The March on Rome
Assessment Criteria
Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the
historical context,
how aspects of the past have been
interpreted and
represented in different ways.
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology
• tactics
• role of Mussolini as leader
• links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party
(PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many
in Italy?
Focus Questions
Mussolini was
destined to be a great
leader?
Fascism seemed an
obvious solution for
Italy?
Fascist Violence
• How did Mussolini manipulate fascist
violence to gain support with the
Conservatives? DP
• Why did the Liberal Government find it
difficult to control the Fascists?
P-35
The General Strike
• Why was the General Strike organised?
• To what extent was the general strike a
success?
• Why was the fascist action seen as
impressive?
The March on Rome
• Why were Conservatives impressed by Fascist actions in
the general strike?
• What were the dual aims of Mussolini’s discussions?
(coup d’etat, lib negotiations)
• Why did Mussolini organise the march?
• How was the march to be organised?
• How did Mussolini reassure the monarchy and
government?
• How did the coup happen, include key dates
• How were the police and army prepare and why did they
not intervene?
• What were the King’s motives for not intervening?
• Who did the King try to convince to become PM, why did
this fail?
• When did Mussolini become PM?
Research task
Create a revision booklet that covers the main
points of Mussolini’s rise
Ensure it includes:
• Timeline of events
• The debate as to Mussolini only being
successful due to Liberal weakness. (Pages 40
to 41) (We will also discuss this at the end of the
lesson)
• Summarises Mussolini’s ascent to power (The
March on Rome and events proceeding the
March)
Fascist Italy Timeline
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Italy - 1918-1938
1918
November the 4th - armstice with Austria
Influenza epidemics - 21.6 million killed worldwide
1919
American President Woodrow Wilson visits Italy.
Popular Party Founded
March 23 - 'Fasci Italiani di Combattimento' (paramilitary fascist groups) founded.
April 15 - Milan, the offices of the 'Avanti!', an antifascist newspaper, raided by fascist squads
September 12 - 'L'Impresa di Fiume' (The Fiume Adventure) begins - at the orders of poet Gabriele D'annunzio, 2500 volunteers organized into paramilitary units cross the border into Yugoslavia and seize the town of Fiume.
November - Socialist and Popular party win the political elections
The Orient Express is back in service - the Simplon Tunnel is used so that the line won't cross Germany and Austria
1920
Nation-wide strikes all the year around. In August-september the workers unsuccesfully occupy the ironworks.
De Pinedo and Del Prete complete their Sesto Calende-Melbourne-Tokyo- Roma crossing, in a total of 360 hours of flight
December - The Fiume Adventure ends.
1921
Italian Communist Party founded
The fascist squads continue their violent campaign. The fascist movement (not yet a party) is widely popular in rural areas and in the towns of northern and central Italy.
May 17 - new elections. 'Blocco Nazionale' (The National Compact) and the fascist movement are the winners.
November the 4th - Fascism is no longer a movement, and becomes a political party.
The steambot 'Monte San Michele' disappears between Baltimore and Europe.
1922
January - Pope Benedetto XV dies; cardinal Achille Ratti elected, assumes the name of Pio XI
May - Fascist squad activities heats up
July - legalitarian protest strikes are violently repressed by the fascist. Nationwide fascist violence wave.
24 October - national Fascist Party rally in Napoli; led by Bianchi, Balbo, De Bone and De Vecchi the fascist "squadre" reach Rome. 'Marcia su Roma': the fascist seize the capital and all administration centres. The king refuses to sign a Siege act and hands all powers to Mussolini so he can bring back order.
28 October - The Fascist Party is in power.
Luigi Pirandello publishes Enrico IV and Sei Personaggi in Cerca d'Autore
1923
January - the fascist 'camice nere' (black shirts) officially become "Milizia volontaria per la sicurezza nazionale" (Voluntary militia for national security). The workers day of May the First is abolished. Gran Consiglo del facsismo (Fascist Grand Council) founded.
February - all members of the Freemasons are expelled from the Fascist Movement
April - Popular Parti politicians are forced to leave the government.School laws reformed (Riforma Gentile)
May - the British Royals visit Rome
June - Mt. Etna erupts
August 31 - after the killing of five Italians in Greece, Italian forces seize Corfù.
September 27 - Italian forces leave Corfù
November 13 - Electoral law reformed: the party holding relative majority in elections automatically gets two thirds of the seats in Parliament (Legge Acerbo)
December 12 - Galeno, Bolzano (Northeastern Italy), a dam breaks killing 600
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (National Researches Council) founded.
Italo Svevo publishes La Coscienza di Zeno.
In Milan, soubrette Wanda Osiris first appears on stage.
1924
January 27 - Italy seizes and disposes for the anession of Fiume
April the 6th - with a legal trick, the Fascist Party (a.k.a. 'Lista Nazionale') gets the 64% of votes in the elections
June the 10th - Giacomo Matteotti (opposition leader) is murdered
By the end of June - "Aventino": the opposition secedes from the parliament. The king confirms his support to Mussolini.
A decree establishes the censorship of the press and forbids reunions of members of the opposition.
December - Enrico Fermi begins his work as a teacher in Florence.
Composer Giacomo Puccini dies in Bruxelles.
Actress Eleonora Duse dies in Pittsburgh.
1925
Between January 1925 and december 1926, Press freedom suppressed
Freemasonry suppressed Freedom of association Suppressed Government assumes law making powers Law codes reformed Civil Service is entirely and exclusively Fascist Workers Unions can only be Fascist Italian refugees lose the Italian citizenship First reduced and finally cancelled any form of administrational independence of Townhalls anc City Councils Death penalty introduced
January the 3rd - In a public speech, Mussolini admits the 'historical responsibility' in the killing of Matteotti. From this point on, Italy is by all means a dictatorship.
November the 4th - the former-Socialist Zaniboni attempts Mussolini's life. As a result, a repressive turn of the screw ensues.
December 24 - a new law separates the position of Head of Government from the ministerial structure: from this moment on, only the King can take back Mussolini's powers.
Italian submarine sinks off the coast of Sicily during naval wargames; 50 men reported missing.
Earthquake severely hits the town of Amalfi (near Naples) - the Archbishop of Naples publicly states that the quake was the result of the wrath of God against the new fashion of short skirts.
The first automobile highway of the world is built in Italy: the Milano-Laghi.
Eiar (national broadcasting corporation) begins its service.
Guglielmo Marconi establishes the first radiowave connection London-Sidney
1926
January - Italian Communist Party convention, in Lyon, France.
April the 3rd - all workers unions united in the "Confederazione nazionale dei sindacati fascisti dei lavoratori" (National Fascist Confederatio of Workers Unions)
April the 7th - Giovanni Amendola dies as a consequence of fascist assault
July - the Ministero delle Corporazioni (Corporations Ministry) substitutes for all trade unions.
October - Opera Nazionale Balilla (the Fascist youth groups - a paramilitary clone of the boy scouts) founded; it will be open to kids from 6 to 18 years old.
November 20 - Law for the Defence of the State: non-fascist parties and unions are outlawed, death penalty introduced, Tribunale Speciale (Speciel Court - in 17 years will sentence 42 to death and comminate a total of 27.735 years of jail) created, laws for the police internment for dissidents created.
November 27 - friendship treaty between Italy and Albania.
Italian women can no longer teach philosophy, history, Italian language and literature, latin and greek in high schools.
Troubles at the Scala Theatre in Milan: Arturo Toscanini refuses to play 'Giovinezza' (the Fascis hymn) at the opening of Tur andot, faces the audience and asks them to choose, 'It's either Mussolini or me'.
Nobile flies over the Artic.
ISTAT, the central institute for statistics, founded.
Italian writer Grazia Deledda wins the Nobel prize.
1927
January - in a circular letter to all Prefects, Mussolini 'normalizes' the fascists' extremism.
April-may - the 'Carta del Lavoro' (Work act) regulates corporate structure; deomographic policy starts: celibacy is taxed, larg e families are enttled to prizes.
The first Mille Miglia race is run.
Italian expedition to Karakorum
June - a solar eclipse is visible across western Europe
December: 'Quota 90!' - the economic manipulations are effective, and the Italian Lira reaces again the 90:1 change ratio with the British Pound.
First acts in the Demographic policy: taxes are heavier for celibates.
1928
March 16 - single list elections established.
Land reclamation begins in earnest.
The 'Italia' blimp crashlands on the Arctic ice. Only part of the crew will survive and be saved.
November - Mt. Etna erupts
1929
The Pope denounces mixed schools as 'Un-Christian'
February 11 - Patti Lateranensi: the Vatican City State is born, Christian teaching is compulsory in Italian schools, as Italy is a Christian Catholic state.
March 24 - first single party elections. The fascists win (being the only lawful party in the country) with 99% of the votes.
The Electric Power Plant of Cardano is operative, and is the most powerful in Europe.
Mondadori publishes its firts mistery novel, with a yellow cover. The Gialli Mondadori are born.
1930
February 6 - Italy signs a friendship treaty with Austria, granting its help in case of Germany invasion. New Civil and Penal Codes published.
Fiat 514 presented.
April 13 - Tazio Nuvolari, former racing bike ace, wins the Mille Miglia driving his Alfa Romeo at over 100kmh
November 30 - Primo Carnera knocks out Paulino Uzducum. Carnera (202 cms, 120 kgs, 24 years old) has already disputed 30 boxing matches in the USA, winning 29 for ko. A star is born.
The first effects of the Crash of '29 are felt in Italy. The government starts a series of emergency actions, to increase the number of public utility jobs. Taking advantage of the crisys, the Party orders a police crackdown on anti-fascist organizations and simpathizers.
Earthquake devastates Irpinia (Southern Italy)
The first Italian talkie is "La Canzone dell'Amore", by Righelli.
1931
Disagreements between Vatican and Italy are caused by the Azione Cattolica, an organization that is "too independent from the State" according to the Fascists. The organization is not suppressed, but strongly limited inits activities.
April 12 - Transatlantic Rex takes off for its inaugural cruise.
May 14 - Toscanini once again refuses to play "Giovinezza" before the beginning of the show in Bologna; senator Leo Longanesi slaps him in the face in front of the audience.
October the 3rd - Lauro de Bosis, esiliated in France, drops hundreds of anti-fascist pamphlets from an airplane in the skies of Rome
The 13 are: Ernesto Bonaiuti, Giuseppe Antonio Borgese, Mario Carrara, Gaetano De Sanctis, Antonio De Viti De Marco, Giorgio Errera, Giorgio Levi della Vida, Pietro Martinetti, Bartolo Negrisoli, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Francesco Ruffini, Edoardo Ruffini-Avondo, Lionello Venturi October the 8th - a new decree forces all University teachers to swear fealty to the Fascist Regime. On a populatio of 1200 teachers, only 13 refuse and lose their position.
November 31 - IMI (Istituto Immobiliare Italiano, Italian Realty Institute) is founded.
New station in Milan opened.
Guglielmo Marconi experiments with ultrashort waves, creating the premises for the development of Radar and microwaves.
Italian Learco Guerra is the World Champion of Cyclism.
1932
February 11 - Mussolini visits the Pope
April the 8th - for the first time, Etiopia is an issue in the fascist Gran Consiglio
April 24 - Mussolini first meets Claretta Petacci, that will become his lover and share his final detiny.
June - Albania tries to reject the Italian control over a joint customs police force; Italian ships seize the port town of Durazzo and Albania has to relent.
By the end of july, Mussolini is also in charge of the Ministry of Exterior.
Somebody's humor is failing: DUCE must be written in all capitals from now on.
December 18 - Mussolini visits brand-new Littoria, the first of a series of Italian cities created from nothing in the former swamps of the Agro Pontino; Sabaudia, Pontia, Pomezia, Aprilia and Guidonia will follow.
First Venice Film Festival.
Josephine Baker tours Italy.
Movie director Mario Camerini shots "Gli Uomini che Mascalzoni" and inaugurates the "Telefoni bianchi" movement (light-hearted entertainment without the slightest hint of social commentary).
Mickey Mouse and Yo-yos land in Italy.
Architectural redesign is started in many Italian cities, including Rome, Milan and Brescia.
"Orbace" a rough "autharchic" fabric created by sheperds in Sardinia is the new rage.
1933
January- IRI (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Indusriale) founded; it allows the Regime to control economy on the field.
January the 3rd - Mussolini illustrates the first plans for the invasion of Etiopia
January 30 - Mussolini sends his congratulations to Hitler ('That funny man with Chaplin brush mustache'), freshly elected as Cancelor of the Reich.
April - First Fashion fair in Turin
August 19-20 - Mussolini meets Dollfuss and promises Italian military help to Austria.
November 14 - Mussolini attacks the League of Nations during a public speech.
25 italian sea-planes cross the Altantic and back, as a single flying formation.
November 30 - as part of the budding demographic campaign, 2600 couples are brought to Rome and married in a single, huge ceremony. Having sex is fine as long as you reproduce.
December 12 - "Giornata della Madre e Del fanciullo" (Mother and Son Day) created and celebrated. A prize is given. The 93 most prolific mothers (no less than 14 sons) meet Mussolini and the Pope; a woman from Naples (18 sons) sets the record.
Rex crosses the Atlantic in 4 days, 23 hours and 28 minutes, and conquers the Blue Ribbon.
The flying fleet loses two planes over the ocean, and two pilots die.
Enrico Fermi develops the Beta radiation Theory, appying the quantum field principle.
Television experiments publicly shown at the Fifth International Radio Show in Milan.
Toscanini goes into self-imposed exile in the USA.
1934
June 14-15 - first Mussolini-Hitler meeting in Venice.
July 25 - Nazis kill Dollfuss; nazi coup in Austria fails; Mussolini speaks against Germany and deploys Italian troops on the Austrian border.
September 24 - born in Naples princess Maria Pia, daughter of the Princes of Piedmont.
October 14 - First issue of the magazine "L'Avventuroso" published; it will make Flash Gordon, Mandrake, Jungle Jim, Secter Agent X-9 and Radio Patrol popular in Italy.
December the 5th - Ual-Ual massacre on the Somalia-Etiopia border
First signs of an openly anti-British attitude in the Fascist line.
By bombarding uranium with neutrons, Fermi poduces the first fission.
First 'Lotteria di Tripoli' - 1 ticket sold for 12 lire can get 6 millions.
The demographic policy continues: Romilda Nigiotti (Rome) has 24 children and is expecting the 25th.
1935
January the 7th - arrangment between Italy and France; Italy has total freedom of action in Etiopia
April - france, England and Italy condemn the German arms rush.
July 28 - Tazio Nuvolari triumphs at Nurburgring, beating with his old Alfa Romeo P3 the technically suprior Germans.
October the 3rd - Italy invades Abissinia (Africa); DeBono and Graziani are in charge of the troops. The Pope blesses the venture as "necessary".
October the 9th - the League of Nation starts a punitive action against Italy.
Autharchia Carcadé replaces tea, lignite replaces coal, lanital replaces wool.
Cofee is not good for your health, and you can cut it, or replace it with cicory. Rubber and cork replace leather for shoes, cotton is produced from broom fibre. Rabbits are grown for meat and furs. Gates and fences are stripped for iron.
December 18 - "Buy Italian", 'Autarchia' begins: the Italians will have to do without foreign imports.
The nation needs gold: all the women give their golden wedding ring to the Party (250.000 rings in Rome, 180.000 in Milan) and get a steel replica from the Party; playwright Luigi Pirandello donates his Nobel medal to the campaign, Bologna's cardinal Nassalli Rocca gives his episcopal chain. On the whole 33.622 kgs of gold are collected.
Italy starts production of Lanital, a wool substitute produced from milk proteines.
1000 are killed by the fall of a dam near Turin.
Enrico Fermi formulates the slowed down neutrons law ("Fermi law")
1936
January the 6th - the German ambassador informs the Furher that Italy will not oppose the transformation of Austria into a German satellite
March the 6th - openly pro-German policy started
May the 6th - Italy conquers Etiopia, Italian troops commanded by Pietro Badoglio enter Addis Abeba. King Vittorio Emanuele III is also Emperor of Etiopia. The League of Nations can only withdraw its sanctions as the fact has been accomplished anyway. Mussolini announces that Fascist Italy is now the true heir of the Roman Empire.
July - Italy and Germany support the Franchist faction in Spain.
July 14 - first number of "Il Bertoldo", a satirical magazine, hits the stands at 40 centesimi; in the following 7 years it will try and make people laugh, avoiding the Regime censorship.
September - despite the treaty signed stating otherwise, both Italy and Germany start putting resources and forces - 73.000 Italian volunteers, 2000 cannons and 800 war planes - on Franco's side during the Spanish Civil War.
October 24 - the Rome-Berlin Axis is born. Former problems over Austria are archived.
November 18 - Italy and Germany recognize Franco's rule as legitimate in Spain.
Due to war expenditures, the Italian Lira drops its value of a 41%.
Actor Ettore Petrolini dies in Rome.
1937
January 2 - Italian treaty with England for the joint interests regulation in the Mediterraean basis.
March 8-24 - the Italian troops sent to support Franco are blocked in Guadalajara
Mussolini is in Lybia, and declares himself a protector of Islam.
April 28 - Cinecittà founded in Rome: 14 sound stages, 3 water pools, 40.000 square meters of urban complex, 35.000 of gardens; Turin loses the film industry.
May - the 'Pinguino' (Penguin) sweetens the summer of the kids: it's a vanilla ice cream, shaped like a icycle, and covered in chocolate.
Before cachet
camion
chaffeur
chaperon
chignon
cocktail
flirt
ferry-boat
pied-de-poule
pullover
sandwich
standard
tight
trousse
yogurt
After cialdino
autocarro
autista
capperone
cignone
coccotello
amoretto
treno-battello
millezampe
farsetto
tramezzino
tipicato
velada
scarabattola
mezzorado
June the First - MINCULPOP (Ministero della Cultura Popolare, Ministry of Popular Culture) is born: foreign words are forbidden, and Italian surrogates, often unwillingly hilarious, are created and officially imposed. On the radio, jazzman Louis Armstrong becomes 'the italian musician Luigi Fortebraccio' in a plain translation of his name. Benny Goodman suffers the same fate and becomes 'Beniamino Buonoumo'; soon MINCULPOP will forbid jazz altogether.
June - the Rosselli brothers are killed in France upon fascist orders
November - Italy is part of the Anti- Comintern Pact. Italian and German ships enforce a block around Spain against USSR-provided supplies.
December 11 - Italy deserts the League of Nations
Phisicists Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segré sinthesize the element 43.
The first Italian glossy magazine, Omnibus, published by Longanesi with a starting run of 100.000 copies at 1 lira - it will be closed down by the censors two years later. Luckier is "Signorina Grandi Firme", that will jump from 50.000 to 250.000 copies per week in a few months
The Demographic Campaign reaches its maximum; a cheque for 700 lire (a month's salary for a professional) is awarded to all young men that decide to marry; administration position are opened preferentially to prolific fathers. Prolific mothers with at least 7 sons will be awarded a cheque for 5000 lire plus a life insurance.
1938
January the 3rd - in remembrance of Jan. 3rd '25, the day is made into a national holliday; the formal 'fascist' "voi" ('thou', more or less) substitutes the supposedly 'effeminate' "lei" ('you') as a polite form of address - the women's magazine 'Lei? has to change its name into 'Annabella?. The Roman Step (a.k.a. Goose Step) is imposed to the troops.
A fine from 500 to 5000 lire awaits all manufacturers producing goods with foreign markings or words on them.
July 14 - 'Manifesto della Razza': the racist laws are passed in Italy.
during the summer, 40.000 Italian troops are sent to Spain in the Ebro offensive.
September 23-28 - international crisys. Czech mobilitation. Mussolini offers his services as a mediator between Hitler and the Western Powers.
September 29-30 - Munich Conference and Pact.
November 30 - Italy claims possession of Tunisi, Gibuti and Corsica. Relations with France become tense.
Enric Fermi awarded the Nobel Prize for phisics.
Death of writer, poet and overall maverick Gabriele Dannunzio
• Timeline
• Source analysis
• Political spectrum
Securing and exercising power and
control 1922-43
The consolidation of power
• Increasing control 1922-5
• securing consent – propaganda, education and
censorship
• securing control – terror and repression
especially the special police (OVRA)
Discussion: To what extent was propaganda more
effective than repression in the
Fascist Party’s securing of control after 1922?
Securing and consolidating power
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Why was a completely fascist government not yet possible?
Why were conservatives reassured by Mussolini’s first cabinet?
On what grounds did Mussolini claim to need dictatorial powers?
Was there any need for these powers to be granted?
Why did other politicians trust Mussolini?
How did Mussolini’s speech convince politicians, and what kind of support did he
receive in Parliament?
• Why did Mussolini set up the grand council of fascists and how did it operate?
• Which powerful employers organisation supported fascism?
• How did Mussolini gain Catholic support?
Acerbo Law
• The largest group in Parliament should get 2/3rds of the seats (as long as had ¼ of
votes)
• Would mean the end of weak coalition governments
• What was the danger of the Acerbo law?
• Why was it easy for Mussolini to fix elections?
• Why did many politicians vote for the Acerbo Law?
• Why were so many politicians prepared to support Mussolini?
Acerbo Law
• The largest group in Parliament should get
2/3rds of the seats (as long as had ¼ of votes)
• Would mean the end of weak coalition
governments
• What was the danger of the Acerbo law?
• Why was it easy for Mussolini to fix elections?
• Why did many politicians vote for the Acerbo
Law?
• Why were so many politicians prepared to
support Mussolini?
1924 Election
• Acerbo Law passed April 1924
• Fascists achieved 66% of vote, Fascist
MPs 35> 374.
• Name at least three reasons for
Mussolini’s increasing popularity.
• How resilient was support for other
parties?
• How did Mussolini’s ‘dual’ policies help
him to become a dictator?
Week
Lesson 1
Lesson 2
1
Securing the dictatorship
Propaganda, education and censorship
2
Securing control – terror and repression
especially the special police (OVRA)
Economic policies including the
Corporative State and the ‘battles’ for grain
& births
3
Relations with centres of influence in Italy
including: the king, the army,
industrial and agricultural elites, other
political parties e.g. the nationalists
Relationship with the Church
4
Extent of success – were economic &
political aims achieved? Essay
Mussolini’s foreign policy aims
5
Impact of foreign relations on domestic
(internal political) politics
Extent of success of policies towards
Abyssinia, Spain & Germany in the 1930s
6
War 1933- 1945. essay
Essay technique and Revision Tips
Creation of a Fascist
Dictatorship