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Katedra Mezinárodních vztahů a evropských studií
Fakulta sociálních studií
MASARYKOVA UNIVERZITA
Brno, Joštova 10, 602 00, Česká republika
Gandhi´s Nonviolent Campaigns for Indian Freedom
Final Paper
Alexandra Baliaková, 363648
Magisterské štúdium
V Brne, 21.6.2016
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CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................p. 3
2. THEORETICAL PART: Nonviolence.....................................................................................p. 4
3. EMPHIRICAL PART: Gandhi´s nonviolent campaigns for Indian freedom........................p. 8
4. CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................p.11
5. SOURCES............................................................................................................................p.12
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INTRODUCTION
After many negative experience with rasism in South Africa, young Mohandas Gandhi have made
a concept of using nonviolence as force, through which he tried to improve lives of Indians and get rid
of rasism. He had been using nonviolent resistance in many ways and he have achieved success and
important improvement in society of South Africa. Gandhi have been teaching people for many years,
that they have to patiently accept negative experience without revenge and with no defence when they
want to achieve their cause. Finally, Gandhi came back to India, which was struggling after the first world
war, in which Indians fought for Britain.
I tried to show very briefly, how Gandhi´s satyagraha (satyagrha is name for his concept of nonviolence,
is translated as Truth-Force) was born in South Africa as well as a man become one of the most
important world leaders. In my final paper, I would like to focus on Gandhi and his concept of
nonviolence in regard of an effort to end British rule over India. Firstly I will explain theoretical concept
of nonviolent resistance and then I will briefly describe when and how first signs of self rule
requirements in India were made. Later I will focus on very brief factography about Indian way to
sovereignity, which will be reconnected with explanation of Gandhi´s position and his ideas. Gandhi
have made whole concept of nonviolent resolution of conflicts, which was based on nonviolent
resistance, noncooperation with state institutions, demonstrations, boycotts, fasts, strikes, marches...
His originality, extraordinary character and way, how he did so are unique and contributes to whole
world. This is the main reason, why I decided to choose Gandhi´s nonviolence as the topic of my final
paper. I hope, that I will prove, how nonviolent approach is more effective, than the violent one.
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THEORETICAL PART
The main theoretical phrame for this paper will be based on study published in 2013 by Erica Chenoweth
and Maria J. Stephan: Why civil resistance works: the strategic logic of nonviolent conflict. They have
made a brilliant research which consists from analysis of 323 violent and nonviolent resistance
campaigns between years 1900 and 2006. (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 6) They have created NAVCONonviolent and Violent Campaigns and outcomes databases and about the results from this research
wrote extraordinary book. In this times, it is very common, that the field of research in the international
relations is using approach, which studies conflict through optics of violence, war and weapons. Little
we knew about opposite one: conflict study through optics of nonviolence, peaceful resistance, and
peoples´ wills as weapons.
Chenoweth and Stephan focused on non-traditional warfare and concludes, that only about one in four
violent campaigns have succeeded (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 201) and their success depended on external
support (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 11). On the other hand, sustained and systematic nonviolent sanctions,
boycotts, strikes, protests, organized non-cooperation to exact political concessions and challenges to
power proved to be much more successful. (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 6)
There have been over one hundred major nonviolent campaigns since year 1900, whose frequency has
increased over time. In addition to their growing frequency, the success rates of nonviolent campaigns
have increased and on the other hand, success rates of violent insurgencies have declined. Between the
years 1900 and 2006, nonviolent resistance campaigns were nearly twice as likely to achieve full or
partial success as their violent counterparts. There is different rate of success in different circumstances:
1. antiregime resistance campaigns: the use of a nonviolent strategy has greatly enhanced the
likelihood of success;
2. campaigns with territorial objectives (like antioccupation or self-determination): nonviolent
campaigns also have a slight advantage;
3. among the few cases of major resistance (that do not fall into either category like antiapartheid
campaigns): nonviolent resistance has had the monopoly on success. (2013: str. 6-7)
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For better overview look at the following figures: (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 7-9)
Figure 1: Chenoweth, 2013: str. 7
Figure 2: Chenoweth, 2013: str. 8
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Figure 3: Chenoweth, 2013: str. 8
Figure 4: Chenoweth, 2013: str. 9
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The core argument for nonviolent resistance is participation advantage over violent insurgencies. It
consists of important factors: moral, physical, informational and commitment barriers to participation
are much lower in nonviolent cases. Chenoweth proved, that high levels of participation contribute to
a number of mechanisms necessary for success. It includes enhanced resilience, higher probabilities of
tactical innovation, expanded civic disruption (regime´s costs for maintaining the status quo are higher)
and loyalty shifts involving the opponent´s supporters, including members of security forces- who, as
shown, are one of crucial elements in many cases. (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 10) In nonviolent campaigns
is mobilization easier, thereby locals who support it are more reliable source of power than external
supporters. Another core argument for nonviolent resistance is that it creates much more durable and
internally peaceful democracies, which is in my opinion the most important aspect of success of this
theoretical approach. When state ends one conflict and result of this conflict is nonstable society in
nonstable state, it is just matter of time, when and how badly will conflict come back. On the other
hand, when peace settlement creates peaceful and stable society and stable state, where no party and
no leaders are frustrated about outcome of settlement- this is hope for future world peace. Nonviolent
resistance is more effective not only in getting results, but also in establishing stable democratic regime
with lower probability of a relapse into civil war. (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 10)
The mass civilian participation in a nonviolent campaign is more likely to beat up repression, encourage
loyalty shifts among regime supporters and give leaders more options in tactical and strategic choices.
Leaders arise from people, are more credible and more people will follow them. In violent approach it
does not work this way. (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 11) Mass participation can erode or remove a regime´s
main sources of power when the participants represent diverse sectors of society. For violent regime
leaders makes mass participation less difficulties to hold society together, than in nonviolent one. High
levels of participation in resistance campaigns can activate numerous mechanisms that improve the
odds of success. It can manifest in numerous forms of social, political, and economic non-cooperation
as I mentioned above. The tactical and strategic advantages of high levels of diverse participation explain
the historical success of nonviolent campaigns. One of the crucial aspects of nonviolent power is fact,
that mass participation in calm way – like non-cooperation or boycotts are more able to gain
international support by getting more attention in press. It can lead to pressure, made by local media
on their governments to decide to engage in international sanctions or start diplomatic pressure over
state in conflict. (Chenoweth, 2013: str. 30)
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EMPHIRICAL PART: Gandhi & Indian Struggle for Freedom 1919-1947
Roots of the Indian way towards freedom go further than to year 1919. We can look for them to the
19.th century, when the first attempts to create any Indian political institutions have appeared. Thanks
to educational progress of local elites and to initiative of Lord Dufferin we can see the birth of Indian
National Congress in 1885. From the beginning was Congress very loyal to her Majesty, and actually, it
was created to prevent social and economic tenses, not to stand in opposition to her. (Nálevka, 2004:
31-32) Crucial decision, which have influenced development of Indian National Congress was an
administrative partition of Bengal in 1905. The decision was made by Lord Curzon and i tis very probable,
that he didn´t realized, how eradicating influence on Indian National Congress and Indian people it will
have. Process of reforms accelerated into speed, it may never achieve otherwise. Colonial govern could
not any longer ignore Indian demands. (Strnad, 2008: 776)
Year 1919 was a real breakthrough in Indian history. Not only it was first year after the first world war,
where a lot of Indians took part, but also year of disappointment that British still do not take Indians as
equal to them even after they fought on their side and helped British empire a lot. Also an epidemic of
Spanish flu was very difficult for India. (Strnad, 2008: 794)
In this bad mood another bad British decision was made: in March of 1919 have commission in charge
of judge Sydney Rowlatt adopted restrictive law, which was originally made in state of war in 1915. Selfgovernment could use extraordinary actions „to arrest suspicious people without arrest warrant, keep
them in prison without injunction, judge them with no jury and public attended and to restore freedom
of movement. “ (Strnad, 2008: 795) Darwin (2011: 351) indicates this law as „ a catalyzator for mass
politics in India“. He claims, that approval of this law brought Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi into the
struggle for Indian freedom. (Darwin, 2011: 351)
Under these circumstances have begun career of Mohandas Gandhi, later known as Mahatma. Indian
people knew his great results in fight against racism in South Africa and have welcomed his involvement
with big enthusiasm. He was proponent of nonviolence in politics and one of his core principles was an
old Indian principle named ahinsa- not to harm anything/anybody. His basic philosophical scope was an
idea of Satyagraha, which means Truth-Force which was far more important for him than keeping laws.
(Strnad, 2008: 796) Satyagraha is nonviolent concept consisting of two main aspects: nonviolent
cooperation and civil disobedience, which were the most influential ways how to conduct political fight
according to Gandhi. He knew not only how important was to gain support of mass population, but he
also knew, in what conditions people live and how to speak to them in way they could understand.
(Gandhi 2, 1988: 293) Gandhi´s strength was rooted deeply in his way of thinking. He realized, that
power of the state is in people, and that it is not possible to keep government hated by people. Gandhi
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named it passive resistance and said about it: „Unless you accept our demands, we will ask you again
and again. You can rule us, only when we will agree with your rule. If we do not, we will no longer deal
with you.“ (Gandhi, 2003: 67) This force is so powerful because it is not possible to destroy it. It is
method, where every person can stand for his rights through personal suffering. Gandhi sae it as exact
opposite of violent resistance. People should deny doing something not according to their conscience.
When I disagree with some particular law, I have two choices: either I can make government do so by
using violence (not useful against state, who is owner of monopole for using violence) or to not obey
that law and accept the punishment for my disobedience. (Gandhi, 2003: 67)
Gandhi´s first nonviolent campaign was planned as reaction to Rowlatt´s law. It was hartal- Indian fest
when people are fasting and praying. It is kind of spiritual event and it was great and innovative way
how to say non-violently, that they do not accept Rowlatt´s law. It was first big achievement for Gandhi
in India. Masses of people loved him as his spiritual/political leader, he has gained enormous credibility
and popularity between people – they appreciated him and respected him. We can see, that
Chenoweth´s demand for capable leader, how can attract masses and find out innovative tactical and
strategical plans was fulfilled- Gandhi definitely was this kind of leader. According to my opinion was
fact, that Gandhi was so good in understanding masses one of the most important aspects of success of
Indian demands for sovereignty. He was like the most popular teacher at school- no one could lead and
no one could learn people more, because only few people has this special power.
Hartal was held in April 1919. British government was so deterred by this nonviolent demonstration of
power that an Amritsars tragedy happened. 10. th April was day, when British government answered by
fire into nonviolent crowd of people including women and children. Approximately 400 people was killed
and 1200 injured, Indian sources claim 1000 dead. (Strnad, 2008: 798; Judd, 1999: 272)
We can understand this situation as demonstration of power and try to discourage people from
nonviolent resistance. Nálevka (2004: 33) proves, that Amritsar tragedy was breakthrough: reversion
from cooperation with British government to radical boycott. Indian National Congress started to be
much more radical and one year later Gandhi announced beginning of other nonviolent campaign:
campaign of non-cooperation for all India. (Strnad, 2008: 798)
Gandhi had used tactical method of concentration- nonviolent campaigns when are gathered large
numbers of people in public spaces to engage in civil resistance. Adopting diverse tactics in this way
reduces the effectiveness of the adversary´s repression and helps the campaigns maintain the initiative.
(Chenoweth, 2013: 55-56)
Diversion of Gandhi´s tactics is stunning, but the most influential one was campaign Salt March in 1930.
It started as March of 80 people including Gandhi to the village near the sea to take salt from the sea
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and break the law. Salt law was one of the most hate done in India, because poor people could not effort
to buy salt and British government made it illegal to make salt from sea. Salt march united whole India
and in the end of March there was crowd of people. This nonviolent action started wave of making salt
and breaking salt law constantly- approximately 60 000 people were sent to prison. (Pilát, 1963: 129130) This campaign then continued by March towards salters Daršana- about 2500 satyagrahis attended
and barricade of army and police was already waiting in there. Volunteers with no weapons were nonviolently walking towards salters and police brutally beaten them. But they were still coming, always
calmly and in groups of 25 people. This campaign took few hours and correspondents of the biggest
newspapers in world were watching this massacre. (Pilát, 1963: 131-132)
Now another Chenoweth´s argument, why nonviolent resistance is better and more successful than
violent one was approved: „Nonviolent resistance campaigns are more likely to pull apart the
opponent´s pillars of support rather than push them together. “ (Chenoweth, 2013: 58) Press wrote
about that last campaign, that „destiny of British empire was sealed with total and perfect loss of
prestige. It was obvious, that total removal of British colonial supremacy is now just matter of time”.
(Pilát, 1963: 132) When some nonviolent campaign achieve such positive attention, press will make
pressure for local governments to start to take some measures (sanctions, more attention on these
issues, diplomatic measures... Chenoweth (2013: 223) declares, that the most effective ways for
governmental and nongovernmental actors to aid nonviolent movements are: sanctions, diplomatic
support, and allies in international civil society who can strengthen and diversify the membership base
to that is so critical to success. „Existence of organized solidarity groups that maintained steady pressure
on governments allied with the target regimes proved to be very helpful, suggesting that extending the
battlefield is sometimes necessary for opposition groups to enhance their leverage over the target.“
(Chenoweth, 2013: 223)
Not so disastrous consequences of nonviolence resistance than violent one- destroyed infrastructure,
no place for living, bad economy, inflation...
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CONCLUSION
Gandhi led quite a lot nonviolent campaigns in India during his effort to free his country from British
supremacy. Struggle for Indian freedom is very long and complicated process and Erica Chenoweth
(2013: 236) evaluates it as partially successful. There was not enough space to go through every
nonviolent campaign which Gandhi led, but I tried to explain circumstances and moods, which were
behind Gandhi´s entrance to nonviolent resistance scene in 1919. The most important campaigns he
led were hartals, where all Indians attended; campaigns of non-cooperation with British, campaigns of
civil disobedience to some laws, Salt March. Gandhi went away from political scene in 1934, but his
legacy was still present until the day he was murdered and is still present nowadays (Gandhi 2, 1988:
165). Many world leaders get inspired by Gandhi, for example Nelson Mandela in South Africa, where
Gandhi´s law/political career began.
To sum up reasons, why Gandhi and his campaigns were successful are:
1. mass civilian attendance due his personal capabilities to understand needs of people and
capability to use proper language to talk to them;
2. he was willing to be a mediator in conflict – he did not want personal gains
3. his tactical and strategical abilities
4. his power to unite people
5. his character as leader
6. attention of press, he always invited and communicate with
7. method of concentration- masses came to support his campaigns
8. local elites were willing to support his effort both financially and practically
9. he uses only nonviolent methods: people were not afraid to come a support- and in extreme
cases like Amritsar loss made them stronger and more dedicated
10. he was dressed like poor people- was very modest and people trusted him
In my opinion, partial success in this case is due to Gandhi´s exit from political scene in 1934. Nehru
came instead of him, but neither he nor Jinnah (Moslim League) had abilities to get so close to people
as Gandhi did. First and most important condition for successful nonviolent resistance is leader, who
has to be able to unite masses and use their power for good thing. Second very important condition is
external attention/pressure- sanctions, diplomatic effort and involvement of foreign media which
inform about situation in state of conflict as correctly as it is possible.
Theoretical approach of nonviolence is way, which should be conflicts handled and yet this concept is
very young I think it has great potential and I hope that Gandhi and other new peace leaders will inspire
many other people to do so.
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