QUESTIONS AND ESSAY PLANS
1. Describe and evaluate the evolutionary explanation for aggressive behaviour. (25
marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Outline the main evolutionary forces that shape behaviour—principally,
perpetuating one’s genes but also survival in order to live long enough to reproduce.
Paragraph 2
Outline the different parental investment that is made by males and females (i.e.
much greater for females), and the consequent behaviours that offer the best
chances of passing on genes—females fussy; males promiscuous. Also outline the
issue of parental certainty—women are sure they are the parent of any child they
rear, men are not. Don’t labour these points (cover them briefly) because you need
to move on to aggressive and other behaviours.
Paragraph 3
Outline the jealous behaviour of women (may be aggressive towards other women
who threaten their relationship) and the jealous behaviour of men (may be
aggressive towards other men if they attempt sex with their partner).
Paragraph 4
Now evaluate these explanations. Don’t attempt to do this in one paragraph—
organise the evaluation so it covers the next three paragraphs. In this one, discuss
the lack of scientific validity: The explanations are post hoc and lack empirical
evidence and predictive power.
Paragraph 5
Move on to the reductionist and deterministic nature of the explanation and
describe each of these.
Paragraph 6
Alternative explanations—consider the issue of social norms offering a better
explanation.
Paragraph 7
Consider the plausibility of the explanation. In this paragraph you can cover positive
as well as negative points since some of the arguments are plausible whilst others
are less so.
Paragraph 8
If, and only if, you have time you can consider the evolutionary explanations for rape
and evaluate them. It doesn’t matter, however, if you don’t have time—you can
afford to omit this. What you should NOT do is describe explanations for rape before
you have evaluated the previous explanations or you will have too much AO1 and
not enough AO2.
Paragraph 9
Conclude by saying that however plausible the evolutionary explanations for
aggressive behaviour, they do not fit the scientific model; they do not fulfil Popper’s
criteria for what constitutes a science. Although evolution is a fact, the evolutionary
explanations for specific social behaviour of humans remain speculative. Many other
approaches, such as social learning theory, offer explanations based on more
empirical evidence.
2(a). Outline one biological and one social psychological explanation of aggression. (9
marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Outline a biological explanation: faulty levels of neurochemicals such as
neurotransmitters or hormones; maladaptive brain structures and inherited
maladaptive genes. These can constitute a single explanation since they are all
related but don’t spend too much time on them because this is only really worth the
equivalent of 4 to 5 marks, so you need to be brief.
Paragraph 2
Outline one social psychological theory. It is useful to choose social learning theory
because there is plenty of evaluation but it is even more important to be brief
because it’s quite a long theory so there can be a real temptation to write too much.
Just cover the basic propositions: that learning is based on imitation and
observation and the types of models most likely to be imitated.
2(b). Evaluate the social psychological explanation of aggression that you described in
part (a). (16 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
There are many points of evaluation and you need to organise them properly. Start
with the research evidence. Mention the supporting studies (mainly Bandura) but
do NOT describe them, this is more AO1 and is therefore irrelevant. What you need
is evaluation of these studies: they are experimental, scientific, well controlled, and
demonstrate cause and effect. However, they lack ecological validity and therefore
cannot necessarily be generalised to everyday behaviour.
Paragraph 2
Now consider other research evidence that is not based on laboratory-type studies.
For example, Patterson et al. (1989) emphasise that the parents provided violent
role models.
Paragraph 3
Any research on the effect of media violence that supports a link between that and
aggression can be used in support of social learning theory, e.g. Anderson and Dill
(2000). However, many such studies are based on correlational research so do not
necessarily show cause and effect. Studies that are experimental and therefore do
show cause and effect tend to lack ecological validity.
Paragraph 4
Now we turn to alternative explanations as criticism. The frustration–aggression
approach takes greater account of emotional factors in aggression and social
learning theory (SLT) can be criticised for not taking sufficient account of these.
Paragraph 5
SLT does not take sufficient account of biological influences. Mention studies that
show a genetic link, such as Rhee and Waldman (2002) and Brunner et al. (1993).
The Rhee and Waldman (2002) study is particularly useful as it involves adoption,
so similarity between biological parents and children cannot be due to observation
and imitation.
Paragraph 6
Conclude by saying that SLT almost certainly accounts for some aggression and that
it has important implications for society and therefore applications (implications
and applications are useful AO2—briefly describe one application such as
restricting the amount of violent TV that children watch). Nevertheless, it is
probably an oversimplified view that does not take sufficient account of individual
differences in personality and emotional reactions to situations that might provoke
aggression.
3. Describe and evaluate explanations of human displays of aggression. (25 marks)
There are two ways to approach this: either to describe and evaluate each
explanation in turn or to cover the descriptions first and then the evaluations. There
is no right or wrong way but if you use the first plan there is less temptation to
spend too much time on description and not enough on evaluation. If you then find
that you have run out of time after describing and evaluating three explanations,
this is not a problem. This, then, is the way it is done here.
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Start by explaining what is meant by human displays of aggression, mentioning the
different types. Discuss the argument as to whether actual bodily harm is involved
or simply behaviour that appears aggressive but involves little if any actual violence.
Paragraph 2
Describe social learning theory (SLT) but try to do this briefly. Although it the
longest explanation, you still have others to describe and there is a limited number
of marks for AO1.
Paragraph 3
Evaluate SLT. Use as much research as possible in the evaluation of theories. There
is support from Bandura’s studies (the Bobo doll ones) but cover these briefly as
they only give indirect support (because they are not dealing with display). Phillips
(1986) offers more direct and convincing support, but only for boxing. Other
behaviours during some sports events offer support and this is strengthened by the
characteristics of the role models that fit the predictions of SLT (admired, high
status, rewarded, etc.). However, since there are examples of sports in which
aggression is not imitated, then this weakens the validity of SLT as an explanation.
Social norms may offer a better one.
Paragraph 4
Describe the frustration–aggression hypothesis, relating it to human display. When
the team loses unexpectedly there is frustration, especially if the supporters are
taunted.
Paragraph 5
Evaluate this explanation: that it is plausible because evidence indicates that it is on
these occasions that most violence is shown. The research done on the US football
programs supports this. Nevertheless, the Philips (1986) research does not indicate
that there is any frustration, neither do displays of different types (such as warrior
display), so it is not an explanation that covers all the findings.
Paragraph 6
Describe the explanation that this is simply display and not real aggression. Since
there is little description available (or necessary), evaluate it in this same
paragraph. Any studies showing that actual violence does occur can be used as
criticism (e.g. Phillips, 1986), whilst other studies such as Widmeyer and McGuire
(1997) and Marsh et al. (1978) offer support.
Paragraph 7
Again, describe and evaluate in the same paragraph. Put forward the argument that
sport attracts violent individuals; use the evidence of “Firms” to support this. Some
of the research cited in the last paragraph can be reused, this time as criticism. The
research of Widmeyer and McGuire (1997) and Marsh et al. (1978) indicates that
these individuals are not violent and only use aggressive gestures as a ritualistic
way of showing solidarity and maintaining self-esteem, not as an outlet for their
aggression.
Paragraph 8
Conclude by saying that there are many types of ritual aggression that occur in a
variety of circumstances, so it is unlikely that a single explanation can encompass all
of them. Nevertheless, each one has made a valuable contribution to our
understanding of such behaviour.