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
“troubled waters”
Emotionally rough times or an unsettled
situation.
The expression uses the metaphor of rough
(troubled) water and is frequently accompanied
by related vocabulary such as


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
“to calm”
“to pour oil on”
“bridge over”
“deep in”
“wading into”


Example:
Mr. Williamson has been someone that we
could depend on for strength and comfort
ever since our father died. He has been a
bridge over troubled water.




Simon and Garfunckle audio with lyrics Advance to 1:40 remaining after second
chorus to save time
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjNgn4r6
SOA
Elvis live singing A Bridge Over Troubled
Waters
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mLbOBo
a8vD8

Names for Certificates

Who needs Activate?

Who needs The Monster Book?

Group 1 Horwitz Chapter 4

Group 2 Horwitz Chapter 4

Spelling Bee by Anne

Strategy: Scanning
“A Treasure Hunt”

Divide the Ss into pairs or small groups and
give each pair/group a list of objects to find in
the classroom. Have the pairs/groups race to see
which pair/group can find the most objects. Have
one S in each pair/group check off the items on
the list as they are found. Ss must return the
objects and their checked off list to the T.

Reference Guide to American English
Grammar

The Voice of America Website
http://learningenglish.voanews.com/

Group 2: www.lyricstraining.com

Group 2: www.rebeats.tv
What Should I Know about Speaking?
-Horwitz, Chapter 5
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Refers to a language learners ability to
communicate in the target language.
Learners are considered communicatively
competent if they can participate in a
spontaneous interchange with a native
speaker.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Refers to the distance between what
language learners can accomplish on their
own and what they can achieve with the
assistance of others. It implies that as the
language learner’s interlanguage develops, it
will be ready to integrate the next
appropriate language structure(s).
ERRORS
Consistent incorrect forms produced in
speaking or writing. Errors are contrasted with
mistakes, which are simple slips of the tongue.
Errors are consistent inaccuracies and
represent gaps in the learner’s interlanguage.
INTERLANGUAGE
The way that learners produce the target
language. Learners’ interlanguages are
systematic and reflect their implicit linguistic
knowledge.
Real life conversations are rarely as easy as the
diaglogs practiced in the classroom using
audio-visual methodology.
There’s a significant difference between
structured communication activities and
authentic communication.
Teachers can use
Role plays
Problem Solving
Interviews
to simulate natural interactions.
The term “structured communication” refers to
a less authentic form of communication where
either the grammatical structure or the content
of the response, or both, is dictated in advance
by the teacher or the textbook.
Authentic Speaking vs. “Display” Speaking
Most classroom interactions between the
teacher and students are artificial
conversations. The teacher asks a question that
s/he already knows the answer to, and
students “display” their knowledge by
answering.
Beliefs about Second Language Speaking
Do you believe that it is essential to practice
only perfect, error-free sentences?
Do you believe that if errors are tolerated they
will become very difficult to overcome later?
Teacher Anxiety
Anxiety about speaking a new language is
common, not just for students but also for
teachers.
Even native speakers feel anxious sometimes.
Teacher Anxiety
Language teachers may feel anxious when no
one volunteers to participate in a speaking
activity.
Teachers of all subjects have difficulty
tolerating silence.
Teacher Anxiety
Language learners need extra time to
understand the question and formulate a
response.
Wait four or five seconds!
Difficulties in Grading
Teachers usually say that the goal of the class
is to learn how to speak, but grading is often
based on written tests.
Students, understandably, decide to spend
their time and effort on the activities that result
in a good grade.
Difficulties in Grading
THE WASHBACK EFFECT
Simplification
Typical example in negation:
I no go
I not go
I don’t go
Simplification
The existence of simplified stages in learners’
interlanguage implies that second language
acquisition is developmental.
Simplification
The existence of developmental stages, in turn,
implies that errors are not permanent, and that
the learners’ interlanguage will become more
native-like as acquisition progresses.
Reduced Redundancy
Redundancy refers to the amount of repeated
information contained in an utterance.
Reduced Redundancy
X “I see you tomorrow.”
“I’ll see you tomorrow.”
Reduced Redundancy
X “They have many friend.”
“They have many friends.”
Use of Formulaic Language
Both L1 and L2 learners make use of formulaic
expressions in conversations.
Formulaic expressions are set phrases that
learners use strategically in conversations.
Use of Formulaic Language
They use them before they know exactly what
they mean or how they are constructed.
Examples: “How are you?” “What’s up?”
Acquisition Sequence
Many researchers have been interested in
determining whether learners learn the
features of a particular second language in a
specific order.
Acquisition Sequence
If such a sequence exists, it would give
teachers valuable guidance for textbooks and
syllabi.
It would also help teachers know how far along
learners are in their language development.
Krashen’s Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Definition: A MORPHEME is the smallest unit of
language that indicates a difference in
meaning.
Example: CATS “Cats” is composed of two
morphemes, “cat” and “s” since “cat” and “cats”
convey different meanings.
Krashen’s Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Group A (acquired early)
ing
plural
is, are
x He sleeping
x Boys, over there
Maria is happy.
Krashen’s Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Group B (mid)
auxiliary
article
I am leaving.
the dog
Krashen’s Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Group C (mid)
irregular past
Fernando went home.
Krashen’s Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Group D (late acquired)
regular past
third person singular
possessive
The dogs played.
Diane runs.
Robert’s ball
Krashen’s Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Krashen’s groupings suggest that learners will
acquire all the morphemes in an earlier group
before they go on to acquire morphemes in the
next group.
Krashen’s Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Learners may acquire the morphemes within a
specific group either one by one or a few at a
time.
Lantolf’s Zone of Proximal Development
The existence of an L2 sequence implies that
students may be more ready to learn some
grammatical forms than others.
Lantolf’s Zone of Proximal Development
A zone of proximal development suggests that
as the learners’ interlanguage develops, it will
be ready to integrate the next appropriate
language structure(s).
Lantolf’s Zone of Proximal Development
Thus, as learners acquire the structures in
Group A, they will become ready for those in
Group B.
Lantolf’s Zone of Proximal Development
Lantolf suggests that if an English learner is
showing reasonable control of “-ing”, “is”,
“are”, and plural, (Group A), you might look for
opportunities to scaffold containing articles
and auxiliaries (Group B).
Implications of the Process View of Speaking
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
The grammatical accuracy of student speech
is not static.
Students are more likely to produce accurate
responses in structured communication
activities than in spontaneous conversation.
Implications of the Process View of Speaking

When students learn a new grammatical
feature, there is often a readjustment of their
interlanguage that can result in errors.
Implications of the Process View of Speaking

Example: A student who uses “saw” correctly
may start to produce x “seed” after they begin
to use the regular past “-ed.”
This is an example of overgeneralization.
Implications of the Process View of Speaking
ERRORS VS. MISTAKES
Errors: consistent inaccuracies
Mistakes: a slip of the tongue
Implications of the Process View of Speaking
The development of speaking ability DOES NOT
parallel the development of listening ability.
Language learners use simplified language,
formulaic expressions, and reduced
redundancy THROUGHOUT their language
learning.

Simplified Language
 Allow
students to answer questions and
participate in conversations by whatever
means possible.

Simplified Language
 Expand
students’ responses into more
native-like utterances. For example, if a
student says, “I no go,” the teacher should
respond, “You’re not going? Why not?”


Use of Formulaic Language
Have students retell stories or dialogs from
the perspective of various characters and/or
school personnel or celebrities.


Use of Formulaic Language
Use TPR storytelling

Use of Formulaic Language
 Give
students lists of common phrases and
have them make the phrases into a dialog.


Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Offer targeted input through listening or
reading using morphemes corresponding to
Krashen’s English acquisition order.


Morpheme Acquisition Sequence
Be on the lookout for opportunities to
scaffold and expand utterances including
morphemes corresponding to Krashen’s
English acquisition order.
Teachers should try to make speaking activities
as unthreatening and natural as possible.
Structured activities can be useful, but do not
confuse them with true, spontaneous
conversation.
Use some of the strategies Horwitz explains in
Chapter 5.

1. Encourage students to talk about
themselves and to communicate their own
ideas FROM THE BEGINNING.

2. Get to know your students.

3. Be selective in error correction, especially
during “real” communication activities (as
opposed to structured activities).
Concentrate on errors that most clearly
interfere with communication.

4. Deal with errors gently.

5. Personalize oral activities.

6. Show genuine interest in what your
students have to say. They will stop wanting
to communicate if they think you are only
interested in the verb forms.

7. Use group work.

8. Devise interesting oral activities.

9. Teach communication strategies.

10. Foster realistic expectations about
speaking.

11. Encourage a non-threatening
environment.

In order to demonstrate to students that you
are serious about the importance of
speaking, they must see the connections
between oral tests, the course curriculum,
and their grades. THE WASHBACK EFFECT!

Use rubrics to highlight the aspects of
speaking that are most important to you and
appropriate for the specific speaking task.


Have students use self-assessment rubrics to
determine if they can accomplish specific
“real” goals such as ordering a pizza on the
phone.
Self-assessments can help students see their
language ability more realistically and
encourage them to set specific and
reasonable goals.



Any remaining questions
Summary of the Session
Homework
1. Read Horwitz Chapter 5
2. Send your Journal Entries