DUIM
Effective learning websites
Session 3
Aims & Outcomes
– Aims:
 To address the conceptual issues involved in using pedagogical
theory to design interactive multimedia and how these have been
addressed by instructional technology developers.
– Objectives:
 Understanding of the myth of pedagogical neutrality in
Instructional technology
 Appreciation of the difficulties involved in moving from
pedagogical theory to instructional design
 Knowledge of how instructional media designers have made the
move from theory to practice (in particular the application of single
pedagogical paradigms, e.g. behaviourism, constructivism)
Outline
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Nature of pedagogical theory
Theories and models
A new paradigm of ISD
Ways of implementing pedagogical theory
Nature of pedagogical theory
• Pedagogy as “the art and science of
teaching” Collis & Moonen (2001)
• Pedagogy/education is a soft (unrestricted),
applied discipline Becher (1989)
• Changing conception (Watkins & Mortimore (1999)
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Focus on teacher types (good/bad approaches)
Focus on contexts of teaching (activity system)
Focus on teaching and learning
Complex, integrated model
What are Theories and Models?
• A theory provides a general explanation for observations made
over time. (See Theory into Practice TiP database http://tip.psychology.org/theories.html )
• A theory explains and predicts behavior.
• A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.
• A theory may be modified.
• Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely if thoroughly
tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long
time and later disproved.
A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something
we cannot see or experience directly.
Evaluation/Design
Re-design
Design
Work from theory
Evaluate
Analyse
Re-analyse
Feedback into theory
Build
Re-build
Instructional design v. learning
theories/models
(Reigeulth, 1999)
• ISD Offers explicit guidance on how to help people
learn & develop.
• Unlike traditional theory, it is design-oriented (focusing
on means to attain goals rather than results of given
events)
• Learning theories are descriptive - they describe how
learning occurs - but not necessarily how to teach
• Pedagogical (learning) theory is descriptive, based on
research, instructional-design theory is prescriptive
• Learning theories usually produced by research
communities, instructional-design theories requested
by courseware developers
What is Instructional Design?
• Instructional Design is the systematic process of
translating general principles of learning and instruction int
plans for instructional materials and learning.
• There is a scientific discipline of instruction and a
technology of instructional design founded on this science.
(Merril et al 96)
(http://www.coe.usu.edu/it/id2/ddctoc.htm)
• See also Gagne Gagne - conditions of learning
(http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/cp/04d.htm)
New paradigm of ISD
• Shift from emphasis on representational
view of learning with acquisition metaphor
at heart of design to constructivist view in
which learning is developed through
activity
• Shift in focus from individual to social
contexts of learning
Instruction’s supersystem
Information Age
Industrial age
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Standardization
Bureaurocratic organisation
Centralized control
Adversarial relationships
Autocratic decision making
Compliance
Conformity
One-way communications
Compartmentalization
Parts oriented
Planned obsolescence
Boss as king
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Customisation
Team-based organisation
Autonomy with accountability
Cooperative relationships
Shared decision making
Initiative
Diversity
Networking
Holism
Process oriented
Total quality
Customer as king
Reigeluth 99
Learning architectures
…designers usually have at their disposal
some conceptual architectures reflecting the
theories and perspectives that their
professional communities have developed
through conceptual analysis of their domain
of design. The purpose of a conceptual
architecture is to lay down the general
elements of design. It is not a recipe; it
does not tell a designer how to perform a
specific design.
Wenger 98
Systems that learn
Action research
Pedagogy in situated context
Grounded theory /multiple theories
Use of a single model e.g. Gagne
Implementation of single theory
Pedagogical neutrality?
Ways of designing pedagogically
Pedagogical neutrality?
• Or pedagogical naivety? “…If a
pedagogical position is not made explicit, it
does not exist….”
• Folk psychologies (Bruner, 1996)
Implementation of a single theory
• Jonassen (1999) offers a six-step framework
for designing constructivist learning
environments.
• Reigeluth (1999) offers an
operationalisation of a number of theories.
Use of single model
• Gagne - constructivist (?) /behaviourist
• Merrill
• Mayes & Fowler
– Fifth Dimension
– Plato
The (re)conceptualisation or
learning cycle
Conceptualisation
Primary
Courseware
Construction
Secondary
Courseware
Dialogue
Tertiary
Courseware
NB: need different pedagogical models at different phases
Mayes & Fowler
Phases in learning cycles
• Conceptualisation: user’s initial contact
with other peoples’ concepts
• Construction: process of building and
combining concepts through use in
performance of meaningful tasks
• Dialogue: testing and tuning of
conceptualisations through use in applied
contexts
Nature of courseware
• Primary courseware: intended mainly to
present subject matter, and usually authored by
subject matter experts
• Secondary courseware: environment and set of
tools by which the learner performs the learning
task, and the tasks (and task materials)
themselves
• Tertiary courseware: material that has been
produced by previous learners, and is valuable
in vicarious learning
Grounded design/eclectic approach
• Tutors can (and should) use an
eclectic/toolbox approach to their choice of
pedagogical strategies - however, they
should be logically consistent.
• Designing for flexibility (Collis 2001)
• Reeves 14 dimensions of CBE
• STAR Legacy
• Although context does not always permit...
Activity Theory
Tools/artefacts
Transformation
Object
Subject
Rules
Community
Outcome
Division
of labour
Action Research
– JASPER
– CSILE/Knowledge Forum
Systems that learn
• The future of learning objects
(http://www.reusability.org/read/#5)
• The IDXelerator™: Learning-centered
Instructional Design
(http://www.coe.usu.edu/it/id2/xelor.htm)
• CANDLE (www.candle.eu.org)
Some software to examine
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How to develop an online course
Nasa Quest
Fifth Dimension
ELM-ART Lisp tutorial
Jasper Woodbury
Transforming learning