues you can think of without taking the time to
judge their suitability Brainstorming works best when it is done in groups and out loud.
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What is or was your favorite subject in school? What classes have you taken that you
wished would have lasted longer? What subjects do you seem to have a knack for? If
you could take any class for free what would it be?
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What do you want to do after college? Do you have a career path in mind? Is there
something you are considering doing after college that you would like to learn more
about? Who do you know that has an interesting job?
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Narrow. By now you should have a list of six to twelve general topics. Some of the
topics on your list may be related. If so try to combine them into a single topic. Carry
the list around with you and over the next few days circle the three topics that interest
you the most. From this list decide on a topic.
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Do a quick search. Go to the library or get on the Internet and do a quick search to see
how much research is available. If you have selected a good topic then you should feel
overwhelmed by the volume of information available. If not then you might consider
using different search terms, looking in other databases, or expanding your topic area a
bit.
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Make a decision. This may be the hardest part of the research process. Deciding on a
topic is difficult because it is a commitment. You might be worried that your topic is too
new to have any previous research available for your literature review. This is usually
not a problem. There is almost always some research on a topic. You might also be
pleasantly surprised to learn that most of the research on your topic was done within
another academic discipline. Besides, the lack of knowledge about a particular topic is,
within itself, an important finding. Who knows, your research might be the first. You
might be worried that your topic has been studied too much and that your research will
not produce any new findings. Here again, this is usually not a problem. You can always
replicate another researcher’s project or study an issue from an alternative perspective.
Now that you have a topic that you think will work for you begin developing the research
question. Start by;
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Narrowing the focus. The research should be a single subject and very specific. Many
inexperienced researchers and writers make a mistake by attempting to cover too much.
Your research question should be sufficiently narrowed to insure it can be
comprehensively covered within the limit of your research assignment.
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Asking a question. Research questions are interrogative. This means that they are
questions. Write your research question in the form of a question.
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Developing some preliminary search terms. Search terms are used in indexes, databases
or on the Internet to find research sources that are related to your topic. Often publishers
ask researchers to write a few search terms for the articles appearing in their journals to
make it easier for subsequent researchers (like yourself) to find relevant articles.
Exercise #2b – Topic Selection/Research Question Demonstration
Let us assume that, after considering many subjects, you have decided to conduct research on
domestic violence. This is a good topic; however, in its present form it is too broad for even a
semester long research project. Try to narrow the focus a little as you develop your research
question. Here is an example.
Domestic violence
Mandatory arrest polices for domestic abusers
Do mandatory arrest policies reduce repetitive domestic violence?
Are victims of domestic abuse less likely to call the police if they know the police
department has a mandatory arrest policy?
Does a mandatory arrest policy increase the probability of officer injury?
From this single topic we have created three viable research questions. This process is tedious
and time consuming, but in the long run you will appreciate having narrow research question.
The next step is to develop some search terms. These terms will be used while you are looking
for research on your topic as part of the literature review process. These terms can be used on
the database indexes available to you at the library (e.g. CJ Abstracts) or on the Internet. Let’s
assume our research question is;
Are victims of domestic abuse less likely to call the police if they know the police
department has a mandatory arrest policy?
Some preliminary search terms might be;
Effects of mandatory arrest policies
Results of mandatory arrest policies
Domestic abuse or mandatory arrest unintended consequences
Domestic violence injury or injuries (public health research)
Domestic violence victim studies
Exercise #3a – Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal
Once you have selected a topic and written a research question the next step is to write the
introduction. You should write the introduction prior to looking seriously for the research you
will use in your literature review. The reason for this is simple. It is very easy to get distracted
when you get into the literature. You may find yourself wandering into other areas of inquiry.
You need something to remind yourself periodically of what your focus is in order to keep on
task. A properly constructed introduction keeps you from being distracted during the entire
research process and most especially as you look for information to include in your literature
review.
One way of approaching this important task is to consider the content of the introduction. What
information should be in an introduction? Of course the answer to this question may vary
depending upon who you ask and you are encouraged to seek guidance from your professor. As
a starting point, the following items should be covered in the introductory section of any research
project.





The purpose of the research. Research is intended to explore, describe or explain.
Exploratory research tends to focus on new or emerging issues. Descriptive research
describes a condition existing at a point in time. Explanatory research might attempt to
identify the cause of a social phenomenon or behavior. Each of these purposes is
legitimate but they are not mutually exclusive. It is possible for a research project to
have more than one purpose. Ideally, in this section you should succinctly state your
research question.
The problem or issue. This section of the introduction attempts to convince the reader
that reading the report is worth the time. On a daily basis we are all bombarded with
information, most of which we never ask for. So, why would I want to read your
research? Does it cover a topic that affects me?
The intended audience of the research project. This tells the reader who should care
about the research. Don’t assume that everybody will be interested in your research
topic. Decide on what type of individuals would be benefited by knowing the
information. Is this research done for police officers, school teachers, corrections
workers, or probation officers? Who would care about this research? Be as specific as
possible and use this as an opportunity to make a case on the relevance of your research.
The sources of information used during the research process. This section provides
context to the research and further informs the reader on the relevance of the research
from their perspective. Where did you go to find your information? Does your research
include scholarly literature or did you just read a few magazine articles? Who (e.g. what
experts) did you talk to when you were looking for information? Did you use data that
had been collected by another person?
The research methods you used during the research process. This section informs the
reader how you went about the process of gathering the data or information you needed
to answer the research question. Did you do a survey? If so, who did you send it to?
Did you do an experiment? Did you use secondary data? If so, from where did you get
this data? Normally, you will describe your research method in greater detail in another
section. For now, a brief description is all that is necessary.


The intended outcome of your research. This section is closely related to the purpose of
the research. It is a little different in that it attempts to explain to the reader how the
research should be consumed and/or responded to. Is this something that requires
immediate action? Should this information be filed away to be used at some time in the
future?
How your research paper is organized. This is the most mechanical part of the
introduction. In this section you normally inform the reader of how the paper is
organized and briefly what is included in each section.
Sometimes researchers have difficulty writing the introduction because they are afraid that once
their research is done they will have to revise their introduction. Frankly, it would be rare for a
researcher to not change the introduction once the research is completed. At this point in the
process, even though you have done some planning, there is really know way to know exactly
how the research will turn out. It is very likely that your research project will change. You may
revise your research question or amend your research method along the way. That is fine and
should be expected. The important thing is to get your intentions down on paper at the outset so
you can stay on task during the process. Revising something you have already written is far
easier than staring at a blank computer screen.
Exercise 3b – Introduction Worksheet
Sometimes it helps you get started if you turn the content requirements into questions.
What is the purpose of your research (explore, describe, explain)?
What is the title (or subject) of your research project?
What is the problem or issue your project will be addressing, or why is your project important
to the reader?
What is the intended audience of your project?
What are the sources of information or method(s) do you intend to use in your project?
What is the intended outcome of your project, or how do you hope to use your project after it is
completed?
Exercise #4a – Brainstorming the Literature Review Outline
The overall objective of the literature review is to summarize the available research on a
particular topic. Immediately after writing the introduction but before actively looking for the
research on your topic you should create an outline for the literature review. This outline should
represent your initial perception on how you would like to arrange information so that it
communicates to the reader;




What previous researchers have learned about a particular topic (what we know),
What previous researchers have not learned about a particular topic (what we don’t
know),
The issues previous researchers agree on, and
The issues previous researchers do not agree on.
There are a number of effective outlining tools available. Some of these are even available online. You might even have a favorite outlining method, and if so, you should follow whatever
method works for you. But, in case you don’t, one of the most effective outlining strategies is
sometimes called a bubble sheet. Here is how it works.
1. On a blank sheet of paper write down as many sections of your literature review you can
think of. Sometimes it helps if you think about the controversies of your topic. You will
likely want to include a section on the history of your topic. You might also want to
include a section on the legal issues relating to your topic. At this point don’t be overly
concerned with how the outline will look in the end. Just allow you mind to wander and
fill up the entire page even if you have to write sideways and in the margins.
2. Circle each item you have written down. These are the bubbles.
3. Draw lines to connect similar items. This will produce groups of similar topics.
Eventually these will become the sections and subsections of your outline.
4. Transfer the groups of similar items into a standard outline format.
5. Look over your new outline to see if it makes sense to you. Each of the sections should
be distinct. For example, if you have one section on the ‘history’ of your topic and
another section on the ‘development’ of your topic you might consider combining these
two sections into a single section called ‘history and development’.
6. At this point do not be concerned about a section having only one subsection. You likely
learned in high school English that you are not supposed to do this. But, you are in
college now and besides - this is only a preliminary outline anyway.
Exercise #4b - Bubble Sheet Outline Demonstration
Are victims of domestic abuse less likely to call the police if they know the police
department has a mandatory arrest policy?
What is the extent of
injuries and death
associated with
domestic violence?
History of mandatory
arrest policies
B
How many states, cities,
or departments have
mandatory arrest
policies?
Legal aspects of
mandatory arrest
policies
A
How many domestic
violence cases are
there?
What is domestic
violence?
D
Is there any evidence that
women are less likely to
report domestic abuse if
they know their domestic
partner will be arrested?
E
Are there any
unintended
consequences related to
mandatory arrest
policies?
Police liability relating
to mandatory arrests
and failure to arrest
What do mandatory
arrest policies require
the police to do?
How has domestic
violence changed in
the past twenty years?
Is there any evidence that
mandatory arrest policies
actually deter repeat
offending?
C
How are cops trained
to respond to domestic
violence?
How has domestic
violence
enforcement/training
changed?
How dangerous is
domestic violence
enforcement for cops?
Would mandatory
arrest policies apply to
college roommates?
Do mandatory arrest
policies apply to
divorced people?
Preliminary Literature Review Outline
Using the bubble sheet create a preliminary outline for the literature review. The outline below
was created from the bubble sheet on the previous page. You may notice that some of the items
changed when they were transferred into the actual outline. Note that the letters (A, B, C, D, and
E) were entered onto the bubble sheet after the groupings of similar topics. This established the
order for the sections in the outline.
A. Domestic Violence
1. Definition
2. History of domestic violence
a. Historical trends
b. Extent of injury and death
B. Mandatory arrest policies
1. How and why domestic violence and mandatory arrest policies happened
2. Growth and extent of mandatory arrest policies
C. How mandatory arrest policies work
1. How domestic violence enforcement has changed from “take no action it is a civil
matter” to mandatory arrest
2. Dangerousness of domestic violence enforcement
2. How mandatory arrest polices are applied (situational examples)
3. How mandatory arrest polices have changed domestic violence enforcement
D. Legal aspects of mandatory arrest policies
1. Why mandatory arrest policies are necessary
2. Liability issues relating to enforcement
E. The effectiveness of mandatory arrest policies
1. Do mandatory arrest policies deter repeat offending?
2. Are there any unintended consequences associated with mandatory arrest policies?
3. Is there any evidence that victims are less likely to report domestic violence when they
know their domestic partner will be arrested?
Remember, this is only a preliminary outline for the literature review. You should anticipate that
this outline will change during and after the annotation process (i.e. when you arrange cited
materials from the literature to the outline).
Exercise #4c – Planning and Managing the Literature Review Search
The objective of the literature review section in a typical research report is to communicate what
previous researchers know, don’t know, agree on and disagree about a particular subject.
Researchers will look over a great deal of research in order to find enough relevant information
to achieve this objective. Unfortunately, there is no single source of research information and
researchers often find it necessary to access information from numerous sources.
Starting the literature review process really depends on what the researcher already knows.
Researchers who know little about their research subject might consider reading textbooks
wherein multiple issues relating to the subject are discussed at length. On the other hand
researchers who know a great deal about a particular subject may choose to access the academic
literature wherein the information is more specific and timely. The following table outlines the
advantages and disadvantages of the most common sources of research and information available
to researchers.
Sources
Advantages
Disadvantages
Books
Often provide comprehensive
information on a topic.
Helpful for researchers who are
unfamiliar with a topic.
Even newly published books contain
information that is years old.
Academic or scholarly journals
Provide more current information
than books.
Topic coverage is narrower and
more specific.
Newspapers, magazines, and other
popular media
Provide timely information.
Easily accessible.
Depending on the focus of the
publication, key information (e.g. on
the research methodology) is often
missing.
Not all popular media sources are
authoritative.
Internet sources
Wide variety.
Easily accessible.
Often free.
Can provide timely information.
It is often difficult to determine the
objectivity and accuracy of
information appearing on a website.
Experts
Can provide practical and timely
information about a topic.
Experts may have a bias.
Where a researcher goes to find relevant information on a topic also depends on where other
researchers active in a particular topic are likely to publish their research. Finding books on a
particular topic is often accomplished by reviewing library collections or full service book
retailers like Amazon, Barnes and Noble, or Borders Books.
Scholarly literature is effectively located by accessing indexes that ‘point to’ research reports and
articles in numerous journals. These indexing services are available on-line at research libraries
(or through their websites) and are organized into general topic areas. Criminal Justice related
topics are often found in indexing services like Criminal Justice Abstracts, Criminal Justice
Periodical Index, LexisNexis, Social Science Citation Index and many others. These particular
indexes tend to provide access to more scholarly materials. Researchers interested in more
applied research subjects or evaluations of criminal justice programs may want to consider
accessing the National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Because Criminal Justice is a multidisciplinary, researchers may want to search indexes in other topical areas. For example, some
of the research on injuries and deaths related to domestic violence may be found in indexing
services that focus on public health research.
The Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature and similar services indexes articles published in
newspapers and magazines. Most university libraries have access to this or a similar indexing
service. Some libraries are repositories of government documents. The United States
government is the most prolific financier and filer of research information in the history of the
world. Criminal Justice researchers often find government sponsored research reports quite
useful. For example, the United States Department of Justice, through the Bureau of Justice
Statistics publishes dozens of reports each year on a wide variety of Criminal Justice related
research topics.
The Internet is an exciting place to find information. During the past two decades the amount of
information available on-line has grown exponentially. Unfortunately, along with this
convenience comes a bit of caution. Information on the Internet is often unfiltered by an editing
process and sometimes may even be biased. Researchers are cautioned to be highly suspect of
the information they find on the Internet by paying attention to sponsorship and advocacy. For
example, the research on the effectiveness of a controversial inmate rehabilitation program may
not be impartial when it appears on the website of the company that sells or advocates for that
particular program. Google is likely the most commonly used Internet search engine. This and
similar services adhere to rather complicated searching algorithms that may produce the most
popular websites rather than the most comprehensive.
Finding and accessing experts on a particular topic is easier than most researchers think. Nearly
all experts are willing to share their knowledge and experience with researchers. Often experts
are quoted in newspapers, magazines, websites and even the scholarly literature. Finding the
expert’s contact information is relatively easy when their companies and/or employers are also
mentioned in the article. In addition, there are numerous on-line and printed directories that
contain the names and contact information of recognized experts in nearly every field.
Finally, very early in the process it will be necessary to develop a set of search terms. These
words and phrases are used by indexing services to both organize and later locate relevant
articles and information. Often researchers are asked to list search terms along with the articles
they publish in order to insure accuracy in the indexing and searching processes. Developing
effective search terms for locating relevant research is as much of an art as it is a science. The
most difficult part is finding the words or combination of words that produce access to the most
relevant information. Inexperience researchers often find it necessary to ‘read up’ on topic
before developing search terms in order to become familiar with the common terms used by
other researchers. Even experienced researchers sometimes find this process a bit tedious.
Many university libraries are staffed with experienced research librarians that can assist
researchers with the search process.
Exercise #4d - Starting the Literature Review Process
Instructions: Complete the following worksheet prior to searching for sources to include in your
literature review.
1. Write the title of your research project in the block below.
2. Based on your current knowledge of this research subject, which of the following source(s)
will provide you the information you need initially? (Check all that apply.)
Sources
Books
Academic or scholarly journals
Newspapers, magazines, and other popular media
Internet sources
Experts
3. Which of the following source(s) are likely to contain research on your topic? (Check all that
apply.)
Sources
Books
Academic or scholarly journals
Newspapers, magazines, and other popular media
Internet sources
Experts
4. List all of the possible words, combinations of words or phrases that are relevant to your
topic. These will be your initial search terms.
5. Access the literature (books, indexes, Internet, experts) and locate sources that are relevant to
your topic. List the citations for these sources below.
6. Briefly read these sources to determine whether your initial search terms are effective at
finding relevant research. If not, revise your search terms and repeat step #5.
7. Once you are confident that your search terms are effective continue the pyramiding process
as described in the CREATING A RESEARCH NOTEBOOK exercise, specifically relating to
the Information to Locate and Sources and Notes sections.
Exercise #4e – Annotating the Literature Review Outline
To ‘annotate’ is to add critical or explanatory notes to a text. For example, some textbooks
feature information set out in shaded boxes or in the margins. These annotations are intended to
provide students with additional insight on a particular issue, topic or concept.
In this instance we are using the term to describe the process by which you will add and organize
the information you found in the previous research that is relevant to your topic to your literature
review outline.
Although a bit tedious, this process has two distinct advantages. First, in the long run it saves
research time. At first this process may appear cumbersome and time consuming, and it is.
Writing the first draft of the literature review from an annotated outline, however, takes less
overall time and requires fewer revisions than less structured processes. Second, this process
results in a much better product. The annotation process helps researchers identify areas of the
research wherein there is general agreement or disagreement among scholars. In addition, the
annotation process identifies unexplored issues within a research agenda. Here are the step by
step instructions.
1. Print out a one page copy of your literature outline and place it in a place where you can
refer to it easily.
2. Using a word process (or paper if you prefer) expand your literature review outline by
adding blank spaces between the sections and subsections. At first, about a half of a page
between each section and subsection should be enough. At this point it is too soon to
make substantive changes to your outline. Just add some space. This is your expanded
outline.
3. From the “Sources and Notes” section of your notebook select a source (article, interview
notes, book, etc.) that includes information you want to include in your literature review.
4. Identify the parts (e.g. quotes, statistics, definitions, findings, etc.) in this source that you
want to include in your literature review. This is normally the information you either
highlighted in the article or made notes about from the article because it is relevant to
your own research. Some sources may have numerous parts you want to use. Others
may only have one.
5. Read the first item (e.g. quote, statistic, definition, finding, etc.) in that source. Using
your one page literature outline, find the most appropriate section or subsection in your
literature outline to place this information. You define the most appropriate section or
subsection. Don’t worry about making a mistake at this point. You can always change
your mind later.
6. Reproduce (retype or cut and paste) the item you identified in Step 5 in the place you
selected onto your expanded literature outline. BE SURE to enter the textual or
parenthetical citation information at the end of the item. Normally, this includes the
author’s last name, the year the source was published or accessed and the page number it
came from in the original source.
a. If this item is a quote reproduce it exactly as it appears in the original source.
Include quotation marks so you will remember that it is a quote and include the
page number it came from in the original source.
b. If it is not a quote summarize the information as you see fit. At this point don’t
worry about spelling, grammar or manuscript format (e.g. font size, font style,
margins, etc.). Just get it into the place you want it.
7. Select another item from the same source and repeat steps 5 and 6 until each of the items
from that source are annotated to your literature review outline. Don’t forget to
periodically, like each time you finish entering the information from a single source into
your expanded outline, SAVE your expanded outline.
8. Enter the citation information from the source into the “Bibliography” section of your
notebook.
9. Then, select another source.
10. Repeat steps 5 through 8 until you have exhausted your supply of sources.
When you are finished be sure to save your work. This is your annotated outline. At this point
do not be worried about the format or ‘look’ of the annotated outline. You should expect some
sections or subsections to have numerous entries while some have very few, or even none. The
information in each section of subsection will appear to be disorganized at first. That is because
it is and it will be until you prepare the outline for writing the first draft of the literature review.
Preparing the annotated outline for writing the first draft
1. Read over your annotated outline looking for information that may be included in the
wrong place. If you find something simply move it to the place you think is more
appropriate. Don’t be alarmed if you have to move something several times. You might
even decide to delete it altogether.
2. Look at the sections or subsections that have very few or no annotated sources. There are
several possible causes for this. First, you may not have found the research information
necessary to include this section. If this section or subsection is important to your
research then attempt to find additional information. It may be necessary to narrow your
search terms. Second, there may not be any research findings relevant to this section. In
this case you’ve likely discovered a void in the research, i.e. something that has not been
adequately researched. It might even be the main focus of your own research. Note this
lack of information in the overall outline of your research report, ideally in the
conclusion, so you can mention it as a possible future research recommendation. Third,
you might want to reconsider revising your outline by eliminating the section or
subsection altogether or merging it into another part of the literature review.
3. Read over the sections or subsections that have a lot of annotated sources. Here again,
there are several reasons for this. First, it may be that there is a great deal of information
in the research on this particular aspect of your research. Second, if there is a logical way
of reorganizing the sources you might consider revising your outline by adding sections
of subsections.
4. Organize the annotated sources within each section or subsection into a logical order.
This order is up to you. Here are some tips.
a. Some subjects, like the history or development of an issue, follow a chronological
pattern by date. One thing happens and then another.
b. Other subjects, like legal issues, can be organized into a chronological or
conceptual order. Legal concepts normally develop over time and often in a
chronological order, i.e. one case after another. Sometimes major legal decisions
are a culmination of numerous seemingly unrelated judicial findings. For
example, the right to privacy was ‘created’ from various concepts that arose from
multiple streams of jurisprudence.
c. Nearly all research subjects contain some controversy wherein some scholars
agree and others disagree about how research findings should be interpreted. As a
result it is not uncommon to find evidence of controversy within the annotations
in a single section or subsection. Often the best way to organize these annotations
is to group congruent sources together. For example, the juvenile delinquency
researchers who argue in support of social disorganization theory are in one group
and the researchers who argue in support of social learning theory into a separate
group.
Final thoughts
Before moving on to write the first draft of the literature review here are some suggestions.
1. Some of the sources you initially thought would be good may not have an appropriate
place in your literature review. If so, consider them for another section of your final
research report, like the introduction.
2. The research method used by a previous researcher might be helpful to you as you
develop the method for your own research. If so, you might want to consider including
the descriptions of how they did their research into the methods section of your own
research report.
3. Never completely discard a source. You might find it useful later one. Keep it in the
“Sources and Notes” section of your notebook for possible later use. section wherein you
Exercise #4f – Organizing What We Know/Don’t Know
and What We Agree on/Disagree on
Remember that one of the objectives of a literature review is to communicate;


What we (as researchers) know and don’t, and
What previous researchers agree on and disagree on
about a particular issue. Here are a few tips for doing that.
What we know or agree on
During the annotation process you likely found some research issues are relatively ‘settled’.
This means that the findings among previous researchers in this issue are relatively consistent.
These are the things that ‘everybody knows’ to be true. But, assume nothing. It is important for
you to read and understand the research and identify any slight differences between seemingly
similar research findings. Here is an example.
Your research on mandatory arrest policies in domestic violence research revealed surprise.
Throughout the extensive literature on this topic only ten researchers have asked whether
convicted domestic abusers engaged in other forms of violent or criminal behavior. All ten
found that individuals convicted of domestic violence also engaged in other forms of violence
and anti-social behavior, including animal abuse and the extensive use of alcohol and drugs.
Furthermore, each of these researchers found convicted domestic violators always owned at least
one firearm. No other researchers you found for your literature review asked this question.
During the annotation process you decide to include a new subsection in the part of your outline
that discusses the ‘typical domestic abuser’. Here is how you might write in this subsection of
your literature review;
Ten researchers find that convicted domestic abuse violators also routinely engage in other
forms of criminal, violent or abusive behaviors, including animal abuse and extensive use of
drugs and alcohol. In addition, these researchers find domestic abusers own at least one firearm
(Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards, 2002; Fuller, 2003; Grant, 2004; Harris,
2000; Isaac, 2009; Johnson, 2010 and Lewis, 2008). The literature review search failed to
reveal evidence of an alternative finding.
The passage above communicates a great deal. First, the relatively long list of researchers
(fictitious names) that agreed with your statement suggests a sustained consistency in the
findings between numerous researchers over a ten year time frame. Second, it is likely this issue
is ‘settled’, meaning additional research into this issue is likely to reveal the same finding.
Third, decision makers interested in this issue may use the consistency of this finding to change
policy or procedure. Finally, communicating that no evidence exists that would refute this
finding adds credence to the notion that scholars tend to agree on this particular issue.
What we don’t know or disagree on
In one subsection, toward the beginning, of your literature review outline you include a
subsection wherein you define the term “Domestic Violence”. You found fifteen researchers
who offered a definition. Eight of these define domestic violence as;
The inflicting of physical injury by one family or household member on another.
Three of these define domestic violence as;
The actual or threatened imposition of physical violence by one household member onto another.
Two researchers define domestic violence as;
The inflicting of physical injury by one member or former member of a domicile onto another.
And, two researchers define domestic violence as;
The inflicting or physical or psychological trauma by one member of a household onto another.
You can see there are important differences between these definitions. Some researchers limit
the definition to include actual physical injury. Others include the threat of physical injury.
And, some include psychological trauma. Some definitions would not include a former member
of a domicile, such as an ex-spouse or former roommate. Here is how you might write this
subsection of the literature review.
Most researchers define domestic violence as the inflicting of physical injury by one family or
household member on another (Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards, 2002; Fuller,
2003; Grant, 2004; Harris, 2000 and Isaac, 2009). Other researchers include the threat of
physical violence in their definitions of domestic violence (Johnson, 2010; Lewis, 2008 and
Moore, 2010). Some researchers expand the definition to include psychological trauma (Nash,
2009 and Ogden, 2007). Two researchers also expand the definition of domestic violence to
include both current and former members of a household, thereby including ex-spouses and
roommates (Patterson, 2005 and Quinn, 2008).
This passage communicates that a majority of the researchers tend to agree upon a definition.
But, more importantly, a large minority of researchers have an alternative view of how to define
this term. Both messages are equally important to the readers of your research.
At this point who is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ is not important. Your job as a researcher in the literature
review is to communicate the full extent of the research findings for a particular subject.
Editorial comments on the value or viability of another researcher’s work are better placed in
other sections of the research report.
A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words
Most people are visual learners. They remember the things they see better than the things they
hear or touch. Adding pictures to a literature review often improves a reader’s understanding of
the material and makes the communications process more effective.
Normally pictures, in the form of photographs, are not appropriate in the literature review of a
scholarly article, unless of course the focus of the research is on visual objects. Graphs, charts
and tables, however, have the same effect. Here is an example.
A researcher finds fifteen studies on the effect mandatory arrest policies on the frequency of
domestic violence incidents. This researcher summarizes these studies’ findings in the literature
review as follows.
In seven of the available studies the frequency of domestic violence incidents decrease following
the adoption of a mandatory arrest policy (Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards,
2002; Fuller, 2003; Grant, 2004 and Harris, 2000). Five studies find that frequency of domestic
violence incidents is unchanged following the adoption of a mandatory arrest policy ( Isaac,
2009; Johnson, 2010; Lewis, 2008; Moore, 2010 and Nash, 2009). Three studies find that the
frequency of domestic violence incidents actually increases following the adoption of a
mandatory arrest policy (Ogden, 2007; Patterson, 2005 and Quinn, 2008).
This summary, although technically accurate is rather repetitious and somewhat tedious to read.
As an alternative this researcher might consider communicating this message in the following
table.
Research findings on the effect of mandatory arrest policies on the frequency of domestic
violence incidents are somewhat inconclusive (see Table 1.).
Table 1. – Effects of mandatory arrest policies on the frequency of domestic violence incidents.
Effects
Studies
Decrease in
frequency of
domestic violence
incidents
(7 studies)
Allen, 2000
Bates, 2001
Charles, 2001
Edwards, 2002
Fuller, 2003
Grant, 2004
Harris, 2000
No change in
frequency of
domestic violence
incidents
(5 studies)
Isaac, 2009
Johnson, 2010
Lewis, 2008
Moore, 2010
Nash, 2009
Increase in
frequency of
domestic violence
incidents
(3 studies)
Ogden, 2007
Patterson, 2005
Quinn, 2008
Which format does a better job of communicating the same information? Which looks better to
you?
Exercise #4g – Writing the First Draft of Your Literature Review
After preparing your annotated outline (i.e. organizing the annotations in each section and
subsection) and developing effective communications strategies (e.g. tables, graphs or charts)
you are now ready to begin actually writing the first draft. Here are a few tips.
1. Remove everything from your desk (or screen) but your annotated outline.
2. Reformat each of the sections (in bold) and subsections (in italics) so you will be able to
keep up with where you are at during the process. You might even want to highlight
these with a different color. You can always reformat them when you are done in order
to comply with whatever style manual (e.g. APA, Turabian, MLA, etc.) you are required
to follow. For now these headings are just a guide.
3. Within each section or subsection
a. Re-read the annotations to reacquaint yourself with the information.
b. Using transitional phrases and sentences rewrite the section or subsection to
summarize the research findings within that section or subsection.
c. Try to summarize similar findings from multiple researchers into a single
sentence and list the studies (Author’s last name and year of publication) at the
end of each summary.
d. Incorporate the annotations along with their parenthetical and/or textual citations
as you write.
e. After finishing move on to the next section or subsection.
4. Try to avoid starting a major section with the information from its first subsection.
Instead write a brief description of what will be discussed in that section as a short
introduction.
5. Don’t be reluctant to either relocate or remove an annotation during the writing process if
necessary.
6. When all the sections and subsections are written go back through the document, revising
as you to, to insure the manuscript is readable.
7. Revise and/or delete section and subsection headings in accordance with the rules of your
style manual.
8. Continue to revise the manuscript until you are satisfied with its quality.
A Few Writing Tips

Use active rather than passive verbs.
o Active
 Mandatory arrest policies reduce the frequency of domestic violence
incidents.
o Passive
 The frequency of domestic violence incidents is reduced by mandatory
arrest policies.

Use the present rather than the past tense.
o Present
 These researchers find that….
o Past
 These researchers found that….

Watch noun/verb agreement. The noun and its verb in a single sentence must both be
either
o Singular, or
 The mandatory arrest policies state….
o Plural
 The mandatory arrest policy states….

Write short rather than long sentences.
o Sentences that take up three or more full lines are too long. This one contains 59
words.
 While mandatory arrest policies have their place it is important to
consider the value of police discretion in the decision making process
because not all domestic violence incidents are the same, what works in
one situation may be a disaster in another, so the police officer must have
the maximum level of discretion when making an enforcement decision.
o Two, or even three, short sentences are better than one long one. This one
communicates the same information in only 43 words.
 Mandatory arrest policies can be an effective enforcement tool. It is,
however, important to consider not all domestic violence incidents are the
same. Because of this police officers must be afforded the discretion to
decide for themselves the most appropriate enforcement strategy.

Don’t write to impress. Avoid the use of complicated words, qualifying phrases and
parenthetical clauses when you write. Impress your reader with what you know about the
topic, not with your vocabulary.
o This sentence impresses nobody.
 While the causes of domestic violence are diverse and as complicated as
the relationships between cohabiters, society has an obligation to protect
victims of violence regardless of the context within which the victimization
occurs.
o This one is more like it.
 The causes of domestic violence are complicated. It is important for
society to protect individuals who are victimized by violence.

Write with the audience in mind. Scholarly writing is different than magazine writing
because their audiences are dissimilar. Use words and phrases that are understandable
and have relevance to your audience.

Tell the story. Often new scholarly writers are reluctant to write conversationally, or as if
they are telling a story. This is probably because much of what they see in academic
journals is formally written. Avoid this if possible. Write the literature review (and the
rest of the research report for that matter) as if you are communicating your ideas to a
friend.

Give yourself some time. Don’t wait until the last minute to write your literature review.
Wait a day or so after you’ve prepared the annotated outline before you attempt the first
draft of the literature review. Write the first draft and then leave it alone for a day or so
before revising it. Then look over it, revising if you must, the day a few days before it is
due just to be sure you have it right.

Use the ‘buddy system’. Find a classmate or friend willing to read your manuscript and
offer suggestions for improving it. Pick somebody who writes well. Many colleges and
universities have free writing clinics and tutors. Pick somebody who is not afraid of
being frank about your writing. Your reviewer should be comfortable enough to be
constructively critical of your work without risking your relationship.
Exercise #4h – Creating a Theoretical Context
A theory is a cause and effect statement that attempts to predict the outcome of events or
conditions. Theory is an important part of the research process. Research is often done to either
develop or test a theory about human or social behavior. Inductive research begins with a single
observation of human or social behavior and ends with the creation of a theory to explain why an
individual or group of individuals behaved in the way they did. Deductive research begins with
a theory and culminates with a series of observations that tests the viability of the theory.
Either way, theory is necessary in criminal justice research. Well developed and tested theories
communicate what we believe to be true about human and social behavior. When research is
able to demonstrate the viability of a theory the researcher provides valuable insight into human
behavior. This insight guides future researchers as well as influences public policy. The
following is a demonstration of how a researcher identified the theoretical context of a research
project on mandatory arrest policies.
The researcher developed the following question.
Do policies requiring the police to arrest individuals suspected of domestic violence reduce the
incidence of domestic violence in a community?
What theory proposes that individuals will refrain from certain behaviors when the penalty for
getting caught (in this case an arrest and likely prosecution) is relatively certain? Assuming
individuals will behave in ways to avoid punishment one might suggests that specific deterrence
or rational choice theory would be a viable explanation.
Let’s suppose our researcher developed a different question?
Do policies requiring potential domestic abusers to submit to rigorous marriage counseling or
anger management programs reduce the incidence of domestic violence in a community?
This question makes a different assumption about human behavior, doesn’t it? It assumes
individuals who have a tendency to be domestic abusers can develop pro-social behaviors when
exposed to appropriate training. Maybe the theoretical context of this question would fit within
the social learning or cognitive learning theory traditions.
Normally, a researcher’s theory is presented early on in the research report. Ideally, this should
be done either just before or just after the literature review. Because theoretical statements and
hypotheses are linked it is usually advantageous to present then in the same section of the report.
Exercise #5a – Creating a Variables and Attributes Table
Before writing the hypotheses and conceptual definitions in your research project it is
usually a good idea to create a variables list. Placing all of your variables and their attributes in
one place helps you keep track of them over the course of your research. More importantly, this
exercise helps to identify duplication and gaps in your measurement.
Using the form below, list the attributes, level of measurement and classification for each
of the variables you intend to gather during your research project. Place this page in your
notebook so you can find it later when you need to make changes.
Name of variable
Name of variable
Attributes
Attributes
Level of measurement
(circle one)
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Classification
(circle one)
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Level of measurement
(circle one)
Nominal
Classification
(circle one)
Dependent
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Dependent
Independent
Intervening
Exercise #5b – Writing the Hypotheses (worksheet included)
A hypothesis is a statement usually derived from a theory that makes a prediction. There are
several types of hypotheses.
Difference and Association Hypotheses
Some hypotheses predict that two groups are different or that the exposure to something causes
change. These are called hypotheses of difference. Here is an example.
The threat of mandatory arrest deters potential domestic abusers from engaging in domestic
violence.
This hypothesis predicts that potential domestic abusers will change their behavior (e.g. decide
not to abuse their spouses) when they believe they will be arrested for doing so. Furthermore,
this hypothesis proposes that domestic abusers will not be deterred without the threat of an arrest.
Some hypotheses predict that things are associated, that is, they happen together. These are
called hypotheses of association. Here is an example.
The adoption of a mandatory arrest policy for domestic abusers is associated with a reduction of
domestic violence incidents in a community.
The distinction between hypotheses of difference and hypotheses of association is most critical
during the analysis phase of the research process. The type of hypothesis and the level at which
the data are measured determine the statistical techniques that are available to the researcher.
Null and Alternative Hypotheses
Hypotheses come in pairs. Research is intended to gather and analyze information or data in
order to support or falsify a hypothesis. These hypotheses can either predict a difference or
establish an association. The hypothesis the researcher wants to prove is normally referred to as
the alternative hypothesis, but may also be referred to as the research hypothesis.
The null hypothesis is a statement of no difference or association. The structure of research
requires the researcher to develop a null hypothesis for each alternative hypothesis. Here is an
example.
The Null Hypothesis (Ho:)
The threat of mandatory arrest does not influence potential domestic abusers from engaging in
domestic violence.
The Alternative Hypothesis (Ha:)
The threat of mandatory arrest deters potential domestic abusers from engaging in domestic
violence.
Notice that in the previous example the null hypothesis is not the opposite of the alternative
hypothesis. For the null hypothesis to be the opposite it would have to state that the threat of
mandatory arrest encourages domestic abusers to engage in domestic violence. Instead, the null
hypothesis merely states that the threat of mandatory arrest does not influence potential domestic
abusers in any way.
The Researcher’s Decision
The focus of every research project is initially on the null hypothesis. After gathering and
analyzing the information or data the researcher must answer the following question.
Does the information or data I collected and analyzed support the null hypothesis?
If the answer to this question is yes the researcher accepts the null hypothesis and rejects the
alternative hypothesis. In other words, the researcher failed to prove his original alternative
hypothesis. This, however, should not be considered a failure. Instead the researcher has
contributed to the literature and now should be challenged to revise his alternative hypothesis
and begin a new research project.
If the answer to this question is no the researcher rejects the null hypothesis as false and accepts
the alternative hypothesis. In other words, the researcher proved his original alternative
hypothesis.
Hypothesis Worksheet
Let’s write the alternative and null hypotheses for your research project using the following
example.
Ha: The threat of mandatory arrest deters potential domestic abusers from engaging in domestic
violence.
Ho: The threat of mandatory arrest does not affect a potential domestic abuser from engaging in
domestic violence.
These hypotheses, like all hypotheses, have at least two variables, one dependent (the effect) and
one independent (the cause). In our example;


The independent variable (or cause of the dependent variable) is: The threat of
mandatory arrest.
The dependent variable (or the result of the independent variable) is: Engaging in
domestic violence.
Follow these steps to help you write your alternative and null hypotheses.
1.
Write your research question in the following blank.
2. Write the independent and dependent variables in your research question in the following
spaces. You may have more than one independent variable, but for now use only one.
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Our example hypothesis, again like all hypotheses, has an action word or phrase. This word or
phrase describes the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. In our
example;
The action word/phrase is: Deters.
3.
Write the action word or phrase for your research question in the following blank. Be
specific about how you think the independent variable will affect (i.e. change or be
associated with) the dependent variable. You might try using synonyms or similar phrases.
4. Now, in the blank below write the three elements of your alternative hypothesis (the
independent variable, the action word/phrase, and the dependent variable) into a single
predictive sentence.
5. This alternative hypothesis is (select one)
 A hypothesis of difference
 A hypothesis of association
6. Write your null hypothesis in the following blank. Be sure your null hypothesis is a
statement of no difference or association.
Repeat this process if your research has more than one hypothesis.
Exercise 5c – Creating and Defending Conceptual Definitions (worksheet
included)
Research in the social sciences is a bit more challenging than in the physical sciences. Physical
scientist (e.g. chemist, physicist, etc.) have standardized measures. Every chemist in the world
knows and agrees that the stability of a chemical compound depends on the strength of the bonds
between its molecules. The things social scientists are interested in are much more difficult to
measure. How to you measure the strength of family bonds?
Social scientists define the things they measure through a process known as conceptualization.
This process develops precise definitions for vague concepts and begins the measurement
process. More often than not the conceptual definitions developed by social scientists omit
(sometimes on purpose) certain aspects of a phenomenon. Here is an example,
Professor: How would you define the concept – poverty?
Student: Poverty is when you are poor?
Professor: Poor? What does that mean?
Student: When you don’t make enough money to live on, that is poor.
Professor: So, if I get laid off of my job and cannot afford my mansion does that mean that I am
poor?
Student: No, that just means that you have to adjust your standard of living. Poor means you
don’t earn enough money to buy the basic necessities like food, clothing and shelter.
Professor: Oh, I understand. I have a friend who gets $850.00 per month from his retirement
account, or about $10,200 per year. This is $630.00 below the federal poverty guideline. Would
you consider him poor, or, I mean in poverty?
Student: Yes, I would. By that measure your friend would not be able to afford the basic
necessities.
Professor: OK, but my friend has millions of dollars in investments, his house and cars are paid
for and he grows most of what he eats. Is he still poor?
Student: No, your friend had options that poor people don’t.
Professor: What about my other friend who makes a great deal of money but lives in a small
house, drives an old car and never picks up the tab at lunch? He also washes out bread sacks to
reuse them and hasn’t thrown away an empty margarine tub in years. He was raised during the
Great Depression and developed very thrifty habits. Is he poor?
Student: No, but he acts like he is poor.
Professor: So poverty can be defined in terms of what a person earns in salary, but are you also
saying that this concept can be defined in behavioral terms.
You can see how maddening this can be for a social scientist.
Writing the Conceptual Definition
One strategy for developing a conceptual definition is to look to the literature for guidance. In an
earlier exercise we wrote a section of a literature review that outlined the various definitions for
the concept – domestic violence. Here is what we learned.
Most researchers define domestic violence as the inflicting of physical injury by one family or
household member on another (Allen, 2000; Bates, 2001; Charles, 2001; Edwards, 2002; Fuller,
2003; Grant, 2004; Harris, 2000 and Isaac, 2009).
This definition would not include people who threaten family or household members with
violence. If a man says to his wife, “If you overdraw the checking account one more time I am
going to sock you?” That would not be domestic violence using the above definition. So, we
find another definition in the literature that would.
Other researchers include the threat of physical violence in their definitions of domestic violence
(Johnson, 2010; Lewis, 2008 and Moore, 2010).
This definition only includes the threat of physical violence. What about psychological trauma.
If a woman says to her mentally retarded child, “You are an idiot. You’ll never amount to
anything but a babbling moron?” That would not be domestic violence using the above
definition. So, we find another definition in the literature that would.
Some researchers expand the definition to include psychological trauma (Nash, 2009 and
Ogden, 2007).
These researchers include psychological trauma in the definition of domestic violence. But none
of these definitions include former spouses or roommates. So, again, we find another definition
in the literature that would.
Two researchers also expand the definition of domestic violence to include both current and
former members of a household, thereby including ex-spouses and roommates (Patterson, 2005
and Quinn, 2008).
After considering all of the available definitions we can either chose the one we like the best or
develop a new one, like this;
Domestic violence – The actual or threatened infliction of physical injury or psychological
trauma by a current or former household member onto another current or former
household member.
Another effective strategy is to write a definition and then ask other informed researchers to
critique it. Here are some good discussion prompts.



This is how I define [name of concept]. What do you think about this definition?
Can you think of any kinds of people that would not be included in this definition that
should be?
Can you think of any kinds of people that are included in this definition that should not
be?





Can you think of any situations that would not be included in this definition that should
be?
Can you think of any situations that are included in this definition that should not be?
Are there any parts of this definition that should be deleted, or included?
Is there any portion of this concept that I have not accounted for in my definition?
Is my definition too broad, too narrow?
This process is a bit like a ‘what- if game’, but the results of it can be quite helpful. For
additional guidance on how to do this you might read the sections in Chapters 2 and X how to
pretest a survey instrument.
A third strategy is to focus your conceptual definition on the narrowest part of the phenomenon
that is most important to your research. For example, you might be interested in juvenile crime,
but are you interested in all forms of juvenile crime? Do you distinguish between status offenses
(behaviors that are only against the law for juveniles) or any offense committed by a juvenile?
Are you interested in violent crime, property crime or both?
Once you’ve narrowed your focus (sort of like the process you went through when you wrote
your original research question) write your definition as precisely as possible. Pretend you are a
lawyer or legislator writing a legal definition. After that you can expand your definition if
necessary.
Defending the Conceptual Definition
New researchers are often apprehensive about writing their conceptual definitions. Mostly they
are concerned that they get it right. As well they should. Haphazardly written conceptual
definitions cause numerous problems during the research process, especially during the data
collection and interpretation phases.
Nearly every conceptual definition in the social sciences is missing some dimension of the
phenomenon it purports to define. Few are perfect. The keys to defending your conceptual
definition are;
1. Be as precise as possible,
2. Be purposeful by including the dimensions you want to include,
3. Be aware of what your definition does not include, and
4. Be upfront about your definition’s weaknesses.
Above all, remember that this is your definition, so you decide.
Conceptual Definition Worksheet
Use the following steps to develop the conceptual definitions for your research project. Attach
additional sheets of paper as necessary.
1.
Write your alternative hypothesis(es) in the space below.
2.
List the variables/concepts that appear in your alternative hypothesis(es). For this exercise
there is no need to differentiate between independent, dependent and intervening variables.
3.
Using various sources (dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauruses, research literature, etc.)
look up definitions and/or synonyms for the variables/concepts you listed in the previous
section. Use the following table to list and compare the definitions you find for each
variable.
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
Variable/Concept
Definitions and/or Synonyms
4.
After comparing the definitions you found from various sources and considering your
research objective, write preliminary conceptual definitions for each of your variables in the
table below.
Variable/Concept
5.
Preliminary Conceptual Definition
Share your conceptual definitions with interested colleagues, friends, peers, co-researchers
and your professor. Play the ‘what-if’ game. Revise your conceptual definitions as
necessary.
Exercise #5d – Operationalizing Your Conceptual Definitions
In a previous exercise we developed the following conceptual definition for domestic
violence;
Domestic violence – The actual or threatened infliction of physical injury or psychological
trauma by a current or former household member onto another current or former
household member.
How would you go about actually measuring whether this social phenomenon occurred or
not? The answer really depends on the research methodology you choose to use while gathering
your data. Here are two examples.
Secondary analysis
This research methodology gathers data from existing sources. For example, if you
wanted to gather information on the crime rate over the past decade then you might use the
Uniform Crime Reports published annually by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Or, if you wanted to know something about the growth of the prison population over the past
decade you might use the annual reports from the United States Bureau of Prisons or your state’s
prison system.
The effectiveness of secondary analysis as a research methodology depends on two
things. First, the manner in which the concept is measured within the existing data set must be
similar to how you intend to measure it in your research project. For example, let’s say you’ve
defined “youthful offenders” as “any convicted criminal offender between the ages of eight and
thirteen years of age”. Not a bad conceptual definition. Unfortunately, the existing data set you
intend to use defines “youthful offenders” as “any convicted criminal offender between the ages
of nine and fourteen years of age”. Now you have a choice to make. You can change your
conceptual definition to match that of the existing data set. You can collect a whole new data set
that uses your own definition. Or, you can use the existing data set and report the difference
between the definitions.
Second, the existing data set must have been collected in a manner similar to how you
intend to collect data. If random selection is important to you then the existing data set should
have been collected randomly. If your research requires a national survey then the existing data
set should have been collected from a sample drawn from throughout the nation.
In our case let’s assume you choose to collect your sample of cases from official reports
of domestic violence incidents made to the local police department. As long as the definition of
domestic violence used by the police department (likely the legal definition) is similar to the
conceptual definition you created then this would be an acceptable secondary data set for your
research project. If not, then you’d have to keep looking for another data set or collect your own
data.
The police data set might work fine for your domestic violence research, but remember
that not all domestic violence incidents are reported to the police. In fact, a fair amount of them
are not. If you choose to use the police data then you’d miss collecting data from research
subjects who experienced domestic violence (per your definition) but did not report it to the
police.
Survey or Interview
Surveys and interviews are common research methodologies among social scientists.
Although very different in how they are administered, these research methodologies essentially
require the researcher to ask research subjects to respond to a question, or more likely, a series of
questions.
It would probably be a mistake to ask the survey respondents or interviewees, “Are you a victim
of domestic violence?” You really don’t know how your respondents define the term domestic
violence, but it is a safe bet that they don’t define it like you do. You could ask, “Have you ever
been physically injured or psychology traumatized by someone you live with now or someone
you lived with in the past?” A “yes” or “no” answer to that question would not be very useful.
You may recognize this as a double barreled question. So, it might make sense to break up your
conceptual definition into smaller parts and ask simpler questions.
Have you ever been physically injured by somebody you live now? (circle one - YES or NO)
Have you ever been physically injured by somebody you used to live with? (circle one - YES or NO)
Has anybody you live with now caused you psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)
Has anybody you’ve lived with in the past caused you psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)
Have you ever been threatened with physical injury by somebody you live with now? (circle one - YES or NO)
Have you ever been threatened with physical injury by somebody you used to live with? (circle one - YES or NO)
Has anybody you live with now threatened you with psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)
Has anybody you’ve lived with in the past threatened you with psychological trauma? (circle one - YES or NO)
In general the manner in which you operationalize your concepts should insure that all, or
most, of the key parts of the conceptual definition are measured. During the conceptualization
process you identified the various dimensions or perspectives of your concept. During
operationalization your task is to be sure you have a strategy for measuring each of these aspects.
It is normal for an operational measure, particularly in the social sciences, to be a bit lacking.
Social concepts are often multi-faceted and difficult to measure. Just do the best you can but
recognize where your operational definition might be lacking. It helps sometimes to seek
guidance from a well informed peer just to be sure your operational definition covers all parts of
your conceptual definition.
Exercise #5e – Will Your Method Work?
Nothing is more frustrating to a researcher than when the research method does not produce the
kind of data or information that is responsive to the research question(s) or hypothesis(es).
Social science data is notoriously incomplete and inaccurate. Gathering enough data and
information to make solid research conclusions is both expensive and time consuming. Because
of these issues social science researchers must work extra hard to be sure their research method
will provide the type of data or information they need to answer their research question(s) and/or
be responsive to their hypothesis(es).
Most of the problems in this regard have to do with one of the following issues.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The research method is poorly planned and implemented
The research method used is inappropriate for the research context or situation.
The research method does not produce data at the necessary level of measurement.
The sample is not representative of the population of interest.
Of course, there is a lot more that can go wrong even in the simplest of research plans. These are
just the most common problems. Let’s address them individually.
The research method is poorly planned and implemented
You might be familiar with Murphy’s Law.
“Anything that can go wrong, will go wrong.”
Criminal justice research often involves gathering information from people or social
environments, neither of which are predictable. Nobody can legitimately predict what might go
wrong in every situation; however, we do know that the less we know about the people and
environment we intend to gather information from the more likely things will go wrong.
Consider this analogy. How much do you plan your daily commute to and from where you live
and where you work or go to school? Because you already know the way and what to expect
along the way, not much planning is required. You’ve travelled it dozens of times, maybe more.
In contrast, how much would you prepare for a road trip in a foreign country? You would study
the laws, learn the signs and rules of the road, get a good map, learn the language, and do a lot
more to be sure your road trip is safe. You might even learn so much that you decide it is safer
to use public transportation.
The same is true about planning a research method. The less you either know or can predict
about the people or environment from which you plan to gather your information, the more you
have to plan for possible contingencies. At each step in the research process you must ask
yourself, What could possibly go wrong? If you answer, Nothing! you are likely not thinking it
through enough. There is always something! Maybe instead of accepting Murphy’s Law,
criminal justice researchers should adopt the following standard.
Hope for the best, but prepare for the worst!
The research method used is inappropriate for the research context or situation
There is no universally perfect research method. All research methods have advantages and
disadvantages. For example, survey research is not well suited for determine causal
relationships. While a survey might determine the level of correlation between variables, it
would not provide much insight into the other two causal rules – temporal order or the lack of
plausible alternative explanations. Even the classic experimental design, considered by many
researchers to be the ‘purest form of research’, is ineffective when the research subject’s mere
participation in the experiment causes them to change their behavior, a threat to validity known
as reactivity.
Each of the chapters in this textbook that describe a criminal justice research method includes a
section wherein the relative advantages and disadvantages of the method are outlined. Your
decision on which method to use should be based on your knowledge of these opportunities and
constraints. If you are unsure, ask your professor. Ultimately, you should choose the method
that is most likely to be successful in your particular situation.
Don’t be afraid to create ‘hybrid’ methods wherein useful elements from several methods are
merged into a single method. For example, sometimes surveys are a good pre- or post-test for an
experimental design. Also, it is possible that your particular research questions will require the
use of multiple methods.
The research method does not produce data at the necessary level of measurement
Data collection is expensive and time consuming. There are few things that are more frustrating,
or embarrassing, to a researcher than finding out that the data that were collected by the method
are not sufficient to answer the research question. Here is an example.
A researcher set out to determine the average age at which frequent drug users stop using illicit
drugs, i.e. aged out. On the survey the researcher asks;
Check the box beside the age range when you stopped regularly using illicit drugs







15 – 18
18 – 21
22 – 25
26 – 30
31 – 40
40 – 55
Over 56
The responses to this question would provide some insight into the age when frequent drug users
stopped regularly using illicit drugs. Unfortunately, with this data the researcher would not be
able to calculate an average, at least in the traditional sense. The best the researcher could hope
for is to report the most frequently checked age range.
The researcher should have simply asked;
At what age did you stop regularly using illicit drugs?
Collectively, these responses would allow the researcher to calculate the mean, derive the
median and determine the mode age at which frequent users stopped regularly using illicit drugs.
This is a simple example. More complicated hypotheses often require more complicated
statistical analysis. This is especially true of hypotheses that include numerous independent and
intervening variables and those alleging a causal relationship between variables.
As a general rule of thumb, data should be collected at the most precise (i.e. highest) level of
measurement possible. You may recall from the textbook (Chapter 6) that data collected at a
higher level of measurement may be converted to a lower level of measurement, but the opposite
is not true.
The sample is not representative of the population of interest
All samples are representative of something. However, a researcher should insure that a sample
is representative of what it is intended to represent. This issue is more serious in probability
samples. You may recall from the textbook (Chapter 8) that the main reason a researcher uses a
probability sample is to infer what is learned from the sample onto the population from which it
came. For example, what a researcher learns about a random sample of juvenile offenders may
be inferred to be true of the entire population of juvenile officers, if the sample were selected
properly.
In most cases the problem occurs when bias is present in the sampling process. Researchers
should take great care when developing probability samples in order to avoid bias.
Exercise #6a – Tips for Synthesizing the Introductory, Literature Review and
Methods Outline Sections
Up to this point the three major assignments in this project have been produced somewhat
independently of each other. You wrote the introduction early in the term. This introduction
included a research question. Then, by mid-term you completed a literature review. Near the
end of the term you produced a document that described how you intended to collect the data
necessary to answer your research question – the same question that you developed at the
beginning of the course.
Along the way, even though you may have adhered very closely to the procedures outlined in
your Researcher’s Notebook, it is inevitable that the focus of your research project drifted a little.
This is normal. After all, when you first wrote your research question you were relatively
uniformed about your research topic. During the literature review process you became informed
of the controversies within your research topic. You might have even become more interested in
a related topic. These happenstances may have caused you to rethink your research question. In
a similar way when you first indicated how you intended to conduct the research (in the
introduction) you knew very little about research methods. After learning about the advantages
and disadvantages of the various research methods you might have discovered a better method
than the one you proposed in the introduction.
So, your task now is to merge the introduction, literature review and methods section into a
single document, which we will call a research proposal. Here are a few tips for doing this.
1. Reread your introduction. Pay particular attention to the content requirements and how
they might be changed in lieu of what you now know.
a. Given what you now know about the previous research (from the literature
review);
i. Should you revise your research question?
ii. Are there additional problems or issues that you were not aware of that
should be added to your introduction?
iii. Do you still think that your intended audience would be interested in this
research?
iv. What sources did you actually use and where did they come from?
v. Should you rethink the intended outcome of your research?
b. Given what you now know the actual method that you intend to use should you
revise the methods part of the introduction?
2. Next, focus on the literature review. Pay particular attention to the relevance of your
literature review to;
a. Your research purpose, and
b. Your proposed method
3. Finally, write the methods section from your outline.
a. Be sure to explain how your method will respond to your research question.
b. Consider adding a section to the methods section that discusses how this research
will add to the previous research. For example, you may be proposing to conduct
an experiment when all of the previous researchers in this topic used a survey.
4. As you write the methods section ‘tell the story’ of how you intend to conduct the
research. Describe the steps the same way you might describe how you are planning to
take a trip or vacation – progressing from one place to another. Try to avoid technical
jargon to the extent possible.
Now you have three compatible documents. The content in the introduction, most notably the
research question, is relevant to the information in the literature review. The proposed method
will produce data relevant to the research question.
The rest of the process is stylistic. Begin by adding the literature review to the end of the
introduction and adding the rewritten methods section to the end of the literature review. Go
back through the entire document to be sure margins, headings, indentations and other stylistic
issues are consistent.
Assessment for Assignment #1
Developing Your Researcher’s Notebook
Point value: 25
Key assessment criteria
1. Did the student create a binder that includes all of the required tabs?
2. Does the student appear to be prepared to use the notebook (e.g. blank paper in the
appropriate sections)
3. Has the student actually begun using the notebook? In particular has the student entered
any tasks on the Task List?
Assessment for Assignment #2
Developing Your Research Question
Point value: 25
Key assessment criteria
1. Is the research question interrogative, i.e. an actual question?
2. Does the research question include measureable concepts?
3. Is the proposed research feasible?
4. Is the research question in a relatively unsettled or controversial area of the research?
5. Does the student appear to be disinterested in the question enough to insure objectivity?
Use the following assessment form for student feedback.
Student’s name:
Assessment criteria
Is the research question interrogative, i.e. an actual question?
Points
Available
5
Does the research question include measurable concepts?
5
Is the proposed research feasible?
5
Is the research question in a relatively unsettle or controversial
area of the research?
5
Does the student appear to be disinterested in the question
enough to insure objectivity?
5
Total Points
25
Comments:
Points
Earned
Assessment for Assignment #3
Writing the Introduction to Your Research Proposal
Point value: 25
Key assessment criteria
1. Does the introduction include all of the required content requirements?
a. The purpose of the research
b. The problem or issue
c. The intended audience of the research project
d. The sources of information that will be used during the research process
e. The research methods that will be used during the research process
f. The intended outcome of the research
g. How the research report is organized.
2. Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements?
a. Double spaced, one inch margins all around
b. 10 to 12 point font
c. Numbered pages
d. Name and title at the top of the first page (no separate title pages)
3. Overall did the student ‘make the case’ for the research?
4. Grammar, spelling and punctuation
Use the following assessment form for student feedback.
Student’s name:
Assessment Criteria
Does the introduction contain all of the required content requirements?
Points
available
10
Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements?
5
Overall, did the student ‘make the case’ for the research?
5
Grammar, spelling and punctuation.
5
Total points
25
Comments:
Points
earned
Assessment for Assignment #4
Developing Your Literature Review
Point value: 100
Key assessment criteria
1. Did the student submit an annotated outline and if so;
a. Does it appear as if the student grouped similar research findings from multiple
sources?
b. Did the student identify conflict and agreement among the previous researchers?
c. Did the student integrate information from single sources throughout the outline?
2. Did the student submit a final draft of the literature review, and if so;
a. Does it appear to have been written from the annotated outline?
b. Is it an appropriate length (three to five pages)?
c. Are the sources cited appropriately in the text?
d. Did the student submit a reference page or bibliography?
e. Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements?
i. Double spaced?
ii. One inch margins all around?
iii. Name include in the upper right hand corner
iv. Pages numbered in the lower right hand corner?
v. 10 to 12 point font?
vi. Free of obvious spelling and grammatical errors?
Use the following assessment form for student feedback.
Student’s name:
Assessment Criteria
Points
Points
available earned
Annotated outline (60 points)
Does it appear as if the student grouped similar research findings from
multiple sources?
20
Did the student identify conflict and agreement among the previous
researchers?
20
Did the student integrate information from single sources throughout
the outline?
20
Final draft of the literature review (40 points)
Does the final draft appear to have been written from the annotated
outline?
5
Is it an appropriate length (three to five pages)?
10
Are the sources cited appropriately in the text?
10
Did the student submit a reference page or bibliography?
10
Did the student adhere to the manuscript requirements?
Double spaced?
One inch margins all around?
Name include in the upper right hand corner
Pages numbered in the lower right hand corner?
10 to 12 point font?
Free of obvious spelling and grammatical errors?
Total points
5
Comments:
100
Assessment for Assignment #5
Designing Your Research Method
Point value: 100
Key assessment criteria
1. Did the student consider the methodological concepts that are relevant to the proposed
research project?
a. Are there any methodological processes or procedures that should be included in
the proposed method but are not?
b. Are there any methodological processes or procedures that are not included in the
proposed method but should be?
2. Did the student accurately apply the methodological concepts, processes and procedures?
3. Would the student’s proposed method produce the data necessary to answer the research
question?
Use the following assessment form for student feedback.
Student’s name:
Assessment Criteria
Points
Points
available earned
Did the student consider the methodological concepts that are relevant
to the proposed research project? (30 points)
Are there any methodological processes or procedures that should be
included in the proposed method but are not?
15
Comment:
Are there any methodological processes or procedures that are not
included in the proposed method but should be?
15
Comment:
Did the student accurately apply the methodological concepts,
processes and procedures?
20
Comment:
Would the student’s proposed method produce the data necessary to
answer the research question?
50
Comment:
Total points
Overall comments:
100
Assessment for Assignment #6
Synthesizing Your Research Proposal
Point value: 25
Key assessment criteria
1. Did the student revise the introduction, literature review and methods plan so that they
are congruent with each other?
2. Is the manuscript well organized and readable?
3. Is the manuscript relatively free of grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors?
Use the following assessment form for student feedback.
Student’s name:
Assessment Criteria
Did the student revise the introduction, literature review and methods
plan so that they are congruent with each other?
Points
available
10
Is the manuscript well organized and readable?
5
Is the manuscript relatively free of grammatical, spelling and
punctuation errors?
5
Grammar, spelling and punctuation.
5
Total points
25
Comments:
Points
earned